BULK DEFORMATION

PROCESSES
IN METALWORKING
▪ The commercial and technological importance of bulk
deformation processes derives from the following:

1. When performed as hot working operations, they can achieve

significant change in the shape of the workpart Other
Deformation Processes Related to Forging
2. When performed as cold working operations, they can be used
not only to shape the product, but also to increase its strength.
3. These processes produce little or no waste as a by product of
the operation. Some bulk deformation operations are near net
shape or net shape processes; they achieve final product
geometry with little or no subsequent machining
 BULK DEFORMATION
PROCESSES
IN METALWORKING
▪ The bulk deformation processes covered in this
chapter are :
1. Rolling
2. Forging
3. Extrusion
4. Wire and Bar Drawing
 Four Basic Bulk Deformation
Processes

1. Rolling – slab or plate is squeezed between

opposing rolls
2. Forging – work is squeezed and shaped between
opposing dies
3. Extrusion – work is squeezed through a die opening,
thereby taking the shape of the opening
4. Wire and bar drawing – diameter of wire or bar is
reduced by pulling it through a die opening
 Deformation Processes

▪ Deformation processes are those where the surface area of the

workpiece changes significantly.

▪ Thickness or cross sections are reduced or shapes are changed.

▪ Since the volume of the material remains constant, the other

dimensions must change in proportions.

▪ Thus enveloping surface area is altered, usually increasing as the

product lengthens or the shape become more complex.
 Deformation Processes

Recrystallisation temperature:
The temperature at which distorted grains of a crystal structure are replaced by the new
strain free grains.
OR

The temperature at which 50% recrystallization occurs in one hour.

▪ It depends on melting point and impurities present in metals.
▪ For pure metals, the recrystallization temperature is in the range of approximately 0.3 to 0.4
Tm and for alloys it is in the 0.5 Tm.
▪ Tm is the melting temperature of metal or alloy.

Hot working of metals:

▪ Mechanical working of metals above its recrystallisation temperature is known as hot
working.
Cold working of metals:
▪ Mechanical working of metals below its recrystallisation temperature is known as cold
working.
 Rolling

▪ Rolling is the process of reducing thickness (or changing the cross-

section) of a long workpiece by compressive forces applied through a
set of rolls.

OR

▪ Rolling is plastic deformation of the metal by passing between rolls to

give it the desired shape.
 The Rolls

▪ Rotating rolls perform two main functions:

▪ Pull the work into the gap between them by friction
between workpart and rolls
▪ Simultaneously squeeze the work to reduce its
cross section
 Rolling

▪ Heated metal is passed between two rolls that rotate in opposite directions.

▪ Gap between the rolls being somewhat less than the thickness of the
entering metal.

▪ Rolls rotate with a surface velocity (without slipping) that exceeds the
speed of the incoming metal, friction along the contact interface acts to
propel the metal forward.

▪ Metal is squeezed and elongates to compensate for decrease in cross-

sectional area.
 Rolling

▪ As a result of squeezing the grains are elongated in the direction of

rolling and the velocity of material at exit is higher than that at the
entry.
 Rolling

▪ The amount of deformation that can be achieved in a single pass

between a given pair of rolls depends on the friction conditions along
the interface.

▪ If too much is demanded, the rolls cannot advance the material and
simply skid over its surface.

▪ Too little deformation per pass, however, results in excessive

production cost.
 Rolling

▪ Rolling is classified according to the temperature

of the metal rolled.
▪ If the temperature of the metal is above
its recrystallization temperature, then the process is
termed as hot rolling.
▪ If the temperature of the metal is below its
recrystallization temperature, the process is termed
as cold rolling.
 Rolling

Hot rolling is mainly used to produce sheet metal or simple

cross sections such as railroad bars from billets.
Mechanical properties of the material in its final “as rolled” form
are a function of,
▪ Material chemistry
▪ Reheat temperature
▪ Rate of temperature decrease during deformation
▪ Rate of deformation
▪ Heat of deformation
▪ Total reduction
▪ Recovery time
▪ Recrystallization time
▪ Subsequent rate of cooling after deformation
 Rolling

▪ Hot rolling produces thinner cross sections than cold

rolling with same number of stages.
▪ Hot rolling, due to recrystallization, will reduce the
average grain size of the metal while maintaining an
equiaxed microstructure whereas cold rolling will produce
a hardened microstructure.
▪ The temperature of the metal is generally above its
recrystallization temperature, as opposed to cold rolling,
which takes place below this temperature.
 Rolling

