III.

CONTROL VOLUME RELATIONS FOR FLUID ANALYSIS

From consideration of hydrostatics, we now move to problems involving fluid

flow with the addition of effects due to fluid motion, e.g. inertia and convective
mass, momentum, and energy terms.

We will present the analysis based on a control volume (not differential element)
formulation, e.g. similar to that used in Thermodynamics for the First Law.

Basic Conservation Laws:

Each of the following basic conservation laws is presented in its most

fundamental, fixed mass form. We will subsequently develop an equivalent
expression for each law that includes the effects of the flow of mass, momentum,
and energy (as appropriate) across a control volume boundary. These transformed
equations will be the basis for the control volume analyses developed in this
chapter.

Conservation of Mass:
Defining m as the mass of a fixed mass system, the mass for a control volume
V is given by:

m sys = ∫ ρ dV
sys

The basic equation for conservation of mass is then expressed as:

The time rate of change of mass for

dm  the control volume is zero since at
=0 this point we are still working with
dt  sys
a fixed mass system.

Linear Momentum:

Defining Psys as the linear momentum of a fixed mass, the linear momentum
of a fixed mass control volume is given by:

III-1
III-2
 Psys = mV = ∫ V ρ dV
sys

where: V is the local fluid velocity and dV is a differential volume element

in the control volume.

The basic linear momentum equation is then written as:

dP  d (mV)
∑F = = 
dt  sys dt  sys

Moment of Momentum:

Defining H as the moment of momentum for a fixed mass, the moment of

momentum for a fixed mass control volume is given by:

Hsys = ∫ r × V ρ dV
sys

where r is the moment arm from an inertial coordinate system to the

differential control volume of interest. The basic equation is then written as:

dH 
∑ M sys = ∑r ×F =
dt  sys

Energy:

Defining E sys as the total energy of an element of fixed mass, the energy of a
fixed mass control volume is given by:

Esys = ∫ e ρ dV
sys

III-3
 where e is the total energy per unit mass ( includes kinetic, potential, and
internal energy ) of the differential control volume element of interest.

The basic equation is then written as:

d E
Q! − W! =  (Note: written on a rate basis)
d t  sys

It is again noted that each of the conservation relations as previously written

apply only to fixed, constant mass systems.

However, since most fluid problems of importance are for open systems, we
must transform each of these relations to an equivalent expression for a control
volume which includes the effect of mass entering and/or leaving the system.

This is accomplished with the Reynolds Transport Theorem.

Reynolds Transport Theorem

We define a general, extensive property (an extensive property depends on the

size or extent of the system), B sys , where:

Bsys = ∫ β ρ dV
sys

Bsys could be total mass, total energy, total momentum, etc. of a system.

dB
and B sys per unit mass is defined as β or β=
dm

Thus, β is therefore the intensive equivalent of B sys

Applying a general control volume formulation to the time rate of change of

Bsys , we obtain the following (see text for detailed development):

III-4
 dB  ∂
= ∫ β ρ dV + ∫ β e ρ e Ve dA e − ∫ β i ρ i Vi dA i
dt  sys ∂t cv Ae Ai

↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
System rate Rate of Rate of B Rate of B
of change change of leaving c.v. entering c.v.
of B B in c.v.
↓ ↓
transient term convective terms
where: B is any conserved quantity, e.g. mass, linear momentum, moment of
momentum, or energy.

We will now apply this theorem to each of the basic conservation equations to
develop their equivalent open system, control volume forms.

