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Article
Low‐Molecular‐Weight Heparins (LMWH) and Synthetic Factor
X Inhibitors Can Impair the Osseointegration Process
of a Titanium Implant in an Interventional Animal Study
Dragos Apostu 1, Bianca Berechet 2, Daniel Oltean‐Dan 1, Alexandru Mester 3, Bobe Petrushev 2, Catalin Popa 4,
Madalina Luciana Gherman 5, Adrian Bogdan Tigu 6, Ciprian Ionut Tomuleasa 7,8,9,*, Lucian Barbu‐Tudoran 10,
Horea Rares Ciprian Benea 1 and Doina Piciu 11
1 Department of Orthopedics, Traumatology and Pediatric Orthopaedics, University of Medicine and Pharmacy
Cluj‐Napoca, 400347 Cluj‐Napoca, Romania
2 Department of Gastroenterology, “Octavian Fodor” Institute of Gastroenterology and Hepatology,
400347 Cluj‐Napoca, Romania
3 Department of Oral Health, University of Medicine and Pharmacy Cluj‐Napoca,
400012 Cluj‐Napoca, Romania
4 Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Technical University of Cluj‐Napoca,
400114 Cluj‐Napoca, Romania
Citation: Apostu, D.; Berechet, B.; 5 Experimental Center, University of Medicine and Pharmacy Cluj‐Napoca, 400012 Cluj‐Napoca, Romania
Oltean‐Dan, D.; Mester, A.; 6 Research Center for Advanced Medicine—MedFuture, Department of Translational Medicine,
Petrushev, B.; Popa, C.; University of Medicine and Pharmacy Cluj‐Napoca, 400347 Cluj‐Napoca, Romania
7 Department of Hematology, University of Medicine and Pharmacy Cluj‐Napoca,
Gherman, M.L.; Tigu, A.B.;
Tomuleasa, C.I.; Barbu‐Tudoran, L.; 400012 Cluj‐Napoca, Romania
8 Department of Hematology, Ion Chiricuta Clinical Cancer Center, 400015 Cluj‐Napoca, Romania
et al. Low‐Molecular‐Weight
9 Medfuture Research Center for Advanced Medicine, University of Medicine and Pharmacy Cluj‐Napoca,
Heparins (LMWH) and Synthetic
400012 Cluj‐Napoca, Romania
Factor X Inhibitors Can Impair the 10 Electron Microscopy Center, Faculty of Biology and Geology, Babes‐Bolyai University,
Osseointegration Process of
400006 Cluj‐Napoca, Romania
a Titanium Implant in an 11 Nuclear Medicine Department, University of Medicine and Pharmacy Cluj‐Napoca,
Interventional Animal Study. 400012 Cluj‐Napoca, Romania
Medicina 2022, 58, 1590. https:// * Correspondence: ciprian.tomuleasa@gmail.com
doi.org/10.3390/medicina58111590
Abstract: Background and objectives: Cementless total hip arthroplasty is a common surgical procedure
Academic Editors: Woo Jong Kim
and Gavriel Chaushu
and perioperative thromboprophylaxis is used to prevent deep vein thrombosis or pulmonary embo‐
lism. Osseointegration is important for long‐term implant survival, and there is no research on the
Received: 4 October 2022
effect of different thromboprophylaxis agents on the process of osseointegration. Materials and Meth‐
Accepted: 31 October 2022
ods: Seventy rats were allocated as follows: Group I (control group), Group II (enoxaparin), Group III
Published: 3 November 2022
(nadroparin), and Group IV (fondaparinux). Ovariectomy was performed on all subjects, followed by
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neu‐ the introduction of an intramedullary titanium implant into the femur. Thromboprophylaxis was ad‐
tral with regard to jurisdictional ministered accordingly to each treatment group for 35 days postoperatively. Results: Group I had sta‐
claims in published maps and institu‐ tistically significantly lower anti‐Xa levels compared to treatment groups. Micro‐CT analysis showed
tional affiliations.
