1 Greek Art and Roman Art

GREEK ART AND

ROMAN ART

GROUP 3
Bisig, Lear Marie
De Jesus, Ethan
Estrebillo, Precious
Mejia, Karl
Mercado, Trizia
Natava, Charish
Rivera, Sean

MEDTECH 2YB-9

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Greek Art
A shared language, religion, and culture. Ancient Greece can feel strangely familiar.
From the exploits of Achilles (a hero in the ancient epic poem by Homer, The Illiad), about
the Trojan War and Odysseus (the hero in Homer's The Odyssey), to the treatises of
Aristotle, from the exacting measurements of the Parthenon (above) to the rhythmic chaos
of the Laocoön (below), ancient Greek culture has shaped our world. Ancient Greek art
emphasized the importance and accomplishments of human beings. Even though much
of Greek art was meant to honor the gods, those very gods were created in the image of
humans. Much artwork was government-sponsored and intended for public display.
Dispersed around the Mediterranean and divided into self-governing units called poleis
or city-states, the ancient Greeks were united by a shared language, religion, and culture.
Strengthening these bonds further were the so-called “Panhellenic” sanctuaries and
festivals that embraced “all Greeks” and encouraged interaction, competition, and
exchange (for example the Olympics, which were held at the Panhellenic sanctuary at
Olympia). Although popular modern understanding of the ancient Greek world is based on
the classical art of fifth century B.C.E. Athens, it is important to recognize that Greek
civilization was vast and did not develop overnight.

1. Dark Ages
Following the collapse of Mycenaean citadels of the late Bronze Age, the Greek
mainland entered a "Dark Age" that lasted from 1100 until 800 B.C.E. This period saw the
disappearance of the complex socio-cultural system and its numerous achievements, such
as metalworking, large-scale construction, and writing. The discovery and continuous
excavation of a site known as Lefkandi, however, drastically alters this impression. One of
the most interesting artifacts, ritually buried in two separate graves, is a centaur figurine.

• Centaur
The terracotta figure from 900 B.C.E. stands fourteen inches tall and is composed
of an equine (horse) torso made on a potter’s wheel and hand-formed human limbs and
features. Alluding to mythology and perhaps a particular story, this centaur embodies the
cultural richness of this period.

2. Geometric Period
The Geometric Period lasted roughly from 900 to 700 B.C. It was named after the
geometric patterns and motifs common on pottery then. The Geometric Period is divided
into three basic segments based on Attic Geometric pottery. The Early Geometric spans
approximately 900-850 B.C., while the Middle Geometric spans around 850-760 B.C. And
the late geometric 760-700 B.C.E. The geometric decoration technique was primarily used

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in funerary vases and grave markers. It was frequently used to hold the ashes of the
deceased. The geometric decoration can also be found on symposium vases, which were
used to hold liquids such as wine. The vase reflects other 18th century artifacts such as the
Dipylon Amphora and Krater.

• Dipylon Amphora
Dipylon Amphora is a vase that stood approximately five feet (1.55 meters) tall and
was a grave marker. Other vases, usually amphorae, served as urns for cremated
individuals. It was discovered in the Kerameikos cemetery in Athens, flanked by two
pylons, where the term "Dipylon" comes from. The vases are covered in rows of patterns
and shapes, typical of the Geometric movement. They also include scenes of funerary
practices, including depictions of humans and animals at the handle level.

• Krater
A krater is a vase that served as a grave marker and usually depicted funerary scenes.
It is also known as the Hirschfeld krater and shows a funeral procession. In many
representations, one row represents the deceased on a bier flanked by mourners and
surrounded by sacrificial animals. The second row depicts chariots, horses, and warriors
with figure-eight-shaped shields. Each human is made using black-figure techniques and
consists of a triangle for a torso, a circle for a head, lines for the arms, and curved sections
for the legs, all of which provide a reasonably basic profile. Each figure is also given a
forward-facing position to make its appearance more recognizable, as seen by how the
figures lying down are propped up on their sides. Shapes are used to fill any empty spaces
in these scenes, and the rest of the vases are filled with rows of repetitive designs, a
characteristic of the geometric movement.

