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The concept of health in One Health and some practical implications for
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 infection ecology &
epidemiology æ
T h e O n e H e a l t h J o u r n a l

REVIEW ARTICLE

The concept of health in One Health and some practical

implications for research and education: what is One
Health?
Henrik Lerner, PhD1* and Charlotte Berg, DVM, PhD2
1
Department of Health Care Sciences, Ersta Sköndal University College, Stockholm, Sweden; 2Department
of Animal Environment and Health, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Skara, Sweden

From a strict biological point of view, humans are just one species among other species, albeit one with very
special capacities, characteristics, and skills. Among scientists, it is generally acknowledged that we share
many features with other animal species, which are certainly relevant when the concepts of health and disease
are discussed. The term ‘One Health’ is used in many different contexts and by people with varying
backgrounds. However, there appears to be some confusion as to what the term really means, and it is used
in a wide range of contexts, often including or bordering concepts such as infection biology, contagious
diseases, zoonotic infections, evolutionary medicine, comparative medicine, and translational medicine.
Without claiming to present the one and only true interpretation, we will argue for a wide approach using the
‘umbrella’ depiction developed by One Health Sweden. We argue that this one should, compared to other
demarcations, be more useful to science. We will also analyze the concept of health on different levels:
individual, population, and ecosystem health, and describe how these levels inherently influence each other
for both humans and animals. Both these choices are normative and have practical consequences for research
and education, a way of reasoning which we develop further in this paper. Finally, we conclude that the choice
of term for the approach might be normative in deciding which disciplines or parts of disciplines that may
be included.
Keywords: health; definition; One Health; concept; implications for practice
Responsible Editor: Merete Hofshagen, Norwegian Veterinary Institute, Norway.

*Correspondence to: Henrik Lerner, Department of Health Care Sciences, Ersta Sköndal University College,
P.O. Box 11189, SE-100 61 Stockholm, Sweden, Email: henrik.lerner@esh.se

Received: 26 June 2014; Revised: 2 December 2014; Accepted: 3 December 2014; Published: 6 February 2015

he perspective of One Health, at least considering The theoretical foundations of such a One Health

T practical regulations with the aim of improving

or safeguarding animal and human health, has
been traced back to ancient times [see (1, 2)].
approach (a philosophy of One Health) have received
limited discussion during history. Still, there are a few
scientists who have actually taken time to do this kind
One early record is from the Fourteen Rock Edicts of research and among those one could mention, for
(stones with regulations placed near roads) from the reign example, Rudolf Virchow (1821
1902), a physician, and
of King Ashoka (ca. 304 BC
232 BC) in India: Calvin W. Schwabe (1927
2006), a veterinarian (4). This
paper will, however, not primarily deal with these histor-
. . . everywhere has Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, ical discussions but rather present some modern thoughts
made provision for two types of medical treatment: on One Health, gathered from the ongoing discussion
medical treatment for humans and medical treat- within philosophy of medicine and philosophy of veter-
ment for animals. Wherever medical herbs suitable inary medicine.
for humans or animals are not available, I have had As a starting point, we will use the symbolic ‘umbrella’
them imported and grown. Wherever medical roots or recently developed by One Health Sweden in cooperation
fruits are not available I have had them imported and with the One Health Initiative Autonomous pro bono
grown. Along roads I have had wells dug and trees team, which tries to encompass all relevant aspects of
planted for the benefit of humans and animals (3). the One Health movement (Fig. 1). In this paper, we will

Infection Ecology and Epidemiology 2015. # 2015 Henrik Lerner and Charlotte Berg. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative 1
Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/), permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and
reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
Citation: Infection Ecology and Epidemiology 2015, 5: 25300 - http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/iee.v5.25300
(page number not for citation purpose)
Henrik Lerner and Charlotte Berg

Fig. 1. The ‘One Health Umbrella’ developed by the networks ‘One Health Sweden’ and ‘One Health Initiative’ to illustrate the scope of
the ‘One Health concept’. Available on www.onehealthinitiative.com and previously published in Ref. (5).