that nadroparin had lower values compared to control in bone volume (0.12 vs. 0.21, p = 0.01) and
percent bone volume (1.46 vs. 1.93, p = 0.047). The pull‐out test showed statistically significant differ‐
ences between the control group (8.81 N) compared to enoxaparin, nadroparin, and fondaparinux
groups (4.53 N, 4 N and 4.07 N, respectively). Nadroparin had a lower histological cortical bone tissue
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
and a higher width of fibrous tissue (27.49 μm and 86.9 μm) at the peri‐implant area, compared to
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
This article is an open access article
control (43.2 μm and 39.2 μm), enoxaparin (39.6 μm and 24 μm), and fondaparinux (36.2 μm and 32.7
distributed under the terms and con‐ μm). Conclusions: Short‐term administration of enoxaparin, nadroparin, and fondaparinux can reduce
ditions of the Creative Commons At‐ the osseointegration of titanium implants, with nadroparin having the most negative effect. These re‐
tribution (CC BY) license (https://cre‐ sults show that enoxaparin and fondaparinux are preferred to be administered due to a lesser negative
ativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/). impact on the initial implant fixation.
Medicina 2022, 58, 1590. https://doi.org/10.3390/medicina58111590 www.mdpi.com/journal/medicina
Medicina 2022, 58, 1590 2 of 15
1. Introduction
Total hip replacement is a common procedure performed worldwide to treat hip os‐
teoarthritis. This pathology affects 10 to 13% of people over 60 years old [1]. Total hip
replacement implants are made from titanium alloys. The most frequently used titanium
alloy in total hip replacements is Ti90Al6V4, consisting of titanium, aluminium and vana‐
dium. Although offering good results overall, complications of total hip replacement exist.
The most frequent late complication of this type of this surgical procedure is a deficient
implant fixation, called aseptic loosening, which leads to increased pain and disability [2].
Patients affected by this complication cannot weight‐bear on the affected limb, thus lead‐
ing to an important functional deficit. When aseptic loosening is present, revision surgery
is required, which is expensive for the healthcare system [3]. Moreover, it is technically
demanding, requires an experienced team, and is usually performed in tertiary‐care hos‐
pitals. Additionally, the revision of the total hip replacement often results in a lower pa‐
tient satisfaction rate than the primary hip replacement [4].
Aseptic loosening can be prevented with a more enhanced osseointegration process,
represented by bone apposition at the titanium surface of the total hip arthroplasty im‐
plant [5,6]. This complex process is dependent on the processes of bone formation, per‐
formed by osteoblasts, and bone resorption, performed by osteoclasts. The process of os‐
seointegration is regulated by many cellular pathways which modulate the activity of os‐
teoblasts and osteoclasts [6]. Osteoblasts arise from mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) under
the influence of cytokines, such as tumour necrosis factor (TNF) alpha, interleukin (IL) 1,
IL‐6 and IL‐11. On the other hand, osteoclastogenesis is positively modulated by macro‐
phage colony‐stimulating factor (M‐CSF) and transforming growth factor beta (TGF‐β1).
The more active the osteoblasts are compared to osteoclasts, the stronger the implant fix‐
ation will be and the lower the risk of aseptic loosening. The process of osseointegration
is similar in the case of titanium intramedullary implants and titanium dental implants
[7–9]. Our study group has proven that osseointegration can be influenced by many fac‐
tors, including systemic drugs [10].
Low‐molecular‐weight heparins (LMWH) and synthetic factor X inhibitors are rou‐
tinely administered postoperatively to prevent deep vein thrombosis (DVT) and pulmo‐
nary embolism. Among the most commonly used drugs to prevent DVT postoperatively
following total hip replacement are enoxaparin, nadroparin, and fondaparinux.
Previous studies by Kock et al. and Osip et al. showed that LMWHs could inhibit
osteoblastogenesis during in vitro experimental studies [11–14]. These studies were the
first to prove that low‐molecular‐weight heparins have an impact on bone metabolism.