▪ Hot rolling permits large deformations of the metal to be

achieved with low number of rolling cycles.
▪ As the hot rolling process breaks up the grains, they
recrystallize maintaining an equiaxed structure and
preventing the metal from hardening.
▪ Hot rolling is primarily concerned with manipulating
material shape and geometry rather than mechanical
properties.
 Rolling

Rolling temperature:
▪ Temperature control is crucial to the success of the process
in hot working process.
▪ If the temperature is not uniform, the subsequent
deformation will not be uniform.
▪ If the temperate is high the hotter exterior will flow in
preference to the cooler, stronger interior.
▪ If part is removed from furnace and cools prior to working,
the cooler surface tends to resist deformation.
 Rolling
Soaking:
The starting material is heated to uniform
temperature by placing in a furnace and remains for
some time so that it has reached a uniform
temperature and metal will flow consistently during
rolling. The heating operation is called soaking and
the furnaces are called soaking pits.
e.g, for steel the desired temperature is 1200˚ C.
Rolled Products Made of Steel
 Rolling
Bloom:
A bloom has a square or rectangular cross section, with thickness greater than 6 inch
and width no greater than twice the thickness. Blooms are further used to manufacture

• Structural shapes
– I-sections beam, T-sections beams
• Rails
– For railway tracks
• Tube rounds
– Seamless pipes
 Rolling
Billet:

A billet is usually smaller than a bloom and has a square or circular cross section.
Billets are further used to manufacture

• Bars

– Cold drawn bars

• Tube rounds

– Seamless pipes

• Wire rods

– Wires
 Rolling
Slab:

A slab is a rectangular solid where width is greater than twice the thickness.
Slabs can be further rolled to produce
• Plate

– Large diameter pipes

– Submarine and ships parts Bulb plate in ship hulls

• Sheet

– Pipe and tubing

– Automobile bodies

– Foil

• Strip
 Types of Rolling

▪ Based on workpiece geometry

▪ Flat rolling - used to reduce thickness of a rectangular cross section
▪ Shape rolling - square cross section is formed into a shape such as an
I-beam
▪ Rolling based on working temperature
▪ If the temperature of the metal is above its recrystallization
temperature, then the process is termed as hot rolling. Also it can
achieve significant deformation
▪ If the temperature of the metal is below its recrystallization
temperature, the process is termed as cold rolling. It produces sheet
and plate stock
 Flat Rolling:
• This is the most basic type of process.
• It doesn't change the shape of the piece, which is in the shape of a rectangle both when the rolling
starts and finishes.
• This method involves a piece of metal, and two rollers which are called working rolls.
• When the machine is turned on, the rollers move in opposite directions from each other.
• The work piece is then fed into the machine.
• The space in between the two rolls is less than the thickness of the work piece, which makes it
possible for the piece of metal to become thinner and change shape.
• While the work piece goes through the machine, it will also elongate.
• This happens because the material becomes thinner, which requires the excess metal in the work
piece to spread out into more surface area.
• This method yields either thin sheets or plates when it is finished.
 Diagram of Flat Rolling

▪ Side view of flat

rolling, indicating
before and after
thicknesses, work
velocities, angle of
contact with rolls,
and other features
 Flat Rolling Terminology

▪ In flat rolling, the work is squeezed between two rolls so

that its thickness is reduced by an amount called the
Draft
d = t o −t f
▪ Reduction = draft expressed as a fraction of starting
stock thickness:
d
Where, r =
to
d = draft, mm(in)
to = starting thickness, mm(in)
tf = final thickness, mm(in)
r = reduction, mm(in)
 Shape Rolling

▪ Work is deformed into a contoured cross section

rather than flat (rectangular)
▪ Accomplished by passing work through rolls that
have the reverse of desired shape
▪ Products
▪ Construction shapes such as I-beams, L-beams,
and U-channels
▪ Rails for railroad tracks
▪ Round and square bars and rods
▪ Rolling mill for
hot flat rolling
▪ The steel plate
is seen as the
glowing strip in
lower left
corner
 Rolling Mills

▪ Equipment is massive and expensive

▪ Rolling mill configurations:
▪ Two-high – two opposing rolls
▪ Three-high – work passes through rolls in both
directions
▪ Four-high – backing rolls support smaller rolls
▪ Cluster mill – multiple backing rolls on smaller rolls
▪ Tandem rolling mill – sequence of two-high mills
 Rolling

▪ The two-high configuration can be either reversing or nonreversing.