3. Orientalizing Period (700-600 B.C.E.)

- It is roughly 100-year period in which Greek art was greatly influenced by
specifically Near Eastern and Egyptian, ideas, myths, and decorative styles.
- The close contact between cultures developed from increasing trade and even
colonization.
o This period is characterized by a shift from the Geometrical style to a style
with Eastern-inspired motifs.

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o The Greeks borrowed other cultures motifs, creatures, and style then
transformed them into a unique Greek-Eastern mix of style and motifs.
● Corinthian pottery
o Human figures are rarely seen on vases, instead exotic and mythical animals
such as lions, griffins, sphinxes, and sirens were portrayed.
o Example of this is the Corinthian black figure jug.
▪ Instead of using geometric patterns, palmettes (a fan-shaped leaf
decorative art) and lotus blossoms were used to fill in the empty spaces.

Corinthian black figure jug

● Black-Figure Painting
○ Developed by Corinthians that spread to Athens and was exported
throughout Greece.
○ Figural and ornamental motifs were applied that will turn black by firing
three times.
■ It will produce the unique red and black color of the vase.
○ Adding red and white pigments will add color and detail.

Black-Figure painting

● Proto-Attic Pottery
○ Produced across the Isthmus of Corinth in Athens
○ This style marked the first depictions of discernibly Greek religious and
mythological themes in vase painting.

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○ Usually distinguished by their orange clay

○ Human figure is commonly depicted.
■ Bodies of men and animals were depicted silhouette, but the head is
drawn on an outline.
■ While women are drawn completely in an outline.
○ There are three most prominent painters of this style:
■ Analatos painter
■ Mesogia painter
■ Polymephos painter

The Polyphemos Painter – The Binding of Polyphemos

● Sculpture in the Greek Orientalizing Period

○ Shares stylistic attributes with sculptures produced in Egypt and Near East.
○ Male and female sculptures produced during this time share some similarities
but have differences to inform the viewers about the social expectation
between men and women.
○ The examples that can be used for comparison are the Mantiklos Apollo and
The Lady of Auxerre.
■ Their similarities are the long-braided hair, smile, and the hand raised
at the chest.
■ While the differences are the Mantikilos Apollo is made as nude
which means freedom of movement. On the other hand, The Lady of
Auxerre is clothed which means denied movement.

Mantiklos Apollo

The Lady of Auxerre

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4. Archaic Period
The city of Athens saw the rise and fall of tyrants, as well as the introduction of
democracy by the statesman Kleisthenes in the years 508 and 507 B.C.E. Throughout the
Archaic Period, Greek artisans continued to develop their individual crafts, storytelling
skills, and more realistic depictions of human figures.
Large-scale marble statues of male and female youths called kouros and kore are
typical of this time period.
Kouros & Kore Statues

The kouros exhibits the influence of ancient Egyptian art by standing stiff with both
arms outstretched to the sides and one leg advanced. These sculptural types, which were
frequently used as tomb markers, exposed their bare figures with unabashed nudity,
displaying their elaborate hairstyles and abstracted musculature.

On the other hand, the kore was never naked. In addition to being covered in layers
of fabric, she also had a crown, jewelry, and other embellishments. Although some, like
Phrasiklea, were found in burial contexts, the vast majority were discovered in the
Acropolis in Athens. Several korai, ritually buried when the Persians desecrated this temple
in 480 and 479 B.C.E., were discovered with other dedicatory artifacts. While the identities

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of these figures have been extensively discussed in modern times, most agree that they
were initially meant as votive offerings to the goddess Athena.

5. Classical Period
Ancient Greek art spans a period between about 900 and 30 BCE and is divided into
four periods: Geometric, Archaic, Classical, and Hellenistic. The Persian sack of Athens
in 480 BCE marked a critical turning point in the political and cultural life of Greece. The
art produced thereafter, during the Classical period (480-323 BCE), was characterized by
restrained harmony, proportional beauty, and idealization. Their economy boomed, and
they developed new levels of math, philosophy, and art.

Art of Classical Greece:

● Statue of Zeus at Olympia
The Statue of Zeus at Olympia was a giant seated figure, about 12.4 m (41 ft) tall, made
by the Greek sculptor Phidias around 435 BC at the sanctuary of Olymipa, Greece, and
erected in the Temple of Zeus there. Zeus is the sky and thunder god in ancient Greek
religion, who rules as king of the gods of mount Olympus.

