ED 74

THE TEACHER AND THE

COMMUNITY,
SCHOOL CULTURE
AND
ORGANIZATIONAL LEADERSHIP
(TaCSCOL)
Dr. Avelino N. Santillan

IMPORTANT DEFINITIONS

1. SOCIETY - large group

of people who live together in
an organized way,
making decisions about how to do things
and sharing the work that needs to be
done. All the people in a country can be
referred to as a society.

2. COMMUNITY - is a social unit (a group

of
living things) with commonality such as
norms, religion, values, customs, or identity.
Communities may share a sense of place
situated in a given geographical area (e.g. a
country, village, town, or neighborhood) or
in
virtual space through communication
platforms.

3. Education - the act or process of

imparting
or acquiring general knowledge, developing
the powers of reasoning and judgment, and
generally of preparing oneself or others
intellectually for mature life.

4. Teacher - is a person who helps students

to acquire knowledge, competence or virtue.
6 PHILOSOPHICAL Empiricism is the philosophy of science that
THOUGHTS emphasizes evidence, especially as
ON EDUCATION discovered in experiments. It is a
fundamental part of the scientific
1. EMPIRICISM method that all hypotheses and theories
John Locke must be tested against observations of the
natural world rather than resting solely on a
John Locke (29 August 1632 – 28 priori reasoning, intuition, or revelation.
October 1704) was an English
philosopher and physician, widely A. John Locke (1632-1704): The Empiricist
regarded as one of the most influential Educator
of Enlightenment thinkers and
commonly known as the "father of Acquire knowledge about the world
liberalism". through the senses – learning by
doing and by interacting with the
Considered one of the first of the British environment
empiricists, following the tradition of
Francis A. John Locke (1632-1704): The Empiricist
Bacon, Locke is equally important to social Educator
contract theory. His work greatly affected
the Simple ideas become more
development of epistemology and political complex through comparison,
philosophy. His writings influenced Voltaire reflection and generalization - the
and Jean-Jacques Rousseau, and many inductive method
Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, as well as
the American Revolutionaries. A. John Locke (1632-1704): The Empiricist
Educator
His contributions to classical republicanism
and liberal theory are reflected in the United Questioned the long traditional
States Declaration of Independence. view that knowledge came
Internationally, Locke’s political-legal exclusively from literary sources,
principles continue to have a profound particularly the Greek and Latin
influence on the theory and practice of classics
limited representative government and the
protection of basic rights and freedoms Reject the philosophy that man has innate
under the rule of law. ideas

EMPIRICISM is a theory that states The beginning of knowledge is through

that knowledge comes only or sensory experience
primarily from sensory experience.
Gives the analogy of the man to a blank
Empiricism emphasizes the role slate or Tabula Rasa
of empirical evidence in the
formation of ideas, rather The two fountains of knowledge are
than innate ideas or traditions. sensation and reflection
There are two kinds of ideas: The Simple religion, anthropology , economics, political
and the Complex Ideas theory,
philosophy, biology, sociology and
There are degrees of knowledge: psychology.

a. Intuitive knowledge He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in

Literature in 1992.
b. Demonstrative knowledge
He was the first person to coin the phrase
c. Sensitive Knowledge “survival of the
fittest”
Other Teachings of John Locke
His works were translated into many other
Opposed the “divine right of kings” theory languages of the
which held that the monarch had the right world including German, Italian, Spanish,
to be an unquestioned and absolute ruler French, Russian,
over his subjects. Japanese and Chinese.

