THE BOAT-COFFIN BURIAL COMPLEX IN THE PHILIPPINES AND ITS RELATION TO

SIMILAR PRACTICES IN SOUTHEAST ASIA

Author(s): Rosa C. P. Tenazas
Source: Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society , MARCH 1973, Vol. 1, No. 1
(MARCH 1973), pp. 19-25
Published by: University of San Carlos Publications

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/29791037

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THE BOAT-COFFIN BURIAL COMPLEX IN
THE PHILIPPINES AND ITS RELATION TO
SIMILAR PRACTICES IN SOUTHEAST ASIA

Rosa C. P. Tenazas
team explored the island group of Romblon
A preliminary report on boat-coffin burial in the province while the University of San Carlos
Philippines was read by the author in the divisional team concentrated its researches on the islands
meeting on prehistory and archaeology of the 11th of Cebu, Bohol, and neighboring islets. The
Pacific Science Congress held in Tokyo in 1966. Since
then more data have been collected. The present paper
researches themselves were a follow-up of
is not intended to be comprehensive. However, a de? surveys already reported by Beyer (1947).
tailed report will be presented after a full analysis of Primarily on the basis of these researches and
associated skeletal material which exhibit artificial the summarized report by Beyer of earlier
cranial deformation has been made. surveys (1947), at least fifty sites have been
located. Forty of these are concentrated in
central Philippines with the island of Bohol, so
The phenomenon known as "boat-coffin far, yielding the highest number of sites. The
burial" is a mode of disposal of the dead in other islands in which boat-coffin burial is, at
hollowed-out pieces of logs generally in the present, known to the author are: Mindanao,
shape of a boat. This was a widespread practice Luzon, Palawan, Negros, Panay, Marinduque,
throughout Southeast Asia from prehistoric and Masbate. Type sites are caves and rock
times and, in the Philippines at least, is known shelters, generally accessible from the sea.
to exist in certain areas to the present. The Although early Spanish ethnography reports
practice of boat-coffin burial in the Philippines on large boats involving multiple burial, this
was briefly noted in earlier explorations by type of burial has yet to be discovered. For
foreign scholars. However, the first mention of instance, on burial customs among the Bisayans
boat-coffin burial as such appears in Robert B. 'in central Philippines, a late 16th century
Fox's (1963) preliminary report of excavations account states:
in western Palawan. The earliest known
archaeological explorations were conducted In some places they kill slaves and bury them with
by Feodor Jagor and Alfred Marche in the late their masters in order to serve them in the after life;
19th century.. Subsequent discoveries were this practice is carried out to the extent that many
made in the 1920's by American colonial load a ship with more than sixty slaves, fill it up with
food and drink, place the dead on board, and the
officials followed by more systematic surveys
entire vessel including the live slaves are buried in the
such as the University of Michigan expedition earth (Quirino and Garcia 1958: 415-516).
headed by Carl Guthe and the explorations of
H. Otley Beyer, the pioneer anthropologist/
archaeologist of the Philippines (see Marche Again, in the island of Bohol, it is said of a
1970; Guthe 1929 and Beyer 1947). chief that he "had himself buried in a kind of
Previous to the present study the distribution boat, which the natives call barangay, surround?
of boat-coffin burial in the Philippines had not ed by seventy slaves with arms, amunition, and
been seriously considered. Neither has interest food - just as he was wont to go out upon his
been sufficient enough to relate it to similar raids and robberies when in life (Blair and
practices already reported elsewhere in South? Robertson 40: 80-81)." In the Rejang River
east Asia and Oceania (Doerr 1935; Vroklage area of Sarawak, Borneo, where the idea of a
1936). In the mid 60's, simultaneous researches soul boat exists, certain structures for the repo?
were carried out by the National Museum and sitory of the dead are built.. One type consists
the University of San Carlos in Cebu City on of a pillar or pillars into which niches are carved
boat-coffin burial per se. The National Museum for the bodies of slaves and followers. In a