Conservation of Mass

For conservation of mass, we have that:

B = m and β =1
From the previous statement of conservation of mass and these definitions,
Reynolds Transport Theorem becomes:

dm  ∂
= ∫ ρ dV +
dt  sys ∂t cv
∫ ρ e Ve ⋅ dA e − ∫ ρ i Vi ⋅ dA i =0
Ae Ai

or
∂
∫ ρ dV +
∂ t cv
∫ ρe Ve ⋅ dA e − ∫ ρ i Vi ⋅ dA i =0
Ae Ai

↓ ↓ ↓
Rate of change Rate of mass Rate of mass
of mass in c.v., leaving c.v., entering c.v.,
↓ ↓ ↓
= 0 for steady-state m! e m! i

III-5
This can be simplified to

d m
 + ∑ m! e − ∑ m! i = 0
d t cv

Note that the exit and inlet velocities, Ve and Vi, are the local components of
fluid velocities at the exit and inlet boundaries relative to an observer
standing on the boundary. Therefore, if the boundary is moving, the velocity
is measured relative to the boundary motion. The location and orientation of a
coordinate system for the problem is not considered in determining these
velocities.

Also, the result of Ve ⋅ dA e and Vi ⋅ dA i is the product of the normal

velocity component times the flow area at the exit or inlet, e.g.

Ve,n dA e and
Vi,n dA i

Special Case: For incompressible flow with a uniform velocity over the flow
area, the previous integral expressions simplify to:

m! = ∫ ρ V d A = ρ AV

Conservation of Mass Example

Water at a velocity of 7 m/s exits a

stationary nozzle with D = 4 cm and is
directed toward a turning vane with θ = 40û,
assume steady-state.

Determine:
a. Velocity and flow rate entering the c.v.
b. Velocity and flow rate leaving the c.v.

III-6
 !
a. Find V1 and m

Recall that the mass flow velocity is the normal component of velocity
measured relative to the inlet or exit area.

Thus, relative to the nozzle, V(nozzle) = 7 m/s and since there is no relative
motion of point 1 relative to the nozzle, we also have V1 = 7 m/s ans.

From the previous equation:

m! = ∫ ρ V d A = ρ AV = 998 kg/m3*7 m/s*π*.042/4

m! 1 = 8.78 kg/s ans.

!2
b. Find V2 and m

Determine the flow rate first.

Since the flow is steady state and no mass accumulates on the vane:

m! 1 = m! 2 , m! 2 = 8.78 kg/s ans.

Now: m! 2 = 8.78 kg/s = ρ A V)2

Since ρ and A are constant, V2 = 7 m/s ans.

Key Point: For steady flow of a constant area, incompressible stream, the
flow velocity and total mass flow are the same at the inlet and exit, even
though the direction changes.
or alternatively:
Flexible Hose Concept: For steady flow of an incompressible fluid, the
flow stream can be considered as an incompressible, flexible hose and if it
enters a c.v. at a velocity of V, it exits at a velocity of V, even if it is
redirected.

III-7
 Problem Extension:

Let the turning vane (and c.v.) now

move to the right at a steady velocity of
2 m/s (other values remain the same),
perform the same calculations.

Therefore:

Given: Uc = 2 m/s VJ = 7 m/s

For an observer standing at the c.v. inlet (point 1)

V1 = VJ – Uc = 7 – 2 = 5 m/s

m! 1 = ρ1 V1 A1 = 998 kg/m3*5 m/s*π*.042/4 = 6.271 kg/s

Note: The inlet velocity used to specify the mass flow rate is again
measured relative to the inlet boundary, but now is given by VJ – Uc .

Exit:
m! 1 = m! 2 = 6.271 kg/s, Again, since ρ and A are cons., V2 = 5 m/s

Again, the exit flow is most easily specified by conservation of mass

concepts.

Note: The coordinate system could have been placed either on the moving
cart or have been left off the cart with no change in the results.
Key Point: The location of the coordinate system does not affect the
calculation of mass flow rate which is calculated relative to the
flow boundary. It could have been placed at Georgia Tech
with no change in the results.
Review material and work examples in the text on conservation of mass.