Other Teachings of John Locke This philosophy aims to educate students to

be
Political order should be based upon a useful individuals in society. Utilitarianism
contract between the people and the also
government. targets to secure students holistically in the
future. This implies that students under
People should be educated to govern guidance of this philosophy should be
themselves intelligently and responsibly flexible
(Ornstein, 1984) and adaptive on to different environment
he/she may face in the future.
Other Teachings of John Locke
Spencer also introduced the statement
Aristocrats are not destined by birth to be “Survival
rulers. People were to establish their of the Fittest”
government and select their own political
leaders from among themselves; civic Spencer also introduced the statement
education is necessary “Survival of the Fittest”

Survival of the fittest refers to the most

2. UTILITARIANISM adaptable species being able to live and
reproduce.

Herbert Spencer Utilitarianism can be applied in the

Herbert Spencer (1820-1903) English classroom through different activities that
philosopher, biologist will develop students to be useful in the
and sociologist. society.

He highly contributed his expertise Spencer also introduced the statement

knowledge in ethics,
“Survival of the Fittest” “Survival of the fittest” – human
development
Utilitarianism can be applied in the had evolved from simple to complex, from
classroom through different activities uniform to more specialized activity
that will develop students to be useful in
the society. Social development had evolved from
simple
Different simulations can be useful such as homogeneous society to more complex
teaching demonstration or sample job societal systems characterized by humanistic
interview. and classical education.
Activities in classrooms that will improve
interpersonal communication skills B. HERBERT SPENCER – (1820-1903):
(speeches, UTILITARIAN
essays, etc), computer skills, critical EDUCATION
thinking and
problem solving skills can also be used Industrialized society requires vocational
under and
utilitarianism since this will be helpful for professional education based on scientific
the and practical (utilitarian) objectives.
students in the future for them to be adaptive
and Curriculum should emphasize the practical,
useful in the society that we live in utilitarian and scientific subjects that helped
human kind master the environment.
Opposition to Public Schools
B. HERBERT SPENCER – (1820-1903):
Spencer did not believe in the public school UTILITARIAN
system. His EDUCATION
major criticism of the school system was
that it did not Was not inclined to rote learning;
prepare children to live in society. Instead, schooling must be related to life and to
Spencer the activities needed to earn a living.
believed in the private school system which
competed Curriculum must be arranged according
for the brightest student. Because of his to their contribution to human survival
belief in and progress.
competition conflict and struggle Spencer
felt that the B. HERBERT SPENCER – (1820-1903):
most exemplary schools would eventually UTILITARIAN
acquire the EDUCATION
best teachers and students.
Science and other subjects that sustained
B. HERBERT SPENCER – (1820-1903): human life and prosperity should have
UTILITARIAN curricular priority since it aids in the
EDUCATION performance of life activities.

Individual competition leads to social

progress. He who is fittest survives.
(Ornstein, 1984) Graduated from the University of Vermont
in 1879.
Specialized Education vs. General Education
Received PhD in John Hopkins University
To survive in the complex society, Spencer
favors From 1884 to 1894 had a faculty position at
specialized education over that of general the
education. University of Michigan.

The expert who concentrates on a limited Moved to University of Chicago and

field is developed his
useful, but if he loses sight of Pragmatic Philosophy
interdependence of
things he becomes a man who knows more JOHN DEWEY
and
more about less and less. We must be Major Educational Theories:
warned of a
deadly peril of over-specialism. 1. My Pedagogic Creed (1897)

2. The School and the Society (1900)

JOHN DEWEY
3. The Child and the Curriculum (1902)
3. EXPERIENTIAL EDUCATION
“Experiential education is more efficient 4. Democracy and Education (1916)
than passive learning like reading or
listening” 5. Experience and Education (1938)