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 20 PHILIPPINE QUARTERLY OF CULTURE & SOCIETY

hollow at the top is the jar which contains the overlapping of the widespread belief that the
bones of the chief (Roth 1968: 146- 150). final journey of the soul cannot be effected
Typologically, there are two kinds of burials: until all the flesh has been removed from the
primary and secondary burial. In the first type bones.
the burial was made in wooden boat-coffin, if The traditional boat-coffin later came to be
not an actual boat, and laid in a cave or rock replaced by a simple wooden coffin, cist grave,
shelter. Early ethnographic reports are not con? or jar. In Celebes, for instance, stone cist-graves
fined to descriptions of multiple burial. In? are known as kalamba, meaning boat, while
stances of individual burials in boat-coffin are ordinary coffins carry the name bangka, another
also mentioned. One account states that when term they use for boat. In central Nias and in
a chief died among the Tagalog "he was placed Sumba, boat terms for wooden coffins and
beneath a little house or porch . . . and after? stone urns are owo and kabang, respectively,
ward laid on a boat which served as coffin or which terms also apply to wooden coffins in
bier (Blair and Robertson 7: 194)" A more Kamera, stone urns in Lamboja and cist graves
graphic description from Cagayan, northern in Wajewa in the Lesser Sundas (cf. Vroklage
Luzon, is given by Quirino and Garcia (1958: 1936: 727 ff.). In the north, in one of the
396): islands of the Ryukyus, people have their
coffins made in advance which they refer to
as their boats (Kokubu and Kaneko 1962:92)..
They bury them in a hole two fathoms deep, four
Generally, the boat-coffin in the Philippines
fathoms long, and a fathom and a half wide, where a
baroto (boat) sawn in half (is buried): the lower half,
is made of two parts (split-log fashion) carved
whole, and the upper (cut) in two pieces like doors; and out of certain species of hard wood. The lower
a wooden piece through the same opening, two mats portion is semi-circular in cross-section, some?
are placed on top and there they put small bits of times provided with perforated side project?
areca nut, lime, betel nut. They put two small blankets ions for lashing the parts together. The lids or
on each side of the deceased. Two tiny plates on each covers are carved like a saddle roof with ends
side. Small jars of oil and other fragrant oils. Two curving upwards. Lizard heads decorate the
trays, one at the head and the other at the foot. Cover?
projecting ends of lids seen in several Bohol
ing everything with earth, and later they build a shelter
and Cebu sites while the crocodile motif is
over the sepulcher.
favored in the Romblon sites. From two
separate sites in Bantayan Island off northern
In secondary burial the skeletal remains, some? Cebu and in a cave in Lamanok Point in Anda,
times only the skull, were reburied either in Bohol, were collected small boat-coffins which
miniature wooden boat-coffins or in jars. In are almost identical in the carving of their
one of the Batungan caves in Masbate, Warren entire covers into stylized representations of
Smith discovered along with a number of a lizard. The average length of boat-coffins
deformed skulls, a skull box carved with for primary burial is two and a quarter meters
crocodile-head handles (Beyer 1947: 264-265). while boat-coffins for secondary burial
In 1881, Alfred Marc he discovered an undis? measure only about ninety centimeters.
turbed secondary boat-coffin/jar burial cave In Niah Cave in Sarawak, Borneo, a "ships
site in Marinduque. Inside he found piles of of-the-dead" chamber was discovered by the
miniature wooden boat-coffins, averaging 90 Harrissons (1958: 586 ff.). Scattered on the
cm in length and, behind these, stoneware jars floor were what, at first, were mistaken for
of probable 12th - 13th century Chinese export ordinary Dayak perahus or river boats.. The
types also containing burials. His discoveries carving on each was a "sabre-toothed dragon or
extended to the fact that multiple secondary tooth-bared crocodile." Against the wall were
burial as well as skull deformation was prac? paintings in red haematite of representations
ticed (Marche 1970: 178-181). In the practice of boats. In a tiny coral islet off the above
of secondary burial in boat-coffins we see an mentioned Lamanok Point site in Anda, Bohol,