III-8
Linear Momentum
For linear momentum, we have that:

B = P = mV and β =V
From the previous statement of linear momentum and these definitions,
Reynolds Transport Theorem becomes:

d mV 
∑F =  = ∂ ∫ Vρ dV + ∫ Vρ e Ve ⋅ dA e − ∫ V ρ i Vi ⋅ dA i
dt  sys ∂ t cv Ae Ai

or
∂
∑F = ∫ V ρ dV + ∫ V d m! e − ∫ V d m! i
∂ t cv Ae Ai
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
= the ∑ of the = the rate of = the rate of = the rate of
external forces change of momentum momentum
acting on the c.v. momentum leaving the entering the c.v.
in the c.v. c.v.
↓ ↓
= body + point + = 0 for
distributed, e.g. steady-state
(pressure) forces
and where V is the vector momentum velocity relative to an inertial reference
frame.

Key Point: Thus, the momentum velocity has magnitude and direction and
is measured relative to the reference frame (coordinate system) being used for
the problem. The velocity in the mass flow terms, m Ýi and mÝe ,is a scalar, as
noted previously, and is measured relative to the inlet or exit boundary.

Always clearly define a coordinate system and use it to specify the value of all
inlet and exit momentum velocities when working linear momentum problems.

III-9
For the 'x' direction, the previous equation becomes:

∂
∑ Fx = ∫ Vx ρ d V + ∫ Vx,e d m! e − ∫ Vx,i d m! i
∂ t cv Ae Ai

Note that the above equation is also valid for control volumes moving at
constant velocity with the coordinate system placed on the moving control
volume. This is because an inertial coordinate system is a non - accelerating
coordinate system which is still valid for a c.s. moving at constant velocity.

Example:

A water jet 4 cm in diameter with a velocity

of 7 m/s is directed to a stationary turning
vane with θ = 40û. Determine the force, F,
necessary to hold the vane stationary.

Governing Equation:
∂
∑ Fx = ∫ Vx ρ d V + ∫ Vx,e d m! e − ∫ Vx,i d m! i
∂ t cv Ae Ai

Since the flow is steady and the c.v. is stationary, the time rate of change of
momentum within the c.v. is zero. Also, with uniform velocity at each inlet
and exit and a constant flow rate, the momentum equation becomes:

− Fb = m! e Ve − m! i Vi

Note that the braking force, Fb, is written as negative since it is assumed to be
in the negative “x” direction relative to positive ‘x’ from the coordinate system.

III-10
 From the previous example for conservation of mass, we can again write:

m! = ∫ ρ V d A = ρ AV = 998 kg/m3*7 m/s*π*.042/4

m! 1 = 8.78 kg/s and V1 = 7 m/s

and for the exit:

m! 2 = 8.78 kg/s and V2 = 7 m/s inclined 40û above the hoizontal

Substituting in the momentum equation, we obtain:

-Fb = 8.78 kg/s * 7 m/s *cos 40û - 8.78 kg/s * 7 m/s

2
and -Fb = - 14.4 kg m/s or Fb = 14.4 N ← ans.

Note: Since our final answer is positive, our original assumption of the
applied force being to the left was correct. Had we assumed that the
applied force was to the right, our answer would be negative, meaning
that the direction of the applied force is opposite of what was assumed.

Modified Problem:
Now consider the same problem but with
the cart moving to the right with a
velocity, Uc, = 2 m/s. Again solve for the
value of braking force, Fb, necessary to
maintain a constant cart velocity of 2 m/s.

Note: The c.s. for the problem has now

been placed on the moving cart. The
momentum velocities will be evaluated
relative to this coordinate system located
on the moving cart.

III-11
 The transient term in the momentum equation is still zero. With the coordinate
system on the cart, the momentum of the cart relative to the coordinate system
is still zero. The fluid stream is still moving relative to the coordinate system,
however, the flow is steady with constant velocity and the time rate of change
of momentum of the fluid stream is therefore also zero. Thus:

The momentum equation has the same form as for the previous problem
(however, the value of individual terms will be different).