▪ In the nonreversing mill, the rolls always rotate in the same direction, and the work
always passes through from the same side.
▪ The reversing mill allows the direction of roll rotation to be reversed, so that the work
can be passed through in either direction. This permits a series of reductions to be made
through the same set of rolls, simply by passing through the work from opposite
directions multiple times.
▪ The disadvantage of the reversing configuration is the significant angular momentum
possessed by large rotating rolls and the associated technical problems involved in
reversing the direction.
 Rolling

▪ In the 3-high mill , there are three rolls in a vertical

column, and the direction of rotation of each roll remains
unchanged. The 3-high mill eliminates the need for roll
reversal but requires some form of elevator on each side of
mill to raise or lower the material and mechanical
manipulators to turn or shift the products between passes.
 Rolling

▪ 4-high and cluster arrangements use backup rolls to

support the smaller work rolls. These are used in hot
rolling of wide plates and sheets and in cold rolling.
 Rolling

▪ Owing to the high roll forces, these smaller rolls would deflect elastically between
their end bearings as work passes through unless the larger backing rolls were used to
support them. Another roll configuration that allows smaller working rolls against the
work is the cluster rolling mill.
 Rolling

▪ A typical tandem rolling mill may have eight or ten

stands, each making a reduction in thickness or a
refinement in shape of the work passing through. With
each rolling step, work velocity increases, and the problem
of synchronizing the roll speeds at each stand is a
significant one.
 Rolling Mill Configurations

▪ (a) Two-high, (b) three-high, (c) four-high

 Rolling Mill Configurations

▪ (d) Cluster mill, (e) tandem rolling mill

 Other Deformation Processes
Related to Rolling

There are some other rolling processes are called:

▪ Thread Rolling
▪ Ring Rolling
▪ Gear Rolling
▪ Roll Piercing
▪ Roll Bending
▪ Foil Rolling
▪ Profile Rolling
 Thread Rolling

▪ Production rates in thread rolling can be high,

ranging up to eight parts per second for small bolts
and screws
▪ Advantages over thread cutting (machining):
▪ Higher production rates
▪ Better material utilization
▪ Smooth surface.
▪ Stronger threads and better fatigue resistance
 Thread Rolling

▪ Thread Rolling with flat dies(1) Start of cycle, and (2)

end of cycle
 Ring Rolling:
• Ring rolling is a deformation process in which a thick-walled ring of
smaller diameter is rolled into a thin-walled ring of larger diameter.
• The ring is placed between an idler roll and a driven roll. When it is turned on,
the rollers commence and the wall of the ring decreases.
• This makes the diameter of the ring increase. This method is used to
manufacture many different types of metals.
• This process is used to increase the diameter of a ring.
• Hot working for large rings and cold working for smaller rings.
 Ring Rolling

▪ (1) Beginning and (2) completion of process

Application of Ring Rolling
ball and roller bearing races, steel tires for railroad
wheels, and rings for pipes, pressure vessels, and
rotating machinery
 Rolling

Gear Rolling:
• Gear rolling is a cold working process to produce certain
gears. The automotive industry is an important user of these
products.
• The setup in gear rolling is similar to thread rolling, except
that the deformed features of the cylindrical blank or disk
are oriented parallel to its axis (or at an angle in the case of
helical gears) rather than spiraled as in thread rolling.
• Advantages of gear rolling compared to machining are
similar to those of thread rolling:
1. higher production rates,
2. better strength and fatigue resistance
3. less material waste
 Roll Bending:

• This is defined as cold forming process in which plate and sheet metal is
formed into a cylindrical shape by means of three rolls arranged into
pyramid formation.