One explanation is that LMWHs can alter the function of the cytokines involved in osteo‐
blastogenesis and osteoclastogenesis [15]. As a result, the whole osseointegration process
can be affected [15]. Numerous in vivo studies were performed to study the effects of
LMWHs on bone biology. Enoxaparin, dalteparin, nadroparin and tinzaparin were shown
to increase osteoclastogenesis and bone resorption by modulating M‐CSF and TGF‐ β1,
[16–22]. Additionally, researchers studied the effects of LMWHs on bone metabolism in
the case of fracture healing. A study performed by Strett et al. showed that enoxaparin
attenuated the bone repair process compared to the control group [23]. The result is con‐
firmed by a more recent study by Li et al., which concluded that enoxaparin suppresses
osteoblastogenesis [24]. On the other hand, other studies showed that LMWHs did not
impair the fracture process [25,26].
Although previous studies showed that LMWHs have an impact on bone biology,
the overall effect is still controversial. Moreover, we did not find any study to test the
effects of LMWHs on the process of osseointegration of the titanium implant. We consider
Medicina 2022, 58, 1590 3 of 15
that in vivo studies are essential to test the osseointegration process of titanium implants
because there is an implication of osteoclasts, osteoblasts and the titanium surface, which
are impossible to replicate in the case of in vitro studies. We also consider it essential to
know whether thromboprophylaxis agents can impair the titanium implant osseointegra‐
tion. Clinical trials are challenging to be performed due to a lack of specific examinations
for the osseointegration process in the clinical setting, which are available in an animal
model. Moreover, the long follow‐up to study the rate of aseptic loosening makes clinical
trials more difficult to perform.
This study aims to test, for the first time in the literature, the impact of thrombo‐
prophylaxis agents on the process of osseointegration in vivo. For this study, we tested
three of the most commonly used drugs in DVT prophylaxis: enoxaparin, nadroparin, and
fondaparinux, in terms of early implant fixation in vivo.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Animal Model
The study received approval from the Ethical Commission of the local university (no.
210/02/04/2020). The experiments were performed at the Center of Experimental Medicine
Cluj‐Napoca and according to the European guidelines (directive 2010/63/EU). A total of
70 female albino Wistar rats of 8–10 weeks old and with a weight of 190 ± 30 mg were
used. The animals were raised at the same animal facility without any genetic modifica‐
tion, while food and water were provided ad libitum. A veterinary doctor checked all of
the subjects to be enrolled in the study to be clinically healthy. The subjects were random‐
ized into four groups: Group I (OVX group, n = 22), Group II (OVX + enoxaparin, n = 16),
Group III (OVX + nadroparin, n = 16), and Group IV (OVX + fondaparinux, n = 16).
2.2. Ovariectomy (OVX) Procedure
The procedures were performed on all subjects at the time of enrolment, and each
subject’s weight was determined preoperatively. General anaesthesia was induced with a
mixture of 80–100 mg/kg of ketamine and 10–12.5 mg/kg of xylazine injected intraperito‐
neally. Skin preparation using betadine and sterile draping was performed. Following an
abdominal midline incision, the ovaries were identified and excised with electrocautery
(Figures 1a and 2). The abdominal wall was sutured, and a local antibiotic was applied.
Postoperatively, analgesics were provided in the drinking water.
Medicina 2022, 58, 1590 4 of 15
Figure 2. Project’s timeline: group allocation, ovariectomy procedures, intramedullary nailing, treat‐
ment administration, blood sample collection, euthanasia, and femoral specimen preparation.
2.3. Intramedullary Nail
Three months after the ovariectomy procedure, bilateral femoral intramedullary nail‐
ing was performed in all subjects under general anaesthesia. Both legs were prepared, and
sterile draping was performed. The femoral condyles were palpated, and using a sterile
18‐gauge needle, and the femoral canal was opened percutaneously at the level of the
femoral notch (Figures 1b and 2). Then, Ti90Al6V4 alloy nails (Goodfellow Cambridge Ltd.,
Huntingdon, UK) with a diameter of 1 mm and 20 mm in length were introduced into the
femur (Figure 1c). There was no need for a suture since the technique was entirely percu‐
taneous. A local antibiotic was applied to the insertion site. Postoperatively, analgesics
were provided in the drinking water.