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● Acropolis of Athens
The Acropolis of Athens is an ancient citadel located on a rocky outcrop above the city
of Athens and contains the remains of several ancient buildings of great architectural and
historical significance, the most famous being the Parthenon.

● Athena Parthenos
The statue of Athena Parthenos was a monumental
chryselephantine sculpture of the goddess Athena.
Attributed to Phidias and dated to the mid-fifth century
BCE, it was an offering from the city of Athens to
Athena. Designed by Greek sculptor, painter and
architect Phidias in 447 BC, the 11.5m gold and ivory
statue depicted Greek goddess Athena and was housed in
the Parthenon until the 5th century.

6. Hellenistic Period
The Hellenistic Period begins with the death of Macedonian king Alexander the Great
and with the ascension of Augustus in Rome. During this period people are encouraged to
seek a sense of purpose and belonging, and other intellectual pursuits. It is during this
period that artists explored and experimented with new techniques of conveying influences,
individual experiences, and intricate detailing. Sculptures displayed realism and human
emotion reflecting the growing knowledge of personality and introspection.

• Nike of Samothrace
The Nike of Samothrace was found on the
island of Samothrace and is one of the most revered
artworks in the Hellenistic period. It is also known
as ‘The Winged Victory of Samothrace’. In Greek
mythology, Nike, or “Victory”, is a winged woman
that symbolized victory in any field. The counterpart
of Nike in Roman is “Victoria”.

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• Laocoön and His Sons

The marble sculpture was found in a vineyard in
Rome and is housed in the Vatican, where it remains
today. Here is a sculpture of three figures by Laocoon
- a priest from Troy, and his two sons, Antiphatis and
Tembreus. From the sculpture, it can be seen that
Laocoon and his sons are trying to free themselves,
from the grasp of the serpents, by twisting and turning.
It is sculpted by 3 artists named Hagesandros,
Polydoros, and Athenedoros of Rhodes. They showed
Laocoon’s agony through the contorted expressions on
his face.

Roman Art
Although Rome was founded as far back as 750 BCE, it led a precarious existence
for several centuries. Initially, it was ruled by Etruscan kings who commissioned a variety
of Etruscan art (murals, sculptures and metalwork) for their tombs as well as their palaces,
and to celebrate their military victories. After the founding of the Roman Republic in 500
BCE, Etruscan influence waned and, from 300 BCE, as the Romans started coming into
contact with the flourishing Greek cities of southern Italy and the eastern Mediterranean,
they fell under the influence of Greek art - a process known as Hellenization. Cultural
Inferiority Complex
Roman architecture and engineering were never less than bold, but its painting and
sculpture was based on Greek traditions and also on art forms developed in its vassal states
like Egypt and Ancient Persia. To put it another way, despite their spectacular military
triumphs, the Romans had an inferiority complex in the face of Greek artistic achievement.
Their ultra-pragmatic response was to recycle Greek sculpture at every opportunity. Greek
poses, reworked with Roman clothes and accessories, were pressed into service to reinforce
Roman power. Heroic Greek statues were even supplied headless, to enable the buyer to
fit his own portrait head.
An example is the equestrian bronze statue of Emperor Marcus Aurelius (c.175 CE),
whose stance is reworked from the Greek statue "Doryphorus" (440 BCE). See: Greek
Sculpture Made Simple.

Types of Roman Art

1. Architecture
Roman architecture is renowned for its concrete-domed structures and creative arch
usage. Although they did not invent the arch, they are the ones that promoted arches to
become a major part of the architecture. The Romans have certainly perfected it. From this,
they invented the Roman groin vault and the use of a semicircular arch.