− Fb = m! e Ve − m! i Vi

m! 1 = ρ1 V1 A1 = 998 kg/m3*5 m/s*π*.042/4 = 6.271 kg/s = m! 2

Now determine the momentum velocity at the inlet and exit. With the c.s. on
the moving c.v., the values of momentum velocity are

V1 = VJ – Uc = 7 – 2 = 5 m/s and V2 = 5 m/s inclined 40û .

The momentum equation ( “x” direction ) now becomes:

-Fb = 6.271 kg/s * 5 m/s *cos 40û - 6.271 kg/s * 5 m/s

2
and -Fb = - 7.34 kg m/s or Fb = 7.34 N ← ans.

Question: What would happen to the braking force, Fb, if the turning angle
had been > 90û, e.g. 130û? Can you explain based on your understanding of
change in momentum for the fluid stream?

Review and work examples for linear momentum with fixed and non -
accelerating (moving at constant velocity) control volumes.

Accelerating Control Volume

The previous formulation applies only to inertial coordinate systems, i.e. fixed
or moving at constant velocity (non-accelerating).

III-12
 We will now consider problems with accelerating control volumes. For these
problems we will again place the coordinate system on the accelerating control
volume thus making it a non-inertial coordinate system.
For coordinate systems placed on an accelerating control volume, we must
account for the acceleration of the c.s. by correcting the momentum equation
for this acceleration. This is accomplished by including the term as shown
below:

∂
∑F − ∫ acv d mcv = ∫V ρ d V + ∫ V d m! e − ∫ V d m! i
cv ∂ t cv Ae Ai
↓
integral sum of
the local c.v. (c.s.)
accel. * the c.v. mass
The added term accounts for the acceleration of the control volume and allows
the problem to be worked with the coordinate system placed on the accelerating
c.v.

Note: Thus, all vector (momentum) velocities are then measured relative to an
observer (coordinate system) on the accelerating control volume. For example,
the velocity of a rocket as seen by an observer (c.s.) standing on the rocket is
zero and the time rate of change of momentum is zero in this reference frame
even if the rocket is accelerating.
Accelerating Control Volume Example

A turning vane with θ = 60û accelerates

from rest due to a jet of water
(VJ = 35 m/s, AJ = .003 m2 ). Assuming
the mass of the cart, mc, is 75 kg and
neglecting drag and friction effects,
find:

a. Cart acceleration at t = 0.

III-13
b. Uc f(t)

III-14
Starting with the general equation shown above, we can make the following
assumptions:

1. ∑ Fx = 0, no friction or body forces.

2. The jet has uniform velocity and constant properties.
3. The entire cart accelerates uniformly over the entire control volume.
4. Neglect the relative momentum change of the jet stream that is within the
control volume.
With these assumptions, the governing equation simplifies to:
Ýe U x,e - m
- ac mc = m ÝU
i x,i
We thus have terms that account for the acceleration of the control volume, for
the exit momentum, and for the inlet momentum (both of which change with
time).

mass flow:
As with the previous example for a moving control volume, the mass flow terms
are given by:

m! i = m! e = m! = ρ AJ (VJ – Uc)

Note that since the cart accelerates, Uc is not a constant, but rather changes with
time.

momentum velocities:

Ux,i= VJ - Uc Ux,e = (VJ - Uc ) cos θ

Substituting, we now obtain:

2
- ac mc = ρ AJ (VJ – Uc) cos θ - ρ AJ (VJ – Uc)

Solving for the cart acceleration, we obtain:

ρ AJ (1 − cos θ ) (VJ − Uc )
2

ac =
mc

III-15
Substituting for the given values at t = 0, i.e. Uc = 0, we obtain:
2
ac (t = 0) = 24.45 m/s = 2.49 g’s

Note: The acceleration at any other time can be obtained once the cart
velocity, Uc, at that time is known.