analyze some aspects of the three center green circles of of One Health provided by different international orga-
health. A number of scientific fields are present under the nizations in the field, please see Gibbs (5).
umbrella of One Health (see the top row circles): biology, Other terms have also been used for similar purposes.
human medicine, veterinary medicine, public health, We therefore need to dwell a little on the different terms
environmental chemistry, and health economy, to mention used to demarcate the area, terms that sometimes are
some of the most important ones. Here, our discussion will perceived as more or less synonymous with One Health.
in particular relate to public health, veterinary medicine, These are:
human medicine, and ecology. We will also discuss both
research and education
issues not explicitly highlighted 1. One medicine
in the umbrella picture but considered implicit for all 2. Comparative medicine
segments and topics of the whole picture. 3. Translational medicine
The paper will deal with these four topics: 4. Zoobiquity
5. Evolutionary medicine
1. The demarcation of One Health (top row circles)
2. The concept of health (center green circles) Some authors consider the terms ‘One Medicine’, ‘One
3. Practical consequences for research Health’ and ‘One World, One Health, One Medicine’ to
4. Practical consequences for education be entirely synonymous (6). We will here argue that there
might be a difference between them that is crucial.
The demarcation of One Health Whereas the term One Medicine is mainly, although not
For a demarcation of One Health, our initial starting exclusively, used in relation to transmissible or contagious
point is the symbolic umbrella (Fig. 1) developed by zoonotic diseases, there are of course other health aspects
One Health Sweden in cooperation with the One Health that humans and other animal species have in common.
Initiative autonomous pro bono team. According to this In many cases, animals have been used as models for
umbrella, One Health is a wide encompassing field where human diseases, and in some cases the knowledge about
several disciplines could contribute. For a number of differ- certain diseases or syndromes has also been transferred
ent examples of current definitions
if not demarcations
back to certain species of animals. This phenomenon is

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 What is One Health?

often referred to as ‘comparative medicine’. The shift from dinosaurs). However, evolutionary medicine in other cases
One Medicine to One Health partly reflects this mental appears to be highly focused on humans and human health
shift to a broader perspective, covering not only infectious and disease, that is, with a surprisingly strict anthropolo-
diseases but also general public health issues, comparative gical approach (10, 11). We could therefore argue that the
medicine, and ecology (Fig. 1). One Health concept is wider than zoobiquity, as there is
Comparative medicine is, by definition, based on the no problem to include an evolutionary approach within
idea of comparing humans to one or more chosen animal the One Health concept.
species, or the other way around. Hence, it has limitations As a conclusion, we argue that One Health is a wider
from a veterinary point of view, as veterinarians are also concept than all the other concepts mentioned above (One
often interested in comparing different animal species Medicine, comparative medicine, translational medicine,
with each other, that is, making comparisons that include zoobiquity, and evolutionary medicine). One Health could
several different species but not necessarily always in- be used as an encompassing term to all these other concepts.
cluding Homo sapiens. In the context of One Health
the term ‘translational medicine’ is sometimes mentioned The concept of health
as well (see Fig. 1). The term is then used to illustrate how The concept of health could be defined on at least three
different knowledge in basic scientific disciplines can be different levels: the individual level, the group or popula-
‘translated’ into new or improved therapies, procedures, tion level, or the ecosystem level. At the first level, two
diagnostic tools, or policies for individuals and popula- concepts are used: animal health and human health.
tions. Translational medicine can certainly be regarded as There is an ongoing discussion both in animal ethics
a relevant aspect of One Health, the difference being that and in philosophy of medicine on how to look at animals.
One Health stands for a truly multi- and interdisciplinary The term ‘non-human animals’, referring to all animal
approach, that is, a much wider concept (see Fig. 1). species except Homo sapiens, has been used for decades
Recently, yet another term has been launched to (12) and is becoming increasingly common not only within
illustrate the fact that humans and animals in many cases animal rights groups but also in everyday colloquial
develop the same or similar health problems: ‘zoobiquity’ (7). usage and in scientific literature, a shift which certainly
The authors introducing this term argue that One Health has normative connotations. The reason as to why
is one-sided, as they perceive it as based on human separate humans from animals and not animals from
medicine using insights of veterinary medicine, and not animals is a highly normative issue. The animal kingdom
the other way around. We disregard this view (see Fig. 1, shows a huge variety of life forms and to lump them
where all disciplines are on par). What they argue for is together as a unity seems questionable (13, 14). This seems
a ‘new fusion of veterinary, human and evolutionary especially true when it comes to the aspect of mental
medicine’ (7, p. 21). Furthermore, they claim: ‘We can health (14). Another possibility that would be fruitful
treat the shared diseases of all animals, including humans, for One Health is to find a definition of health that is
by taking a multispecies
that is, zoobiquitous
approach applicable to all animals including humans.
in our daily practices’ (7, p. 309). The aim is again to On the second level, the population level, at least two
apply a species-spanning approach to medicine, this time concepts might be used. In human medicine one can use
encompassing not only contagious diseases (infections) public health. In veterinary medicine and biology, the
or other types of physical diseases (such as cancer or terms herd health or population health could be used but
metabolic diseases) but also mental health, including for simplicity reasons; we here call it population health
anything from behavioral problems to addictions or regardless of the species involved.
depressions. One of the aims is nevertheless to integrate On the third level among several possible terms, we use
human and veterinary medicine and biology into an inter- ecosystem health. This gives us the scheme below:
disciplinary approach.
‘Evolutionary medicine’ is an attempt to adopt biological 1. Individual level of health
ideas of macro- and microevolution, fitness and environ- a. Animal health
ment to medical thinking (8). Further, the advocates of b. Human health
evolutionary medicine seem to argue that one has to 2. Population level of health
take longer timescales into consideration when thinking a. Population health
about health matters (8, 9). Evolutionary medicine is then b. Public health
a framework explaining and contributing to the discus- 3. Ecosystem level of health
sions of health as well as the environment from the field of a. Ecosystem health
biology. In the version presented by Natterson-Horowitz
and Bowers (7), evolution is used to explain that some We will here initiate an analysis of the concept of health
diseases have common ancestry and have existed for a at these three levels and we will start at the individual
long time (for example, cancer, which is traced back to level.