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Image of Roman Groin Vault

Image of a Semicircular Arch

Famous Roman Buildings

1. Circus Maximus (6th century BCE - 4th century CE)
- Largest arena in Rome
- 300,000 spectators
- Several competitions are carried out including chariot races

2. Colosseum (72 - 80 CE)

- Is the symbol of power, genius, and brutality of the Roman Empire.
- Its former name is the Flavian Amphitheatre
o Because it was built during the reign of the Flavian emperors as the gift to
the Rome people.
o The name changed due to the great statue of Nero that was located at the
entrance of the Domus Aurea.
- The construction of the colosseum began between 70 – 72 CE under the emperor
Vespasian.
o It is four stories high.
o It has eighty entrances.
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▪ 76 for the patrons

▪ 2 for the participants of the event
▪ 2 for exclusive use of the emperor
- The colosseum can cater 50,000 spectators at the maximum.
- It serves as a place for entertainment of Roman people.
o The famous gladiator fights, recreational battles, execution of prisoners,
drama, and exhibition of exotic animals.
- As of today, it became a tourist attraction where we can see one of the greatest
architectural work of the Ancient Rome.

3. The Arch of Titus (c.81 CE)

The Arch of Titus is the oldest surviving Roman triumphal arch, built after Emperor
Titus' death to celebrate his suppression of the Jewish uprising in Judea in 70 CE. It was
the model for Napoleon's Arc de Triomphe in Paris.

4. Baths of Trajan (104 - 109 CE)

A huge bathing and leisure complex on the south side of the Oppian Hill, designed by
Apollodorus of Damascus, which was used until the early fifth century, until the destruction
of the Roman aqueducts forced its abandonment.

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5. Pantheon (c. 125 CE)

- Historians claimed that it was built by Marcus Agrippa, the right hand of the
emperor.
- Its purpose is to appease the Twelve Gods because the destruction of the previous
buildings was seen as a sign that the deities were unhappy.
o It also became a burial ground for several important people including artists
and kings.
- It is one of the best-preserved monuments of the Ancient Rome
o The interior has a perfect sphere and has an oculus as a light source.

6. Baths of Caracalla (212 - 216 CE)

- Initiated by emperor Septimius Severus
- Referred to as one of the seven wonders of Rome.
- Used as vineyards and gardens.

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7. Baths of Diocletian (298 - 306

CE)
- Commissioned by Maximian in
honor of co-emperor Diocletian
in 298 CE
- One of the four inscriptions
around the main entrance to the
Baths of Diocletian
- From the central structure were
derived the plans for the
Basicilica of Constantine

8. Basilica of Maxentius (308 -312 CE)

- Begun by Maxentius and completed by Constantine after 312-313
- Largest structure in Roman Forum
- Served as a meeting house, and judicial or administrative center

➢ Historical Relief

The historical relief was as significant an architectural member in civic and religious
structures such as the triumphal arch, the column, the statue base, the temple, and the altar.
It vividly depicted or narrated the military campaigns, victories, processions, and sacrifices.
Trajan’s Column and Marcus Aurelius' Column are one of the examples of Historical
Relief.

• Trajan’s Column (106-113 CE)

Trajan's Column is the most remarkable relief sculpture of Ancient Rome. It is a

125-foot Doric-style monument designed by the architect Apollodorus of Damascus at the
order of the Roman Senate. Trajan's Forum is located north of the Roman Forum. It has a
spiral frieze wrapped 23 times around its shaft, commemorating Emperor Trajan's Dacian
victories (98-117 CE). Its composition and extraordinarily meticulous detail make it one
of the finest reliefs in the history of sculpture. It was sculpted in the cool, balanced style of

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the second century. Trajan's Column is on display in full scale at the Victoria and Albert
Museum in London and the National History Museum of Romania in Bucharest.

• Marcus Aurelius’ Column ( c. 180-193 CE)

Second highest to Trajan's monument, this 100-foot Doric column in Piazza

Colonna also has a winding ribbon of marble sculpture carved in low relief depicting the
Emperor's Danubian or Marcomannic wars from 166 to 180 CE. It contains the
controversial "rain miracle," in which a massive thunderstorm saves the Roman army from
the barbarian Quadi tribes. The sculptural style of the column differs significantly from
that of Trajan's Column, as it introduces the more expressive style of the third century. The
heads of the Marcus Aurelius figures are more extensive than usual to emphasize their
facial expressions. A higher relief allows for more contrast between light and shadow.