• Two of the rolls are power driven, in a fixed position, and the third one is
adjustable to suit the desired bend radius and workpiece thickness.
 History of Extrusion

It is a relatively new process and its commercial

exploitation started early in the nineteenth century with
the extrusion of lead pipes. Extrusion of steels became
possible only after 1930 when extrusion chambers
could be designed to withstand high temperature and
pressure.
 Extrusion

▪ Compression forming process in which work metal is

forced to flow through a die opening to produce a
desired cross-sectional shape
▪ Process is similar to squeezing toothpaste out of a
toothpaste tube
▪ In general, extrusion is used to produce long parts
of uniform cross sections
 Extrusion

• Extrusion is a compression forming process by which long straight metal

parts can be produced.
• The cross-sections that can be produced vary from solid round,
rectangular, to L shapes, T shapes, Tubes and many other different types.
• Extrusion is done by squeezing metal in a closed cavity through a tool,
known as a die using either a mechanical or hydraulic press.
• Extrusion is a process used to create objects of a fixed cross-sectional
profile.
• A material is pushed or drawn through a die of the desired cross-section.
 Advantages and Disadvantages of
Extrusion

Advantages:
There are several advantages of the modern process:

1. A variety of shapes are possible, especially with hot extrusion

2. Grain structure and strength properties are enhanced in cold and warm extrusion.

3. Fairly close tolerances are possible.

4. In some extrusion operations, little or no wasted material is created.

5. Its ability to create very complex cross-sections.

Disadvantages:
However, a limitation is that the cross section of the extruded part must be uniform
throughout its length.
 Extrusion

Types of extrusion:
1. One way of classifying the operations is by physical configuration, in
which two principal types are:
▪ direct extrusion and indirect extrusion
2. Another classification is by working temperature:
▪ cold, warm or hot extrusion
3. Finally, extrusion is performed as either:
▪ a continuous process or a discrete process
Extrusion
 Extrusion

▪ Hollow cavities within extruded material cannot be produced using a

simple flat extrusion die, because there would be no way to support the
center barrier of the die.

▪ It is also possible to produce hollow sections using extrusion.

▪ In this case, the die contains a short piece (or mandrel) in the shape of
the hole.
 Extrusion

▪ This mandrel is attached to the die by one or more ‘bridges’. As the

extruded material encounters the bridges it is forced to separate, but it
flows around the bridges and joins up again, much the same as water
flowing around the piers of a bridge.

▪ This works successfully even for processing of solid metals.

 Extrusion

Process:
▪ The process begins by heating the stock material (for hot or warm
extrusion).
▪ It is then loaded into the container in the press.
▪ A dummy block is placed behind it where the ram then presses on the
material to push it out of the die.
▪ Afterward the extrusion is stretched in order to straighten it.
▪ If better properties are required, then it may be heat treated or cold
worked.
 Extrusion

▪ The extrusion ratio is defined as the starting cross-sectional area

divided by the cross-sectional area of the final extrusion.

▪ One of the main advantages of the extrusion process is that this ratio
can be very large while still producing quality parts.
EQUIPMENT
 Hydraulic-Extrusion Press

Figure 15.17 General view of a 9-MN (1000-ton) hydraulic-extrusion press.

Extrusion Machine
The actual extrusion process begins when the ram starts
applying pressure to the billet within the container, as is
shown:
Factors Influencing the Forces
 Factors Influencing the Forces

• Friction
• Material Properties
• Reduction In Area
• Speed
• Temperature
• Geometry Of The Die
 Extrusion

Direct extrusion:
▪ Billet is placed in a chamber and forced through a die opening by a hydraulically-driven
ram or pressing stem.
▪ A metal billet is loaded into a container, and a ram compresses the material, forcing it to
flow through one or more openings in a die at the opposite end of the container.
▪ As the ram approaches the die, a portion of the billet remains that cannot be forced
through the die opening.
▪ This extra portion, called the butt, is separated from the product by cutting it just
beyond the exit of the die.
Direct Extrusion
 Extrusion

▪ One of the problems in direct extrusion is the significant friction that

exists between the work surface and the walls of the container as the billet
is forced to slide toward the die opening.
▪ This friction causes a substantial increase in the ram force required in
direct extrusion.
▪ In hot extrusion, the friction problem is increased by the presence of an
oxide layer on the surface of the billet.
▪ This oxide layer can cause defects in the extruded product.
 Extrusion

▪ To address these problems, a dummy block is often used between the

ram and the work billet.