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Henrik Lerner and Charlotte Berg

The concept of human health has been thoroughly 2. The concept needs to be defined so that [it] refers to
discussed within philosophy of medicine since the 1970s. the level of the animal (including the surroundings
Several categories of health definitions have been devel- of the animal) and not to some systemic level above
oped ranging from merely physiological interpretations the animal. (14, p. 76)
to more holistic, including mental and/or social well-
being (15). A similar discussion has been present in the conflict
The concept of animal health has been less discussed, between animal ethics and environmental ethics when
although several categories of health definitions have been it comes to ascribing values. Animal ethicists claim that
presented (14, 16). These also range from physiological inherent value only can be ascribed to individuals (humans
to more holistic. Still, a thorough theoretical discussion of and some animals) but not to ecosystems. This is a central
these categories is merely absent (for a first attempt, see distinction between the now common terms biocentrism
14). There are also similarities in the categories of health and ecocentrism (18). We will not further analyze this
between the two fields, which we will develop further below. claim.
At the population level, the concept of health is more This implies that health at the population level such as
problematic. The concept herd health is mainly used in population health or public health is rather a monitoring
relation to monitoring, that is, focused on the surveillance tool which is a statistical measure of health within a
of disease occurrence or patterns but can also indirectly population rather than concepts of health.
involve aspects of safeguarding the microbiological qual- On the third level of health, the ecosystem level, where
ity of food of animal origin, that is, food safety (17). The the concept is ecosystem health, two ways of analyzing
first aspect is true also for human public health. It can, this concept seem to be present. Ecosystem health has
of course, be argued that both humans and one or more been used either as a metaphor or as a defined concept
non-human animal species in many cases belong to the of health. Definitions for ecosystem health do exist. One
same multispecies population. This is particularly obvious example of the latter is provided in Jakobsson (19).
in the case of zoonotic diseases where several species, According to Jakobsson (19), ecosystem health is a
including humans, are susceptible to infections by the combined concept of ecosystem and health. Ecosystem
same pathogen microorganisms. It is certainly valid also refers to flora, fauna, other organisms, and the surround-
for a variety of other types of diseases, such as syndromes ing environment. Health ‘is an important indicator of the
caused by environmental contamination with toxic agents, systems’ function’. ‘Ecosystem health is a comprehensive
affecting both humans and animals that will then, from and integrated approach, which reflects the health of the
an epidemiological perspective, belong to a larger target living and non-living components of the land and marine
population. world’. Jakobsson recognizes that this way of looking at
In these cases, the concept of health also bears a sta- health is far wider than the traditional one, and it shows
tistical component. Questions formulated here are: Is the links between human activity, ecological change, and health.
disease absent, present, or is this even a common disease? ‘Health ultimately depends upon ecosystem services i.e.
Certain individuals within a group could be unhealthy even availability of fresh water, food, fuel, pollination etc.’
if the group as a whole is regarded as healthy. From a In Jakobsson’s wide concept, health refers to some-
biosecurity point of view, health is often perceived as thing else than the individual or even population level.
being a trait or characteristic of the group, or even a region Using ecosystem health must be seen as an operational or
or country. In this case, the term health merely reflects instrumental definition (as an indicator for something).
freedom from a specific transmissible disease. ‘Freedom Nevertheless, the concept of ecosystem health has been
from disease’, that is, a disease-free status, can be proven widely discussed, and the perceptions of its limita-
by properly designed sampling schemes and officially tions and the definition applied vary between different
declared by a government or a public official, for example, research groups (20), also in relation to the properties of
to facilitate trade and travel. This aspect is, however, health.
usually restricted to animals and animal products, that is, Not at all mentioned above, but nevertheless impor-
not applied in human medicine
at least not officially. tant, is plant health, which could be defined both at
Still, a central argument both in theoretical discussions an individual and at population level (21). Plant health,
in human as well as animal health is that health as a or more specifically the fact that contaminated plants
concept belongs to the individual level. Lerner analyzes can act as vectors for diseases that affect humans, has
this further for animal health: been identified as important within One Health (22).
Furthermore, some pathogens can negatively affect the
The claim made could further be interpreted in two health status of all three groups; plants, animals, and
ways. humans (22). Although certainly being included in the
1. The concept needs to be defined so that [it] refers to One Health concept, plant health is often perceived as
the animal or the components of the animal. a part of ecosystem health rather than as a separate