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 21

a rock shelter site was discovered by the author among groups which practiced simple in?
which yielded, perhaps, the first prehistoric humation burial; two deformed skulls were pre?
rock painting in the Philippines. This is not to viously collected by Ramas from a similar site
be compared to spectacular paintings which in the island of Mac tan off Cebu City. All the
have been discovered in this part of the world. deformed skulls hitherto collected by this
The paintings discovered in Bohol consisted author were from definite boat-coffin burial
of simple impressions of hands dipped in a sites in Cebu and Bohol. Additional information
mixture of red haematite. Natural concavities on site locations of artificial skull deformation
on the exposed limestone floor still bear can be obtained from Scott (1968:36). It
encrustations of the red mixtures. should be pointed out that the nature of the
Up to the turn of the present century boat geography of the Philippines has not been
coffin burial was known to be in practice among favorable to cultural uniformity either in pre?
the Bagobo of Mindanao. Benedict (1916: 186 historic times or the present (indeed this is also
187) reports that true of Indonesia and mainland Southeast Asia).
Regional isolation resulted in a mosaic of sub?
It was formerly the custom when the datu died to cultures each developing distinctively with
carve the head and lid of his coffin into the shape of a occasional overlapping of one or the other
crocodile's head ... In ordinary burials, a conventional associated trait so that in a given cultural
pattern of lozenges and zigzags made from strips of red phase, say, the late Iron Age, contemporaneous
or white cotton cloth is tacked on the black cloth that
groups with different burial traditions (e. g.
covers the sides and lid of the box, thus producing a
jar burial, boat burial, simple inhumation burial
highly schematic representation that is called buaya,
or crocodile. and, perhaps, even cremation burial) practiced
cranial deformation as well.
In the Philippine type of deformation the
It should be mentioned that the crocodile motif
anomaly is invariably situated in the frontal
was also used among the Bagobo to ward off
bone. It is fortunate that we are provided a
evil spirits. In the Kinabatangan River area,
partial explanation of the practice through
North Borneo, boat-coffins with buffalo and
analogy. The Melanaus of Sarawak, Borneo,
lizard or crocodile designs were discovered by
have kept the traditional concept of a soul
C. V. Creagh (Roth 1968: ccxi) who gave the
boat in connection with burial and, in addition,
following explanation:
are also known to practice cranial deformation.
Coffins ornamented with protruding heads of buffa?
The following is a graphic description by Aik
loes or cows contained male skeletons, while figures of man (Harrisson 1959:85-86):
snakes, lizards, and crocodiles appeared to be used for
the decoration of those of the women and children.

Among the female Melanaus a concave forehead was

Due to the extremely disturbed condition of considered a sign of beauty and steps were taken to
insure that the girls should conform to this ideal of
the sites investigated by this author, it has not
Melanau beauty. While still in infancy the bones of the
been possible to make analysis along the same skull are subjected to pressure by means of an
lines. Of the known boat-coffin sites, at least ingenious instrument known as jah or api. This instru?
seventeen have established association of ment consists of a piece of hardwood about 2 ft long
artificial cranial deformation. Skull deform? having holes bored through each end. First a cloth
ation, however, does not appear to belong covered weight is placed on the baby's forehead and on
exclusively to groups which practiced boat top of this weight is the hardwood jah. This is fixed
to the infant's head by a cord extending through the
burial. From a privately dug 13th-14th century
holes at each end of the piece of wood and passing
site in Liloan, Cebu, the author in company behind the head. The cords ... are tightened by means
with Leonisa L. Ramas and Margaret Sullivan, of screws.
was able to collect five deformed skulls.
Apparently the practice was also widespread

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 22 PHILIPPINE QUARTERLY OF CULTURE & SOCIETY