2.4. Treatment
Starting on day one postoperatively, the subjects were weighted daily, and treatment
was administered subcutaneously according to each group (Figure 2). Group I received
saline subcutaneously daily for 35 days. Group II received enoxaparin 1 mg/kg subcuta‐
neously daily for 35 days. Group III received receive nadroparin 10 mg/kg subcutaneously
daily for 35 days and group IV received receive fondaparinux 0.1 mg/kg subcutaneously
daily for 35 days.
2.5. Collection of Samples
Three months after the intramedullary nailing, blood samples were harvested. Under
general anaesthesia, the subjects were euthanised. We looked for uterus atrophy and the
absence of ovaries. Moreover, the bilateral femoral bones were collected and placed in
10% formaldehyde. The femurs underwent histological, micro‐CT, and mechanical pull‐
out test examinations.
2.6. Serum Analysis
Using the ELISA method, we tested the rat coagulation factor Xa (NovusBiologicals®,
Cambridge, UK). The calibration was performed using the following concentrations: 40
ng/mL, 20 ng/mL, 10 ng/mL, 5 ng/mL, 2.5 ng/mL, 1.25 ng/mL and 0.63 ng/mL. The samples
were diluted five times. We used the TECAN Spark 10M (TECAN, Grödig, Austria) mi‐
croplate reader.
2.7. Micro‐CT Examination
Bruker Skyscan 1172® (Billerica, MA, USA) with a 50 mm image field width and 11
Mp X‐ray camera was used at a resolution of 2000 × 2000 px for the micro‐CT scanning.
We analysed a region of interest of a round shape, and a diameter of 120 mm centred on
the implant. The length of the area of interest was 600 slices (8.1 mm) starting from the
distal metaphysis proximally. The Bruker CTAn® v.1.18. software was used to calculate
bone volume (BV), percent bone volume (BV%), bone surface (BS), bone surface/volume
ratio (BS/VR), tissue surface (TS), mean total cross‐sectional bone area, trabecular number
(TN), cross‐sectional thickness, and trabecular diameter (TD). The measurements were
performed while the examinator was unaware of group allocation.
Medicina 2022, 58, 1590 5 of 15
2.8. Mechanical Pull‐Out Test
An osteotomy of the femoral diaphysis in the proximal one third was sequentially
performed until 5 mm of the intramedullary nail was exposed. The nail was tightened in
a pneumatic grip, and the Zwick/Roell Z005® (Ulm, Germany) tensile testing device with
a maximum test load of 5 kN was used to measure the force needed for nail extraction.
The forces were measured in newtons at a low speed of 1 mm/min. The measurements
were performed while the examinator was unaware of group allocation.
2.9. Histological Examination
Following the mechanical pull‐out test, the femoral bones were decalcified and sec‐
tioned longitudinally along the implant site. Hematoxylin–eosin and Tricom Masson
stainings were performed and analysed with a Leica DM750® (Wetzlar, Germany) micro‐
scope. We used ImageJ® software for the morphometric measurements. The thickness of
the cortical bone at the peri‐implant site was measured at five different points at about 20‐
0 μm apart. The same method was applied to measure the fibrous tissue at the peri‐im‐
plant site. Two independent measurements were performed by different examinators who
did not know the allocation within the groups, and the average was noted.
2.10. SEM/EDX Analysis
We tested a total of 12 samples equally divided into groups. The samples were fixed
in glutaraldehyde (2.7% in PBS), dehydrated in alcohol, and infused with hexamethyl‐
disilane. After sputter‐coating with 7 nm of gold in an Agar Automatic Sputter‐Coater
B7341 (Essex, UK), samples were examined in a Hitachi SU8230 HRCFEG SEM (Tokyo,
Japan).