“Education is not Dewey's Theory of Experiential Education

preparation for life;
education is life itself.” Dewey's thoughts on education, published in
his 1938 work Experience and
John Dewey Education, analyzed
both traditional and progressive education.
EDUC
Traditional education's focus was more on
LIFE curriculum and heritage, defining a student's
learning path for them.
EDUC = LIFE
Dewey's Theory of Experiential Education
JOHN DEWEY
A progressive education focused on the
Born in 1859 in Burlington, Vermont, and student's
died in New interest rather than that of the instructor or
York City in 1952. He was married twice subject. In Dewey's opinion, neither of these
and had 6
children.
schools of thought were sufficient. Dewey John Dewey saw weaknesses in both
believed the traditional and progressive styles of
that traditional education was too strict and education. In essence, he did not
progressive education too spontaneous. He believe that they met the goals of
believed that traditional education left little education.
regard
for the learner's interests and progressive His solution was experiential education
education was too individualized. where
learning occurs through experience and
Dewey's Progressive Outlook requires
hands-on activities that directly relate to the
Traditional education, in its rigid learner's
requirements of standards and conduct, life.
encourages learners to be docile and
obedient, producing an environment In experiential education, learning occurs
where learners are encouraged to listen through
and learn but not necessarily to think for actually doing something and then reflecting
themselves. on- and
learning from- the process. It combines
Dewey's Progressive Outlook active learning
with concrete experience and reflection.
Progressive education provides learners Service
to think and grow but forced them to learning, adventure learning and workplace
enact adult standards, producing an internships are all examples of experiential
environment where learners would be education.
encouraged to think on their own without
understanding the reasoning behind their Dewey's Theory of Experiential Education
thinking.
For an experience to be educational, Dewey
John Dewey expressed his ideas about the believed
need the experience should have continuity and
to have experience as central in the interaction.
educational
process; hence, experiential education is Continuity is the idea that the experience
referred comes from
to as a philosophy. and leads to other experiences, propelling
the person
Dewey criticized public education pointing to learn more.
out
that the authoritarian, strict, pre-ordained Interaction is when the experience meets the
knowledge approach of modern traditional internal
education was too concerned with delivering needs or goals of a person.
knowledge, and not enough with
understanding What is Experiential Education?
students' experiences.
Experiential Education is a philosophy of a theory must be successfully applied. In
education other words,
that describes the process that occurs instrumentalism is a belief that practice and
between a theory are linked.
teacher and student that infuses direct
experience with Dewey applied his pragmatic beliefs to
the learning environment and content. The education, and his ideas
term is not forever changed the landscape of education.
interchangeable with experiential learning. His impact even
earned him the name 'The Modern Father of
Experiential learning is a sub-field and Experiential
operates under Education.'
the methodologies of experiential education.
For experiential education to become
Teacher efficient pedagogy, physical
Student experience must be combined with
reflection.
direct experience
with the learning Dewey taught that experiences should
environment and be valuable and useful. Some
content experiences are merely passive affairs,
pleasant or painful but not educative.
Dewey's Theory of Education
Reflective thinking and the perception of
Dewey also categorizes experiences as relationships arise only in problematical
possibly being situations. As long as our interaction with
mis-educative and non-educative. A mis- our
educative environment is a fairly smooth affair we
experience is one that stops or distorts may
growth for think of nothing or merely daydream, but
future experiences. A non-educative when
experience is this untroubled state of affairs is disrupted
one in which a person has not done any we
reflection have a problem which must be solved before
and so has obtained nothing for mental the
growth that is untroubled state can be restored.
lasting.
Experiential education informs many
John Dewey and Experiential Education educational
practices underway in schools (formal
John Dewey was the founder of a theory he education) and
referred to as out-of-school (informal & nonformal
instrumentalism, also called pragmatism. education)
programs. Many teaching methods rely on
Instrumentalists believe that in order to be experiential education to provide context
considered correct, and
frameworks for learning through action and Sandwich degrees involve a year working in
reflection industry during
while others at higher levels (university and academic study.
professional education) focus on field skills
and ROLE OF CURRICULUM
modeling. Examples of specific methods are
outlined Deliver knowledge while also taking into
below. account the interests and
experiences of the student.
Outdoor education uses organized learning
activities He rejected curriculum-centered view of
that occur in the outdoors, and uses education rather than
environmental student-centered curriculum.
experiences as a learning tool.
Active curriculum should be integrated,
Service learning is a combination of rather than divided into
community subject matter segments.
service with stated learning goals, relying on
experience as the foundation for meaning. Flexible and changeable according to child’s
interest.
Cooperative learning alters homogeneous
groupings Reflect social life and social activities.
in order to support diverse learning styles
and needs George Counts
within a group. 4. Building a New Social
Order GEORGE COUNTS
Active learning, a term popular in US “DARE THE SCHOOL BUILD NEW
education circles in the SOCIAL ORDER?”
1980s, encourages learners to take
responsibility for their Born and raised in Baldwin, Kansas. His
learning, requiring their experience in family was Methodist.
education to inform
their process of learning. Finished B.A. from Baker University in
1911 with a degree in
Environmental education is based in classical studies.
educating learners
about relationships within the natural A high school math and science teacher, an
environment and how athletic coach, and
those relationships are interdependent. principal before beginning postgraduate
Students participate studies in education at
in outdoor activities as part of their learning the University of Chicago in 1913, at the age
experience. of 24.