▪ The diameter of the dummy block is slightly smaller than the billet
diameter, so that a narrow ring of work metal (mostly the oxide layer)
is left in the container, leaving the final product free of oxides.
 Direct Extrusion

Hollow sections:
▪ Hollow sections (e.g., tubes) are possible in direct extrusion.
▪ The starting billet is prepared with a hole parallel to its axis.
▪ This allows passage of a mandrel that is attached to the dummy block.
▪ As the billet is compressed, the material is forced to flow through the clearance between
the mandrel and the die opening.
▪ The resulting cross section is tubular.
▪ Semi-hollow cross-sectional shapes are usually extruded in the same way.
▪ The starting billet in direct extrusion is usually round in cross section, but the final shape
is determined by the shape of the die opening. Obviously, the largest dimension of the
die opening must be smaller than the diameter of the billet.
 Hollow and Semi-Hollow Shapes

(a) Direct extrusion

to produce hollow or
semi-hollow cross
sections; (b) hollow
and (c) semi-hollow
cross sections
 Extrusion

Indirect extrusion:
▪ It is also called backward extrusion and reverse extrusion.
▪ The die is mounted to the ram rather than at the opposite end of the
container.
▪ As the ram penetrates into the work, the metal is forced to flow through
the clearance in a direction opposite to the motion of the ram.
▪ Since the billet is not forced to move relative to the container, there is
no friction at the container walls, and the ram force is therefore lower
than in direct extrusion.
 Comments on Indirect Extrusion

▪ Also called backward extrusion and reverse extrusion

▪ Limitations of indirect extrusion are imposed by
▪ Lower rigidity of hollow ram
▪ Difficulty in supporting extruded product as it exits
die
 Extrusion

Hollow sections:

▪ Indirect extrusion can produce hollow (tubular) cross sections.

▪ In this method, the ram is pressed into the billet, forcing the material to
flow around the ram and take a cup shape.

▪ There are practical limitations on the length of the extruded part that can be
manufactured by this method.

▪ Support of the ram becomes a problem as work length increases.

 Indirect Extrusion

▪ Indirect extrusion to produce (a) a solid cross section

and (b) a hollow cross section
 Hot
vs
Cold Extrusion
 Extrusion

Hot versus Cold Extrusion:

▪ Extrusion can be performed either hot or cold, depending on work metal and amount of
strain to which it is subjected during deformation.
▪ Metals that are typically extruded hot include aluminum, copper, magnesium, zinc, tin,
and their alloys.
▪ These same metals are sometimes extruded cold.
▪ Steel alloys are usually extruded hot, although the softer, more ductile grades are
sometimes cold extruded (e.g., low carbon steels and stainless steel).
▪ Aluminum is probably the most ideal metal for extrusion (hot and cold), and many
commercial aluminum products are made by this process (e.g., structural shapes, door
and window frame).
 Hot vs. Cold Extrusion

▪ Hot extrusion - prior heating of billet to above its

recrystallization temperature
▪ Reduces strength and increases ductility of the
metal, permitting more size reductions and more
complex shapes
▪ Cold extrusion - generally used to produce discrete
parts
▪ The term impact extrusion is used to indicate high
speed cold extrusion
 Typical parts produced by
extrusions are:
Hot extrusion
▪ Trim parts used in automotive and construction applications
▪ Window frame members
▪ Railings
▪ Aircraft structural parts
▪ Bars
▪ Tubes

Cold extrusion
▪ Collapsible tubes
▪ Fire extinguisher cases
▪ Shock absorber cylinders
▪ Aluminum cans
▪ Gear blanks
 Impact extrusion

Impact extrusion:
▪ Impact extrusion is performed at higher speeds and shorter strokes than
conventional extrusion.
▪ It is used to make individual components.
▪ The punch impact the workpart rather than simply applying pressure to it.
▪ Impacting can be carried out as forward extrusion, backward extrusion, or
combination of these.
▪ Impact extrusion is usually done cold on a variety of metals.
▪ Backward impact extrusion is most common.
 Impact extrusion

▪ Products made by this process include toothpaste tubes and

battery cases.

▪ As indicated by these examples, very thin walls are possible on impact

extruded parts.

▪ The high-speed characteristics of impacting permit large reductions

and high production rates, making this an important commercial
process.
 Hydrostatic Extrusion

▪ One of the problems in direct extrusion is friction along the billet-

container interface.
▪ This problem can be addressed by surrounding the billet with fluid inside
the container and pressurizing the fluid by the forward motion of the ram.
▪ This way, there is no friction inside the container, and the friction at the
die opening is reduced.
▪ Consequently, ram force is significantly lower than in direct extrusion.
▪ The fluid pressure acting on all surfaces of the billet gives the process its
name.
 Hydrostatic Extrusion

▪ It can be carried out at room temperature or at elevated temperatures.