To determine the equation for cart velocity as a function of time, the equation
for the acceleration must be written in terms of Uc(t) and integrated.

dUc ρ AJ (1 − cosθ )(VJ −Uc )

2

=
dt mc

Separating variables, we obtain:

ρ AJ (1 − cosθ )
Uc (t ) t
dUc
∫ = ∫ dt
0 (VJ − U c )2 0 mc

Completing the integration and rearranging the terms, we obtain a final

expression of the form:

Uc V bt ρ AJ (1 − cosθ )
= J where b=
VJ 1 + VJ b t mc

-1
Substituting for known values, we obtain: VJ b = .699 s

Thus, the final equation for Uc is give by:

Uc 0.699 t
=
VJ 1+0.699t

III-16
 The final results are now given as shown below:

t Uc/VJ Uc ac Uc vs t
(s) (m/s) (m/s2)
0 0.0 0.0 24.45 35

2 .583 20.0 4.49 30

5 .757 27.2 1.22 25

10 .875 30.6 0.39 20

15 .912 31.9 .192 15

∞ 1.0 35 0.0 10

5
0
0 5 10 15 20

t(s)

Note that the limiting case occurs when the cart velocity reaches the jet
velocity. At this point, the jet can impart no more momentum to the cart, the
acceleration is now zero, and the terminal velocity has been reached.

Review text example on accelerating control volumes.

Moment of Momentum (angular momentum)

For moment of momentum we have that:

B = H = r x(mV ) and β = r xV

From the previous equation for moment of momentum and these definitions,
Reynolds Transport Theorem becomes:

III-17
 ∂
∑M = ∫ r xV ρ d V + ∫ r x V d m! e − ∫ r x V d m! i
∂ t cv Ae Ai
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
= the ∑ of all = the rate of = the rate of = the rate of
external change of mom- moment of moment of
moments ent of momentum momentum momentum
acting in the c.v. = 0 leaving entering
on the c.v. for steady state the c.v. the c.v.

For the special case of steady-state, steady-flow and uniform properties at any
exit or inlet, the equation becomes:

∑ M = ∑ m! e r x V e − ∑ m! i r xVi

For moment of momentum problems, we must be careful to correctly evaluate

the moment of all applied forces and all inlet and exit momentum flows, with
particular attention to the signs.

Moment of Momentum Example:

A small lawn sprinkler operates as

indicated. The inlet flow rate is 9.98
kg/min with an inlet pressure of 30
kPa. The two exit jets direct flow at
an angle of 40û above the horizontal. 160 mm

For these conditions, determine the

following:
a. jet velocity relative to the nozzle D J = 5 mm
b. torque require to hold the arm
stationary
c. friction torque if the arm is
rotating at 35 rpm
d. maximum rotational speed if we
neglect friction.

III-18
 R = 160 mm, DJ = 5 mm, Therefore, for each of the two jets:
3 3
QJ = 0.5* 9.98 kg/min/998 kg/m = .005 m /min
2 -5 2
AJ = π .0025 = 1.963*10 m
3 -5 2
VJ = .005 m /min / 1.963*10 m /60 sec/min

VJ = 4.24 m/s relative to the nozzle exit ans.

b. torque required to hold the arm stationary

First develop the governing equations and analysis for the general case of the
arm rotating.

rω VJ cos θ
With the coordinate system at the
center of rotation of the arm, a
general velocity diagram for the case R
when the arm is rotating is shown in
the adjacent schematic.
+
ω o

Taking the moment about the center of rotation, the moment of the inlet flow is
zero since the moment arm is zero for the inlet flow.
The basic equation then becomes:

To = 2 m! e R{VJ cos α − R ω}
Note that the net momentum velocity is the difference between the tangential
component of the jet exit velocity and the rotational speed of the arm. Also
note that the direction of positive moments was taken as the same as for VJ and
opposite of the direction of rotation.

For a stationary arm: R ω = 0. We thus obtain for the stationary torque:

III-19
 To = 2 ρ QJ R VJ cos α
3
kg m 1min m
To = 2 * 998 3 .005
o
.16m * 4.24 cos 40
m min 60sec s

To = 0.0864 N m clockwise. ans.