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 What is One Health?

entity, to clearly differentiate between the health of the researchers are well aware of any correlations to
sentient beings, that is, humans and animals, on one side other species, groups, or ecosystems, and are prepared to
and other health concepts on the other. However, whether include such aspects whenever relevant. Not because they
this demarcation may hold need further elaboration in are forced to but because it will simply result in better
the future. science.
This analysis gives us at hand that only health at the A One Health perspective might result in more holistic
individual level is a true concept of health, and that health studies, as different perspectives meet when researchers
at the other levels are more a tool for the surveillance from different backgrounds cooperate. In the case of
of processes or states among aggregated individuals. work places where both animals and humans are involved,
So far, we have only discussed demarcation aspects a One Health perspective might be an interdisciplinary
of health. We will now turn to possible definitions of approach on both humans and animals at the same time.
health and especially those that might be applicable to One example is a study called PAWISE, comparing human
all animals, including humans. Among health definitions well-being, animal welfare, human
animal interactions
present, at least three categories of definitions might and company efficiency in abattoirs and animal labora-
be useful in this sense: physiological (23, 24), mental (15), tories (29, 30). (Note here that this label of the project
or balance theories (for a wider discussion and other belongs to the opinion of the authors of this paper.
categories of health that might be applicable, see No reference to the One Health perspective was made
refs. [14, 15]). within that study.) Other examples are studies related to
Choosing a definition of health is a normative issue.
occupational health of farm workers who are exposed
Different definitions of health cover different aspects of
to microorganisms circulating among the farmed animals
life. A physiological definition might be applicable to
in question, and studies looking at the risk of human farm
most species but will not cover all the aspects that are
workers introducing pathogens into a herd of domestic
important for human health (e.g. mental health). As an
animals.
example, let us develop the idea of health as balance.
Furthermore, a One Health approach may create a
At the individual level, theories of health referring to
scientific environment where not only laboratory equip-
some kind of balance have been present from ancient
ment or office space is shared by, for example, physicians,
times till present (25). The most famous have been health
veterinarians, and microbiologists but where access to
in terms of a humoral theory. This theory was abandoned
samples is shared more generously within the scientific
during the 19th century in favor of better working
theories, such as Rudolf Virchow’s theory of health as community. In this way, biological samples (be it tissue,
vital cells (26). More modern versions are the theories of blood, fecal samples, effluent water, or anything else
stress, where health is seen as a proper or valid response possibly relevant), which can be quite difficult, expensive,
to stressors trying to restore a balance in the body. These or ethically complicated to collect, can be used by several
theories exist both in human medicine (27) as well as different research groups who may be interested in the
veterinary medicine (28). At the population level, one same
or different
pathogens or toxins, but from
could talk about populations that are in balance when different angles. The concept of ‘Open Access Publishing’
it comes to population dynamics. In ecosystem research, has become increasingly popular in a global society where
it is also possible to use an idea of dynamic equilibrium resources are not necessarily evenly distributed. We
(or balance) as a concept of ecosystem health. hypothesize that ‘Open Access Bio Banks’ (though open
The problem with balance theories, however, is that not to the general public but to relevant research groups)
they are unable to explain states such as ‘I feel better than will be an upcoming phenomenon in the era of One
usual’ or ‘I am extremely healthy’ (25). A more thorough Health, where credit is given to the researchers colleting
analysis than made here is needed to test these assump- the samples but where the same samples can nevertheless
tions and this work has not yet been performed. be used for a multitude of scientific purposes. However,
the ethical aspects of such data and sample sharing are
Practical consequences for research delicate and must be handled with due care.
It should be stressed that One Health is not a research A practical graphic approach to use when one discuss
topic of its own but a truly multi- and interdisciplinary interdisciplinarity is to implement an interdisciplinary
approach. To carry out interdisciplinary studies, basic matrix where one can see where in the research process
disciplines will still be necessary. Furthermore, a One one holds an interdisciplinary, a biology, a veterinary, or
Health approach does not mean that all possible aspects a human medicine perspective (Fig. 2). By ticking boxes
of a certain disease or syndrome have to be included in for each part of the scientific process, the interdisciplinary
each and every scientific study. Such an approach would research group might get a better picture of which part is
be rather complicated and far from perspicuous. Instead, intradisciplinary and which part is interdisciplinary. This
a more practical approach to One Health implies that may also contribute to finding new ways to collaborate.