Vocational education involves training for After receiving a Ph.D. degree with honors,
an occupation. Counts taught
University of Delaware as head of the tended towards the status quo, including the
department of education. preservation of
an unjust distribution of wealth and power.
GEORGE COUNTS
Counts's educational philosophy was also an
Taught educational sociology at Harris outgrowth of John Dewey's philosophy.
Teachers College in St. Both
Louis, Missouri (1918–1919), secondary men believed in the enormous potential of
education at the education to improve society and that
University of Washington (1919–1920), and schools should reflect life rather than be
education at Yale isolated from it.
University (1920–1926) and at the
University of Chicago But unlike Dewey's Public and Its Problems,
(1926–1927). much of Counts's writing suggests a plan of
action in the use of schools to fashion a new
For nearly 30 years, Counts taught at social order.
Teachers College,
Columbia University in New York (1927– BUILDING A NEW SOCIAL ORDER
1956). After being
required to retire at the age of 65 from Education is not based on eternal truths but
Teachers College, is relative to a
Counts taught at the University of Pittsburgh particular society living at a given time and
(1959), Michigan place.
State University (1960), and Southern
Illinois University By allying themselves with groups that want
(1962–1971). to change society,
schools should cope with social change that
Counts was interested in the study of social arises from the
conditions and technology.
problems and their relationship to education.
Heavily Instruction should incorporate a content of a
influenced by Albion Small and other socially-useful
Chicago sociologists, nature and a problem-solving methodology.
Counts saw in sociology the opportunity to Students are
examine and encouraged to work on problems that have
reshape schools by considering the impact of social significance.
social forces
and varied political and social interests on There is a cultural lag between material
educational progress and social
practice. institutions and ethical values.

Because schools were run by the capitalist “The Egyptians had their horses. Modern
class who wielded man has his
social and economic power, Counts argued, jets but today it is still the same moral
school practices problems that
plague humankind.”
Indeed with science and technology, we . . . . humankind has moved from an
have become agricultural and rural
powerful yet powerless. We have conquered society to an urban and technological
a number society. There is a
of diseases and even postponed death for serious lag in cultural adaptation to the
many, we realities of a
have conquered aging, the planets, the seas technological society. Humankind has yet to
but we reconstruct its
have not conquered ourselves. values in order to catch up with changes in
the technological
BUILDING A NEW SOCIAL ORDER order, and organized education has a major
role to play in
Schools become instrument for social reducing the gap between the values of the
improvement rather culture and
than an agency for preserving the status quo. technology. (Ornstein, 1984)

Teachers should lead society rather than So the Social Recontructionist Asserts that
follow it. Teachers School Should:
are agents of change.
Critically examine present culture and
Teachers are called to make important resolve inconsistencies, controversies and
choices in the conflicts to build a new society not just
controversial areas of economics, politics change society.
and morality
because if they failed to do so, others would Do more than reform the social and
make the educational status quo. It should seek to
decisions for them. create new society.