A resisting torque of .0864 Nm must be applied in the clockwise direction to

keep the arm from rotating in the counterclockwise direction.

c. At ω = 30 rpm, calculate the friction torque, Tf

rev rad 1min rad

ω = 30 2π =π
min rev 60sec sec

m 3 1min
.16m  4.24 cos 40o − .16m * π
kg m rad 
To = 2 * 998 3 .005
m min 60sec  s sec 

To = .0685 Nm ans.
Note: The resisting torque decreases as the speed increases.

d. Find the maximum rotational speed.

The maximum rotational speed occurs when the opposing torque is zero and all
the moment of momentum goes to the angular rotation. For this case,

VJ cos θ – Rω = 0

VJ cosθ 4.24m / s •cos 40 rad

ω= = = 20.3 = 193.8 rpm ans.
R .16 m sec

Review material and examples on moment of momentum.

III-20
Energy Equation (Extended Bernoulli Equation)

For energy, we have that

1 2
B = E = ∫ e ρ dV and β = e= u+ V + gz
cv 2

From the previous statement of conservation of energy and these definitions,

Reynolds Transport Theorem becomes

d E ∂
Q! − W! =  = ∫ e ρ d V + ∫ ee ρ eVe ⋅d Ae − ∫ ei ρi Vi ⋅d Ai
d t  sys ∂ t cv cv cv

After extensive algebra and simplification (see text for detailed development),
we obtain

P1 − P2 V22 − V12
= + z 2 − z1 + h f,1-2 + hs
ρg 2g
↓ ↓ ↓ ↓ ↓
Press. drop Press. drop Press. drop Press. drop Press. drop
from 1 – 2, due to due to due to due to
in the flow acceleration elevation frictional mechanical
direction of the fluid change head loss work by fluid

Note: this formulation must be written in the flow direction from 1 - 2 to be

consistent with the sign of the mechanical work term and so that hf,1-2 is always
a positive term. Also note the following:

! The points 1 and 2 must be specific points along the flow path,
! Each term has units of linear dimension, e.g. ft. or meters and z2 – z1 is
positive for z2 above z1.
! The term hf,1-2 is always positive when written in the flow direction and
for internal, pipe flow includes pipe or duct friction losses and fitting or
piping component (valves, elbows, etc.) losses.

III-21
 ! The term hs is negative for pumps and fans, - hp ( i.e. pumps increase the
pressure in the flow direction) and positive for turbines, + ht (turbines
decrease the pressure in the flow direction).
! For pumps:
ws
hp = Where: ws = the useful work per unit mass to the fluid
g

Therefore: ws = g hp and W! f = m! ws = ρ Q g hp

Where: W! f = the useful power delivered to the fluid

W! f
and: W! p = and η p is the pump efficiency
ηp

2
Water flows at 30 ft/s through a
2
1000 ft length of 2 in. diameter pipe.
The inlet pressure is 250 psig and the
exit is 100 ft higher than the inlet.

Assuming that the frictional loss is 100 ft

2
given by 18 V /2g:
1
Determine the exit pressure.
250 psig

Given: V1 = V2 = 30 ft/s, L = 1000 ft, Z2 – Z1 = 100 ft, P1 = 250 psig

Also, since there is no mechanical work in the process, the energy equation
simplifies to:

III-22
 P1 − P2
= Z2 − Z1 + hf
ρg

P1 − P2 30 2 ft 2 / s 2
= 100 ft + 18 = 351.8 ft
ρg 64.4 ft / s 2

3
P1 – P2 = 62.4 lbf/ft 351.8 ft = 21,949 psf = 152.4 psi

P2 = 250 – 152.4 = 97.6 psig ans.