Quoting from reports Roth (1968: 79-80) of useful metrical recordings that can be ob?
gives similar descriptions of the practice among tained from the skull, cranial indices being
the Melanaus: of least value. Brothwell (1965) may be referred
to for more information.
It is considered a sign of beauty to have a flat fore?
There are at least three interpretations for
head, and although chiefly practiced on female child? the ritual use of the boat in Southeast Asia:
ren, boys are occasionally treated in the same manner. .
. . I have often watched the tender solicitude of the as a means by which spirits of diseases are
mother who has eased and tightened the instrument exorcised; as the shaman's vehicle in his search
twenty times in an hour, as the child showed signs of for the patient's soul; and its use in connection
suffering . . . Before the child is twelve months old the with the death ritual (Eliade 1964: 356 ff..).
desired effect is generally produced, and is not al? Since we are more concerned with the uses of
together displeasing. the boat in connection with shamanism and
the death ritual, we shall dispense with its use
In another report it is said that in the first category. Among contemporary
marginal cultures in central and Southeast
Asia which practice shamanism with strong
the tadal (same as the jah) ... is only placed on the cosmic orientation, the boat has become either
child's head during the time that it is asleep ... Its
use is first commenced when the infant is fifteen days a symbol for the cosmic axis or a substitute
old, and is continued until the third or fourth month. for the shamanic vehicle or the psychopomp.
In the early stages only very slight pressure is applied, According to Eliade (1964:357) the idea of the
but gradually it becomes more and more severe. Only use of the boat as a shamanic vehicle was an
female children have heads flattened in this way. Indonesian innovation of the shamanic tech?
nique of celestial ascent. Thus among the Sea
In archaeological context the only parallel Dayak when the shaman treats a sick person,
of skull deformation known to this author is a it is believed that her soul goes up to the roof
of the house and calls for her boat which is the
single specimen from an urn burial in Anjar, west
Java (Heekeren 1956:200). Preliminary analysis rainbow (Wales 1957: 90-91). The Ngadju
of the deformed skulls collected by this author Dayak have a map of the afterworld which
shows these to be of the female sex. The shows a soul boat traversing the sky by way of
conclusion was based upon morphological the rainbow while among the East Torajas the
observations following some of the criteria boat itself is interchangeable with the rainbow
for distinguishing sex in skeletal material. (Wales 1957: 98). The rainbow-bridge myth is
Specialists are in agreement that of all the parts familiar in early Philippine ethnography. In his
of the skeleton the pelvic bone yields the most Relation de las Yslas Filipinos written in 1582,
reliable sexing information.. When this is absent Loarca (Blair and Robertson 5: 129 ff.) writes
a degree of reliability can be obtained from on the death practices of the Bisayans: "The
skulls by noting certain features such as: the souls of those who are stabbed to death, eaten
round and sharply defined margins of female by crocodiles, or killed by arrows (honorable
orbits as compared to the relatively low and deaths) go to heaven by way of the arch which
indistinct borders of these in the male; com? is formed when it rains, and become gods ..."
parative thickness of the male vault; pro? Further, it is said that "when the Yligueynes
nounced supraorbital torus of male skulls as (inhabitants of Cebu and Bohol) die, the god
compared to moderate traces of these in the Maguayen carries them to Inferno ... in his
female; relatively slender and gracile zygomatic barangay (boat)." The Tagbanua of Palawan
arches in female skulls; more developedmastoid also believe in a soul boat. According to them
processes in the male and, finally, the general those who die in an epidemic are carried to the
refinement of the female skull as compared sky in ships-of-the-dead (Fox 1970: 114). Like?
to the male in terms of muscle attachments. wise, it is widely believed among the Bilaan
Deformation unfortunately restricts the number of Davao in Mindanao that when the body

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 23

Starts to decay it is time for the soul to sail boat in the ecstatic journeys to the afterworld
away in a boat (Cole 1913:144). either to carry the dead or to search for the
It was previously mentioned that the motifs patient's soul, is manifested by the presence of
the cosmic tree in the shaman's boat. An
most frequently encountered in boat-coffins
excellent illustration may be seen in Wales'
in the Philippines are the lizard and crocodile.
An interesting interpretation of the beast, bird,
(1957:91) figures of Ngadju Dayak boats-of
the-dead.
and fish symbolism in Southeast Asia is given
It has been suggested that boat-coffin burial
by L. G. Loeffler (1966). He states that in the
was a development by riverine and maritime
tripartite view of the universe the underworld
is represented by the fish (alternately, lizard, peoples of Southeast Asia who thought of the
boat alternately with the rainbow as carrying
snake, or crocodile), the present world by the
the souls of the dead to the afterworld (Wales
beast of sacrifice (buffalo, cow, pig, etc.), and
1957:98). As the idea diffused farther to
the sky, by the bird. Alternately, the under?
Oceania it appears that a modification took
world as represented by the fish may also be
place. Here the concept behind the canoe burial
conceived of as prenatal life while the bird
seems to be tied up with memories of distant
symbol relates to the postmortal state. The
migrations and of the subsequent return to the
underworld symbols and the cosmic axis repre?
land of the ancestors. This idea is dramatically
sentations constitute what Raats (1969: 59-64;
demonstrated in the orientation of the corpse
87) calls the "horizon", where earth and sky when this was set out to sea in its canoe coffin:
meet. The role of the boat symbol as an alter?
the feet point to the direction where the
nate to the rainbow is to connect the under? ancestors are believed to have come from
world with the sky world. Since the bird repre?
(Doerr 1935: 746;Vroklage 1936: 755).
sents the sky, the soul boats of the Ngadju Boat-coffin burial in the Philippines is too
Dayak are also shaped like hornbills (Loeffler complex to assign to it a single source of origin.
1966? after A. Steinmann: Das kultische Schiff The types encountered here are the result of
in Indonesien 1941; see also Wales 1957: the convergence of different traditions in the
90-91). Likewise, the Lhota and Konyak Naga
process of diffusion.
bury their dead in hornbill-decorated coffins
which they call boats (Loeffler after J. P. Mills:
The Lhota Nagas, 1922 and H. E. Kaufmann:
Deutsche Naga Hills Expedition 1939). At this
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