2.11. Statistical Analysis
The sample size was calculated during the study design using the StatMate® soft‐
ware. For the sample size calculation, we used the results obtained from previous studies
on titanium implant osseointegration following systemic administration [27,28]. The type
I/II error rates we used during calculations were alpha values of 0.05 and power of the
study of 80%. Moreover, we assumed a 20% mortality rate due to the two surgical inter‐
ventions and general anaesthesia. The statistical analysis was performed using the
GraphPad Prism 6.0® software, and we calculated means, standard deviations, frequen‐
cies, percentages, and correlation tests. The distribution was calculated using the Shapiro–
Wilk test. The results were considered statistically significant if the p‐value was less than
0.05.
3. Results
Of the seventy subjects included in the study, nine died throughout the process:
seven died due to anaesthesia, and two died from infection. Five of the subjects belonged
to Group I, one subject belonged to Group II, and three subjects belonged to Group IV.
3.1. Weight
All of the subjects were weighed during the study. The average weight before the
ovariectomy procedure was 216 ± 22 g. The mean weight according to each group are as
follows: 209.4 ± 17.5 g (Group I), 221.5 ± 23 g (Group II), 216 ± 25 g (Group III), and 222 ±
21 g (Group IV). Group I had a statistically significant lower weight compared to Groups
II, III and IV (p < 0.05).
At the end of the study, the mean weight according to each group were as follows:
215 ± 16.5 g (Group I), 230 ± 20 g (Group II), 225 ± 27 g (Group III), and 229 ± 21 g (Group
IV). Additionally, Group I had a statistically significantly lower weight than Groups II, III
and IV (p < 0.05). Nevertheless, all of the subjects increased in weight during the study.
Medicina 2022, 58, 1590 6 of 15
3.2. Serum Analysis
The rat coagulation factor Xa was calculated in all of the subjects at the end of the
study (n = 61), as follows: 17 subjects in Group I, 15 subjects in Group II, 16 subjects in
Group III and 13 subjects in Group IV. The results are available in Figure 3. Group I had
statistically significantly lower levels than Groups II, III and IV (p < 0.001). There were no
statistically significant differences between Groups II, III and IV.
Figure 3. Rat coagulation factor Xa levels at the end of the study in Group I (control), Group II
(enoxaparin), Group III (nadroparin) and Group IV (fondaparinux).
3.3. Micro‐CT Examination
A total of 12 samples were analysed, equally divided within the groups. The results
of the calculate bone volume (BV), percent bone volume (BV%), bone surface (BS), bone
surface/volume ration (BS/VR), tissue surface (TS), mean total cross‐sectional bone area,
trabecular number (TN), cross‐sectional thickness and trabecular diameter (TD) are avail‐
able in Table 1. The only statistically significant differences observed were between Group
I and Group III in terms of bone volume (p = 0.001) and percent bone volume (p = 0.047).
Images obtained during micro‐CT examinations are available in Figure 4.
Table 1. Results of micro‐CT examination expressed in mean (± standard deviation).
Group I (Control) Group II (Enoxaparin) Group III (Nadroparin) Group IV (Fondaparinux)
Parameter
n = 3 n = 3 n = 3 n = 3
Bone volume (BV) 0.21 (±0.02) b 0.20 (±0.04) 0.12 (±0.06) a 0.22 (±0.03)
Percent bone volume (BV%) 1.93 (±0.15) b 1.72 (±0.5) 1.46 (±0.2) a 1.75 (±0.4)
Bone surface (BS) 39.46 (±6.5) 38.54 (±7.5) 32.23 (±9.2) 40.21 (±4.8)
Tissue surface (TS) 43.21 (±2.4) 45.32 (±4.2) 56.56 (±7.1) 43.32 (±5.3)
Bone surface/volume ratio (BS/VR) 207.68 226.7 230.21 236.52
Mean total cross‐sectional bone area 0.038 (±0.02) 0.034 (±0.025) 0.029 (±0.05) 0.036 (±0.045)
Cross‐sectional thickness 0.013 (±0.002) 0.014 (±0.004) 0.010 (±0.004) 0.016 (±0.002)
Trabecular diameter 0.020 (±0.003) 0.023 (±0.0025) 0.016 (±0.005) 0.021 (±0.002)
Trabecular number 8.82 (±0.53) 9.2 (±0.63) 7.52 (±0.78) 8.26 (±0.32)
Note: a Statistically significant compared to Group I; b Statistically significant compared to Group
IV.