Schools ought to provide an education that So the Social Recontructionist Asserts that
afford equal School Should:
learning opportunities to all students.
The only legitimate goal of a truly human
5. SOCIAL education is to create a world order in which
RECONSTRUCTIONISM people are in control of their own destiny.

THEODORE BRAMELD In an era of nuclear weapons, the social

reconstructionists see an urgent need for
SOCIAL society
RECONSTRUCTIONISM to reconstruct itself before it destroys itself.
(Ornstein, A. 1984)
is a philosophy that
emphasizes the reformation of So the Social Recontructionist Asserts that
society. School Should:

The social reconstructionists contend that: Technological era is an era of

interdependence and so education must teaching especially as an academic subject
be international in scope for global or
citizenship. theoretical concept.

Education is designed “to awaken students’ CRITICAL PEDAGOGY AND

consciousness about social problems and to DIALOGUE VERSUS
engage them actively in problem solving. THE BANKING MODEL OF
EDUCATION
So the Social Recontructionist Asserts that
School Should: Paulo Freire, a critical theorist, like social
reconstructionists, believed that systems
Social reconstructionists are firmly must be
committed to changed to overcome oppression and
equality or equity in both society and improve human
education. conditions.
Barriers of socio-economic class and racial
discrimination should be eradicated. Education and literacy are vehicles for social
change. In
They also emphasize the idea of an his view, humans must learn to resist
interdependent world. The quality of life oppression and not
needs become its victims, nor oppress others. To
to be considered and enhanced on a global do so requires
basis. dialogue and critical consciousness, the
development of
Comments: awareness to overcome domination and
oppression.
Like John Dewey and George Counts,
Brameld CRITICAL PEDAGOGY AND
believe in active problem-solving as the DIALOGUE VERSUS
method THE BANKING MODEL OF
of teaching and learning, EDUCATION

Social reconstructionists are convinced that Rather than “teaching as banking”, Freire
education is not a privilege of the few but a saw teaching and
right to be enjoyed by all. learning as a process of inquiry in which the
child must invent
Education is a right that all citizens and reinvent the world.
regardless of
race and social status must enjoy. Teachers must not see themselves as the sole
possessors of
PAULO FREIRE (1921 – 1997) knowledge and their students as empty
receptacles. He calls
6. CRITICAL this pedagogical approach the “banking
PEDAGOGY method” of education.

Pedagogy – is the method and practice of

A democratic relationship between the
teacher and her A democratic relationship between the
students is necessary in order for the teacher and her students is necessary in
conscientization process order for the conscientization process to
to take place. take place.

CRITICAL PEDAGOGY AND Freire’s critical pedagogy is

DIALOGUE VERSUS problem-posing education.
THE BANKING MODEL OF
EDUCATION CRITICAL PEDAGOGY AND
DIALOGUE VERSUS
Freire’s critical pedagogy is problem-posing THE BANKING MODEL OF
education. EDUCATION

A central element of Freire’s pedagogy is A central element of Freire’s pedagogy is

dialogue. It is love dialogue. It
and respect that allow us to engage people in is love and respect that allow us to engage
dialogue and people in
to discover ourselves in the process and dialogue and to discover ourselves in the
learn from one process and
another. learn from one another.

Dialogue is the basis for critical and Dialogue is the basis for critical and
problem-posing problem-posing
pedagogy, as opposed to banking education, pedagogy, as opposed to banking education,
where there is where
no discussion, only the imposition of the there is no discussion, only the imposition of
teacher’s ideas on the
the students. teacher’s ideas on the students.

CRITICAL PEDAGOGY AND

DIALOGUE VERSUS
THE BANKING MODEL OF
EDUCATION

Teachers must not see themselves

as the sole possessors of knowledge
and their students as empty
receptacles. He calls this
pedagogical approach the “banking
method” of education.

CRITICAL PEDAGOGY AND

DIALOGUE VERSUS
THE BANKING MODEL OF
EDUCATION