▪ Special fluids and procedures must be used at elevated temperatures.
▪ Hydrostatic extrusion is an adaptation of direct extrusion.
▪ Hydrostatic pressure on the work increases the material’s ductility.
▪ Accordingly, this process can be used on metals that would be too
brittle for conventional extrusion operations.
▪ Ductile metals can also be hydrostatically extruded, and high reduction
ratios are possible on these materials.
 Hydrostatic Extrusion

▪ One of the disadvantages of the process is the required preparation of

the starting work billet.

▪ The billet must be formed with a taper at one end to fit snugly into the
die entry angle.

▪ This establishes a seal to prevent fluid from squirting out the die hole
when the container is initially pressurized.
 Defects in extruded products

▪ Owing to the considerable deformation associated with extrusion

operations, a number of defects can occur in extruded products.

a. Centerburst

b. Piping

c. Surface cracking
 Extrusion

Centerburst:

▪ This defect is an internal crack that develops as a result of tensile

stresses along the centerline of the workpart during extrusion.

▪ In the extrusion process, the deformation in the metal increases from

center to outer surface.

▪ The large deformation in the outer regions stretches the material along
the center of the workpiece.
 Extrusion

▪ Conditions that promote center burst are high die angles, low
extrusion ratios, and impurities in the work metal that serve as starting
points for crack defects.

▪ The difficult aspect of centerburst is its detection.

▪ It is an internal defect that is usually not noticeable by visual

observation.

▪ Other names sometimes used for this defect include arrowhead

fracture, center cracking, and chevron cracking.
 Extrusion

Piping:

▪ Piping is a defect associated with direct extrusion.

▪ It is the formation of a sink hole in the end of the billet.

▪ The use of a dummy block whose diameter is slightly less than that of
the billet helps to avoid piping.

▪ Other names given to this defect include tailpipe and fishtailing.

 Extrusion

Surface cracking:

▪ This defect results from high workpart temperatures that cause cracks
to develop at the surface.

▪ They often occur when extrusion speed is too high, leading to high
strain rates and associated heat generations.

▪ Others factors contributing to surface cracking are high friction and

surface chilling of high temperature billets in hot extrusion.
 Coins
Scissor

Deformation Processes
Forging
Head of bolt

Hammer
Ping
 Forging

▪ Deformation process in which work is compressed

between two dies
▪ Oldest of the metal forming operations
▪ Dates from about 5000 B C
▪ Products: engine crankshafts, connecting rods,
gears, jet engine turbine parts, disks, rings, coins.
▪ Also, basic metals industries use forging to
establish shape of large parts that are then
machined to final geometry and size
 Forging

• Forging is the process by which metal is heated and is shaped by plastic

deformation by applying compressive force (impact or gradual pressure).
• Forged articles range in size from nuts and bolts, hip replacement
prostheses and crankshafts to (traditionally) gun barrels.
Forging
Forging
Forging
 Forging

• Most engineering metals and alloys can be forged readily and include most
steels, aluminum and copper alloys and certain titanium alloys.
 Forging

• Strain-rate and temperature-sensitive materials, such as magnesium and

nickel based super alloys, may require more sophisticated forging processes
such as radial forging.
• Forged articles have excellent mechanical properties, combining fine grain
structure with strengthening through strain hardening.

Wrench
Rim
 Forging

A forged metal can result in the following :

▪ Increase length, decrease cross-section, called drawing out the metal.
▪ Decrease length, increase cross-section, called upsetting the metal.
▪ Change length, change cross-section, by squeezing in closed
impression dies.
▪ This results in favorable grain flow for strong parts.

Shafts
 Classification of forging operations:

Classification of forging operations:

▪ Depending upon working temperature
▪ Depending upon type of equipment used
▪ Depending upon the degree to which the flow of work metal is
constrained by the dies

Eyebolt Valve
 Forging

The metals can be forged :

1) Hot or warm forging:
▪ Hot working of metals (above recrystallization temperatures)
▪ Advantage increase in ductility of work metal

2) Cold forging:
▪ Cold working of metals (below recrystallization temperature)
▪ Advantage: increased strength due to strain hardening

Plier
 Forging

The equipments used can be either forging hammers or forging

presses.

▪ A forging machine that applies an impact load is called a forging

hammer.

▪ A forging machine that applies gradual pressure is called forging press.