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Henrik Lerner and Charlotte Berg

Practical consequences for education Conclusions

The One Health approach can also be applied in a To summarize this paper, one has to keep in mind that
teaching context. When educating and training public the philosophy of One Health still needs to be written. An
health professionals to be, regardless of what university attempt has been to show that the choice of term for the
program they have been enrolled into, emphasising why approach might be normative in deciding which disci-
these different disciplines inherently interact in practice plines or parts of disciplines may be included. Then,
is fundamental. In some parts of the world, it is currently choosing a definition of health is also a normative task
possible to achieve a MSc degree or a PhD in One Health (5). defining what aspects of health is important. This will
There are an increasing number of One Health related have practical implications for both research as well as
textbooks aiming at university students in primarily medi- education for research.
cine and veterinary medicine, with a main focus on zoonotic
diseases, epidemics and toxicants (31, 32). Initially, the Acknowledgements
focus of the One Health discussion appears to have The starting point for this paper was a presentation held by Henrik
been mainly on food-producing animals, but there is now Lerner at the One Health network’s yearly annual meeting held
an increasing interest in illuminating the importance of in Bålsta, Sweden, March 2013. Small passages of this paper belong
zoonoses also from a pet ownership perspective, where it to that presentation. The authors thank members of the Swedish
is crucial that veterinarians, physicians, and other health One Health Network (Karin Artursson, Josef Järhult and Björn
Olsen) and the One Health Initiative Autonomous pro bono team
care professionals recognize each other’s expertise, a view (Laura H Kahn, Bruce Kaplan, Lisa Conti, Thomas P Monath and
that is reflected also in higher education (33). Jack Woodall) for their valuable inputs toward the development of
Even more radical, there have been suggestions for a Fig. 1 in this paper.
whole new education based on the philosophy of One
Health. Calvin Schwabe presented a new curriculum that Conflict of interest and funding
could be implemented as a new education at a veterinary The authors have not received any funding or benefits
school (34, 35). Three areas of education were outlined: from industry or elsewhere to conduct this study.
population, people, and biology (35). A more modern
attempt to outline a combined education would place
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