Medicina 2022, 58, 1590 7 of 15
Figure 4. Images obtained following micro‐CT examinations: (a) cross‐sectional view of the intrame‐
dullary nail at the distal epiphysis; (b) cross‐sectional view of the intramedullary nail at the middle
of the femoral diaphysis; (c) longitudinal view of the intramedullary nail; (d) longitudinal view of
the intramedullary nail with automatic detection of the metal implant by the software.
3.4. Mechanical Pull‐Out Test
The mechanical pull‐out test was performed in all of the subjects (n = 61). The average
values of the maximum force needed to extract the intramedullary nail are available in
Figure 5. The control group had the highest average force needed for intramedullary nail
extraction, followed by enoxaparin. There were statistically significant differences be‐
tween Group I and Group III (p = 0.01), Group I and Group IV (p = 0.03), as well as between
Group I and Group II (p = 0.04). There were no statistically significant differences between
the treatment groups.
Medicina 2022, 58, 1590 8 of 15
Figure 5. Mechanical pull‐put test in Group I (control), Group II (enoxaparin), Group III (nadro‐
parin) and Group IV (fondaparinux).
3.5. Histological Analysis
Histological analysis was performed on all of the subjects within the study (n = 60),
except for one subject in Group IV whom we excluded after SEM/EDX analysis due to
higher concentrations of calcium and phosphorus on the implant after its removal. Images
from the measurements of the fibrous tissue and bone tissue are seen in Figures 6 and 7.
Figure 6. Histological measurements of cortical bone tissue and fibrous tissue in the peri‐implant
site within Group I (control).
Medicina 2022, 58, 1590 9 of 15
Figure 7. Histological measurements of cortical bone tissue and fibrous tissue in the peri‐implant
site within Group III (nadroparin).
In terms of cortical bone surrounding the implant site, the nadroparin group had the
lowest width (see Figure 8). The only statistically significant result was obtained between
Group I and Group III (p = 0.0002).
Figure 8. The average width of the cortical bone tissue at the peri‐implant region.
Regarding fibrous tissue surrounding the implant, the nadroparin group had the
highest values (see Figure 9). The only statistically significant results were between Group
II and Group III (p = 0.02) and between Group III and Group IV (p = 0.04).
Medicina 2022, 58, 1590 10 of 15
Figure 9. The average width of the fibrous tissue at the peri‐implant region.
3.6. SEM/EDX Analysis
The SEM/EDX analysis was performed on a number of three titanium implants
within each group, resulting in a total of twelve implants. Except for one case, the maxi‐
mum Wt% of both calcium and phosphorus was 1.3%. There were no statistically signifi‐
cant differences between groups in terms of calcium and phosphorus concentrations.
Moreover, the EDX analysis of the titanium, aluminium, and vanadium showed an
average concentration of 88.6%, 7.3%, and 3.8%, respectively. The images obtained from
the SEM/EDX analysis are available in Figure 10.
(a)
Medicina 2022, 58, 1590 11 of 15
(b)
(c)
Figure 10. (a,b) Scanning electron microscopy image at different image magnification; (c) EDX anal‐
ysis diagram.
There was one case belonging to Group IV (Figure 11), where the Wt% of calcium
was 52.9% and 25.4% in the case of phosphorus.
Figure 11. Scanning electron microscopy image of one case with an increased concentration on both
calcium and phosphorus.