Problem Extension

A pump driven by an electric motor is now added to the system. The motor
delivers 10.5 hp. The flow rate and inlet pressure remain constant and the pump
efficiency is 71.4 %, determine the new exit pressure.
2 2 3
Q = AV = π (1/12) ft * 30 ft/s = 0.6545 ft /s

Wf = ηp Wp= ρ Q g hp

.714 *10.5hp * 550 ft − lbf / s / hp

hp = = 101 ft
62.4lbm / ft 3 * .6545 ft 3 / s

The pump adds a head increase equal to 101 ft to the system and the exit pressure
should increase.

Substituting in the energy equation, we obtain:

P1 − P2 30 2 ft 2 / s 2
= 100 ft + 18 − 101 ft = 250.8 ft
ρg 64.4 ft / s 2

3
P1 – P2 = 62.4 lbf/ft 250.8 ft = 15650 psf = 108.7 psi

P2 = 250 – 108.7 = 141.3 psig ans.

Review examples for the use of the energy equation

III-23
Kinetic Energy Correction Factor
Up to this point, the velocity used in the kinetic energy term of the energy
equation has been the mass average velocity obtained from the definition of flow
rate,

m! = ρ A V

However, since V varies over the flow area and the kinetic energy term varies with
the square of the velocity, using this definition of V may not result in an accurate
evaluation of the kinetic energy term for the flow.
This problem can be corrected through the use of the kinetic energy correction
factor , α , defined for incompressible flow from

1 3 1 3
ρ ∫ u d A = ρ α Vav A
2 2

3
1  u 
Solving for α we obtain α = ∫  dA
A  Vav 

For fully developed laminar flow, α = 2 and for turbulent pipe flow, a value from
1.04 to 1.11. Using the kinetic energy correction factor, the energy equation
becomes

P1 − P2 αV22 − αV12
= + z 2 − z1 + h f,1-2 + hs
ρg 2g

While subsequent analyses and examples in these notes will continue to use the
energy equation omitting the kinetic energy correction factor (α = 1), students are
reminded to used this term where appropriate for pipe flow analyses.

III-24
The Bernoulli Equation

The Bernoulli equation is an equation that is closely related to the energy equation
and is useful in the analysis of many flows. The most common application is for
steady, incompressible, frictionless flow between two points along a stream line.
For these conditions, Bernoulli’s equation becomes

P1 V12 P V2
+ + g z 1 = 2 + 2 + g z 2 = const
ρ 2 ρ 2

where the constant is the same along a specified streamline. Different streamlines
may have different Bernoulli constants. Bernoulli’s equation can also be written
as

P2 − P1 V22 − V12
+ + g(z 2 − z 1 ) = 0
ρ 2

Students must be careful not to misuse Bernoulli’s equation. In particular, do not

use the Bernoulli equation for flows with any or all of the following:

1. friction between points 1 and 2

2. shaft work between points 1 and 2
3. heat transfer between points 1 and 2
4. significant compressibility effects between 1 and 2

Hydraulic and Energy Grade Lines

Hydraulic and energy grade lines are lines that provide a very helpful visual
representation of what is happening to key flow and energy equation parameters
between points in the flow. They are defined as follows:

energy grade line (EGL) - a line that shows the variation of the height of the total
Bernoulli constant,
P V
ho = + 2 +z
ρg 2g

III-25
The EGL has a constant height for steady, frictionless, incompressible flow with
no heat transfer or shaft work.

III-26
For general flows, the EGL will decrease slowly in the direction of flow due to
friction, increase across a pump and decrease across a turbine due to shaft work.

hydraulic grade line (HGL) - a line that shows the variations in the height of the
elevation and pressure head, z + P/γ or the EGL minus the velocity head.
Fig. 3.17 shown below shows hydraulic and energy grade lines for frictionless
flow in a variable area duct. Note that while the EGL remains constant in the
absence of friction, shaft work or heat transfer, the HGL increases in velocity head
in the flow direction.

Fig. 3.17 Hydraulic and energy grade lines for

frictionless flow in a duct

III-27