Screw driver
 Forging

Depending upon the degree to which the flow of work metal is

constrained by the dies:
▪ Open die forging
▪ Impression die forging/Closed die forging
▪ Flashless Forging
 Types of Forging Operations

▪ Open-die forging - work is compressed between two

flat dies, allowing metal to flow laterally with minimum
constraint
▪ Impression-die forging - die contains cavity or
impression that is imparted to workpart
▪ Metal flow is constrained so that flash is created
▪ Flashless forging - workpart is completely
constrained in die
▪ No excess flash is created
Forging
 (1) Open Die Forging:

Open Die Forging:

▪ Work is compressed between two flat (or almost flat) dies, thus
allowing the metals to flow without constraints in a lateral direction
relative to die surfaces.
▪ In some applications dies have slightly contoured surfaces that help to
shape the work.
 Open Die Forging:

▪ Work must often be manipulated (e.g., rotating in steps) to effect the

desired shape change.
▪ Skill of the human operator is a factor in the success of these
operations.
▪ Open die forging produces rough forms, and subsequent operations are
required to refine the parts to final geometry and dimensions.
▪ Shapes generated by this process are simple.

Flange
knife
 Open Die Forging:

▪ Open die forgings are made with repeated blows in an open die, where
the operator manipulates the workpiece in the die.
▪ The finished product is a rough approximation of the die.
▪ Open die forging involves the shaping of heated metal parts between a
top die attached to a ram and a bottom die attached to a hammer anvil
or press bed.

Pipe wrench Spanners

Forging
Upset forging/Heading:
• That is the simplest case / forging operation of open die forging.
• Reduces the height of the work and increases its diameter.
• Upset forging increases cross-section by compressing the length, this is
used in making heads on bolts and fasteners, valves and other similar parts.
Forging
 Operations classified as open-die
forging or related operations

i) Fullering:
▪ To reduce the cross section and redistribute the metal in a workpart in
preparation for subsequent shape forging.
▪ It is accomplished by dies with convex surfaces.
 Operations classified as open-die
forging or related operations

ii) Edging:
▪ Similar to fullering, except that the dies have concave surfaces.

T-type socket
wrench
 Operations classified as open-die
forging or related operations

iii) Cogging:
▪ Operation consists of a sequence of forging compressions along the
length of a workpiece to reduce cross section and increase length.
▪ Used in steel industry to produce blooms and slabs from cast ingots.
▪ Term incremental forging is sometimes used for this process.

Fry pan Ring wrench

 Forging

Cogging:
▪ Operation consists of a sequence of forging compressions along the
length of a workpiece to reduce cross section and increase length.
▪ Used in steel industry to produce blooms and slabs from cast ingots.
▪ Term incremental forging is sometimes used for this process.
 Forging

Producing a ring "preform" by the open die forging process:

• Starting stock cut to size by weight is first rounded, then upset to achieve
structural integrity and directional grain flow.
 Forging

• Work piece is punched, then pierced to achieve starting "donut" shape

needed for ring rolling process.
• Completed preform ready for placement on ring mill for rolling.
 Forging

• Ring rolling process begins with the idler roll applying pressure to the
preform against the drive roll.
 Forging

• Ring diameters are increased as the continuous pressure reduces the wall
thickness.
• The axial rolls control the height of the ring as it is being rolled.
 Forging

• The process continues until the desired size is achieved.

 Forging

Rings
 2) Impression Die Forgings :

▪ Impression die forgings and precision forgings are more refined processes. The finished
part more closely resembles the die impression.
▪ In impression-die work metal is placed in a die resembling a mold, which is attached to
the anvil.
▪ Impression-die forging, sometimes called closed-die forging, is performed with dies
that contain the inverse of the desired shape of the part.
 Impression Die Forgings :

▪ The process is illustrated in a three-step sequence as shown in previous

figure.
▪ The raw workpiece is shown as a cylindrical part similar to that used in the
previous open-die operation. As the die closes to its final position, flash is
formed by metal that flows beyond the die cavity and into the small gap between
the die plates.
▪ Although this flash must be cut away from the part in a subsequent trimming
operation, it actually serves an important function during impression-die forging.
As the flash begins to form in the die gap, friction resists continued flow of metal
into the gap, thus constraining the bulk of the work material to remain in the die
cavity.
 Impression Die Forgings :

▪ The raw workpiece is shown as a cylindrical part similar to that used in

the previous open-die operation. As the die closes to its final position
Excess metal is squeezed out of the die cavities, forming what is
referred to as flash.
▪ The flash cools more rapidly than the rest of the material; this cool
metal is stronger than the metal in the die so it helps prevent more
flash from forming.
▪ This also forces the metal to completely fill the die cavity. After
forging the flash is removed.