Medicina 2022, 58, 1590 12 of 15
4. Discussion
To our knowledge, this is the first in vivo study to test and compare the effect of
enoxaparin, nadroparin, and fondaparinux on the process of titanium implant osseointe‐
gration.
The rat animal model was used due to the high resemblance of bone metabolism
compared to humans. They also represent the most commonly used animal model for the
study of osseointegration. In clinical practice, patients requiring total hip arthroplasty are
frequently osteoporotic and have a deficient bone metabolism [29]. Therefore, we decided
to perform an ovariectomy to induce osteoporosis in our animal model. Additionally,
when an osteoporotic animal model is used, there is a higher impact on the treatment
involved, meaning a lower number of subjects is needed to obtain statistically significant
results [30]. In the literature, osteoporosis is generally accepted to be obtained at three
months; therefore, we performed the intramedullary implantation of the nails at 12 weeks.
For this study, we used Ti90Al6V4 alloy nails which resemble the alloy of cementless total
hip arthroplasties. Moreover, throughout the study, we had no deaths due to pulmonary
embolism because the surgical intervention was minimally invasive and the subjects
could completely weight bear after the surgery.
The treatment was administered for 35 days after titanium nail implantation, which
is the current protocol in our country. The doses were obtained from different studies in
which deep vein thrombosis prophylaxis was performed in rat animal models using the
three types of treatment [31–33]. In order to test the efficiency of the treatment administra‐
tion, rat coagulation factor Xa was determined. Additionally, we performed the SEM/EDX
analysis of the extracted implants to identify any bone tissue extracted along with the
implant.
The anti‐Xa levels were statistically significantly increased in the treatment groups
compared to the control group, showing a good treatment administration. Nevertheless,
we do not have an established therapeutic range in the animal model. As a result, the
serum analysis does not provide information about the dosing.
The micro‐CT analysis showed that nadroparin statistically significantly has a lower
bone volume around the implant compared to the control group. Moreover, there were
no statistically significant differences between the treatment groups. These results show
the effect of these drugs in the osseointegration process of titanium implants. Moreover,
despite other differences observed, the sample size in the case of micro‐CT examinations
was insufficient to provide other statistically significant results.
The pull‐out test is an essential tool to assess the strength of the osteointegration pro‐
cess because it tests both the quantity and the quality of the implant fixation. During the
pull‐out test, all treatment groups showed a significantly lower force needed for implant
extraction compared to the control group. This result shows a stronger implant fixation in
the absence of treatment.
The histological analysis found a significantly lower cortical bone mass around the
implant site in the case of nadroparin compared to the control group. Despite enoxaparin
and fondaparinux also showing an overall lower cortical bone mass compared to the con‐
trol, as well, the results were not statistically significant. Nevertheless, the biggest differ‐
ence was when comparing the fibrous tissue around the implant site, which was signifi‐
cantly higher in the nadroparin group than in all other groups. The histological results
show that nadroparin significantly reduces implant fixation than in all other groups.
We also performed the SEM/EDX analysis to determine whether bone tissue was still
present on the implant surface after its extraction from the femoral bone during the pull‐
out test. The EDX analysis only showed small concentrations of calcium and phosphorus
in all of the implants, except in one case, where there was a high concentration of calcium
and phosphorus and was later excluded from the histological examination. These results
show that most implants did not contain relevant concentrations of calcium or phospho‐
rus following implant removal.
Medicina 2022, 58, 1590 13 of 15
We have found no similar studies to compare our study’s results. Nevertheless, other
studies on bone metabolism showed that enoxaparin and nadroparin increase osteoclas‐
togenesis, thus leading to an increased bone resorption process [16–22]. These results are
according to our study, where the osseointegration process is impaired by enoxaparin and
nadroparin. Other studies on fracture healing have shown that enoxaparin can impair
bone growth compared to control, a result related to our study due to a deficient bone
metabolism [23].
Bruker Skyscan 1172 micro‐CT is a microfocus X‐ray microtomography optimized
for small samples offering good precision for osseointegration examination. The error and
tolerance are insignificant since a standard method of determining the region of interest
was used in all samples. The Zwick/Roell Z005® testing machine has a machine compli‐
ance correction, offering real‐time modifications for the highest possible level of precision.