Sword
Connecting link
 Impression Die Forgings :

▪ Flash, also known as flashing, is excess material attached to

a molded, forged, or cast product, which must usually be removed.
▪ This is typically caused by leakage of the material between the two surfaces
of a mold (beginning along the parting line) or between the base material
and the mold (in the case of overmolding). This flash must be cut away
from the part in a subsequent trimming operation, it actually serves an
important function during impression-die forging.
▪ Proper design of mold parting surfaces can reduce or eliminate flash.
 Advantages and Limitations of
Impression-Die Forging

▪ Advantages compared to machining from solid stock:

▪ Higher production rates
▪ Less waste of metal
▪ Greater strength
▪ Favorable grain orientation in the metal
▪ Limitations:
▪ Not capable of close tolerances
▪ Machining is often required to achieve accuracies
and features needed
 3) Flashless Forging

▪ Compression of work in punch and die tooling whose

cavity does not allow for flash
▪ Also known as closed die forging
▪ Starting work volume must equal die cavity volume
within very close tolerance
▪ No flash is formed (workpiece is completely
contained within the die cavity during compression)
▪ If starting blank is too large, excessive pressure may
cause damage to the die or press.
▪ If the blank is too small, the cavity will not be filled.
 Flashless Forging

▪ Because of the special demands made by flashless

forging, the process lends itself best to part geometries
that are usually simple and symmetrical, and to work
materials such as aluminum and magnesium and their
alloys.
▪ Flashless forging is often classified as a precision
forging process
 Flashless Forging

▪ (1) Just before contact with workpiece, (2) partial

compression, and (3) final punch and die closure
 Forging

Coining:
▪ Special application of closed-die forging
▪ Fine details in the die are impressed into the top and bottom surfaces of
the workpart.
▪ There is a little flow of metals in coining, yet the pressures required to
reproduce the surface details in the die cavity are high.
▪ Common applications is coins shown in figure.
▪ The process is also used to provide good surface finish and
dimensional accuracy on workparts made by other operations.
Forging
 Forging Hammers

▪ Forging hammers operate by applying an impact loading against

the work. The term drop hammer is often used for machines,
owing to the means of delivering impact energy used for
impression- die forging. Classification of drop hammer are:
▪ Gravity drop hammers – achieve their energy from falling
weight of a heavy ram
▪ Power drop hammers - accelerate the ram by pressurized air
or steam
▪ Disadvantage: impact energy transmitted through anvil into
floor of building
▪ Commonly used for impression-die forging
 Forging Presses

▪ Apply gradual pressure to accomplish compression

operation
▪ Types:
▪ Mechanical press - converts rotation of drive
motor into linear motion of ram
▪ Hydraulic press – uses a hydraulically driven
piston to actuates ram
▪ Screw press – apply forces by a screw
mechanism that drives the vertical ram
 Forging Dies

▪ Proper die design is important in the

success of a forging operation. Parts
to be forged must be designed based
on knowledge of the principles and
limitations of this process. Our
purpose here is to tell some of the
terminology used in the design of
forgings and forging dies:
a) Parting Line
b) Draft
c) Webs and Ribs
d) Fillet and Corner Radii
e) Flash
OTHER DEFORMATION
PROCESSES RELATED TO
FORGING
 Upsetting and Heading Forging:
• Upsetting (also called upset forging) is a deformation operation in which a
cylindrical workpart is increased in diameter and reduced in length.
• Upsetting is widely used in the fastener industry to form heads on nails, bolts,
and similar hardware products. In these applications, the term heading is often
used to denote the operation.
• Forging process used to form heads on nails, bolts, and similar hardware
products

– It is performed as a mass-production operation—cold, warm, or hot—

on special upset forging machines, called headers or formers.
– Wire or bar stock is fed into machine, end is headed, then piece is cut
to length
– For bolts and screws, thread rolling is then used to form threads
 Upset Forging

▪ Upset forging to form a head on a bolt : (1) wire stock is

fed to stop, (2) gripping dies close on stock, stop retracts,
(3) punch moves forward, (4) bottoms to form the head
 Heading (Upset Forging)

▪ (a) Heading a nail using open dies, (b) round head formed
by punch, (c) and (d) two head styles for screws formed by
die, (e) carriage bolt head formed by punch and die
Forging