The study also has some limitations. The main limitation of our study is the inability
to perform the histological analysis with the implant in situ. This could provide a better
assessment of the histological bone–implant contact. During the implant removal, even
though it is performed at low speeds, a quantity of bone and fibrous tissue could still be
attached to the implant and therefore provide deficient information when the bone spec‐
imens are analysed. In order to test this hypothesis, we performed an SEM/EDX analysis
which showed that only a small quantity of calcium and phosphorus had been removed
along with the implants, with only one exception, which was later excluded. This result
provides sufficient information to state that the implant removal during the pull‐out test
at low speed does not affect the histological analysis of the implant site.
Another limitation is the lack of a known therapeutic range for the anti‐Xa coagula‐
tion factor level for us to know whether or not the dosing was correct. This limitation
could influence the study’s results due to potentially different concentrations of drugs.
Additionally, a limitation of our study is the relatively low number of subjects for micro‐
CT analysis and SEM/EDX analysis.
Our study has shown, for the first time in the literature, that some low‐molecular‐
weight heparins (LMWH) and synthetic factor X inhibitors can affect the process of osse‐
ointegration in vivo. An impaired osseointegration process can lead to aseptic loosening
of cementless total hip arthroplasties. Our study’s results are significant, especially due to
the long‐term follow‐up needed to determine the association between aseptic loosening
and the type of thromboprophylaxis drug in a clinical setting. We found no clinical studies
to determine this association and we recommend further studies be performed in this di‐
rection, since our study has proven the implication of thromboprophylaxis agents on the
process of osseointegration.
5. Conclusions
Short‐term administration of enoxaparin, nadroparin, and fondaparinux can reduce
the osseointegration of titanium implants, while nadroparin resulted in the highest quan‐
tity of fibrous tissue and the lowest quantity of cortical bone tissue surrounding the im‐
plant site. Further clinical research is needed to test the influence of thromboprophylaxis
agents on the process of osseointegration.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, D.A. and D.P.; methodology, D.A., B.B., D.O.‐D., A.M.
and M.L.G.; formal analysis, D.A., B.B., D.O.‐D., A.M., M.L.G. and H.R.C.B.; investigation, A.B.T.,
B.P., C.P., L.B.‐T. and H.R.C.B.; resources, D.A., D.P. and C.I.T.; data curation, D.A.; writing—orig‐
inal draft preparation, D.A.; writing—review and editing, D.P. and C.I.T.; supervision, D.P. and
C.I.T.; project administration, D.A.; funding acquisition, D.A., D.P. and C.I.T. All authors have read
and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This work was supported by a grant from the Romanian Ministry of Education and Re‐
search, CNCS‐UEFISCDI, project number PN‐III‐P1‐1.1‐PD‐2019‐0124, within PNCDI III. The work
was funded by an international grant awarded by the Novo Nordisk Haemophilia Foundation to
the Romanian Hematology Society—Romania 4.
Medicina 2022, 58, 1590 14 of 15
Institutional Review Board Statement: The study received approval from the Ethical Commission
of the local university (no. 210/02/04/2020). The experiments were performed at the Center of Exper‐
imental Medicine Cluj‐Napoca and according to the European guidelines (directive 2010/63/EU).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Abbreviations
BS Bone surface
BS/VR Bone surface/volume ratio
BV Bone volume
BV% Percent bone volume
DVT Deep vein thrombosis
EDX Energy‐dispersive X‐ray spectroscopy
IL Interleukin
LMWH Low‐molecular‐weight heparins
MSC Mesenchymal stem cell
M‐CSF Macrophage colony‐stimulating factor
OVX Ovariectomy
SEM Scanning electron microscope
TD Trabecular diameter
TGF‐β1 Transforming growth factor beta 1
TN Trabecular number
TNF Tumour necrosis factor
TS Tissue surface
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