➢ Portrait Busts & Statues

Portrait busts are sculptures of a person’s head, shoulder, and chest. Romans worked
with stone, precious metals, glass, terracotta, and other materials, but favored bronze and
marble above all else. It displays unusual realism and conveys images in a high-quality
style. Many wealthy families commissioned artists to create one and it is frequently
positioned in noticeable areas of the house. In addition, Romans used busts to honor the
dead and is mounted either on top of the tomb or within the dead person's house.

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Notable Portrait Busts

Statue of Augustus (Ruled 27-14 CE) Statue of Tiberius in Old Age (14-37)
(Livia's Villa, Prima Porta) (Capitoline Museum)

Bust of Caligula (37-41) (Louvre) Statue of Claudius as the God Jupiter

(41-54) (Vatican Museum)

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Head of Nero (54-68) (British Museum) Bust of Galba (68-69)

(Capitoline Museum)

Statue of Titus (79-81) (Vatican Museum) Bust of Trajan (98-117)

(British Museum)

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Bronze Statue of Hadrian (117-138) Bronze Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius

(Israel Museum) (180) (Piazza del Campidoglio)

Statue of Commodus as Hercules Bust of Gordian II (238)

(180-192) (Capitoline Museum) (Capitoline Museum)

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Bust of Pupienus (238) Bust of Balbinus (238)

(Capitoline Museum) (Capitoline Museum)

Bust of Maxentius (306-312) Colossal Head of Constantine

(Museo Torlonia) (307-337) (Basilica Nova)

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➢ Religious & Funerary Sculpture

Religious art was a popular form of Roman sculpture, featuring a statue of the deity to
be dedicated. Small devotional statuettes of varying quality were also popular for personal
and family shrines. These works might involve ivory carving, chryselephantine works,
woodcarving, and terracotta sculpture, sometimes glazed for colour.

As Rome turned from cremation to burial at the end of the 1st century CE, stone
coffins, aka sarcophagi, were much in demand: the three most common types being
Metropolitan Roman, Attic-style and Asiatic. They were carved from marble, wood, and
lead and decorated with sculpture. Popular motifs included episodes from Roman
mythology, genre and hunting scenes, and garlands of fruit and leaves. They became an
important medium for Christian-Roman Art (313 onwards).

➢ Copies of Ancient Greek Works

• Painting

The creation of landscape painting, a genre in which the Greeks showed little interest,
was the greatest innovation of Roman painters. A hint as to the role of art in Roman
culture can be found in the fact that the majority of them are decorative murals with
seascapes and landscapes that were painted by expert interior decorators rather than
virtuoso artists. The majority of the remaining Roman paintings come from Herculanum
and Pompeii.

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o Paintings from Pompeii

The main artwork found within Pompeii are frescos, which was the most common
painting style at the time. Frescos were paintings that were done straight onto the wall,
using plaster and water-based pigments to create a long-lasting piece. The frescoes from
Pompeii are more than just wall paintings from the Classical world. They present a
fascinating glimpse into another culture, from its religion and mythology.

▪ House of Vettii

Another important example of artwork in Pompeii is the House of Vettii. The dining
room hosts a fresco depicting a series of Cupids - they are bakers, oil merchants, perfumers
and more. It is thought that this fresco was designed to inspire passion in or about one’s
work: Cupid is, after all, the son of Venus (Roman goddess of love) and Mars (Roman god
of war) making him a particularly passionate being.

▪ Riot at the Fresco

Inside the House of Actius Anicetus is a fresco showing a riot between the citizens of
Pompeii, and those of Nuceria, in 59 BCE. This riot took place during gladiatorial games
at Pompeii’s amphitheater, the oldest in ancient Rome, in a similar way to modern day riots
between rival soccer fans. In this case, however, the riots led to a ban on games being held
in Pompeii’s amphitheater for the next ten years.

o Paintings from Herculanum

Like the nearby city of Pompeii, Herculaneum is famous as one of the few ancient cities
to be preserved nearly intact, as the ash that blanketed the town protected it against looting
and elements. Although less known than Pompeii today, it was the first and for a long time
the only discovered Vesuvian city (in 1709).

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• Panel Paintings

Panel painting is the highest form of painting. Panel paintings were mass-produced
in their thousands for display in offices and public buildings throughout the empire,
executed using the encaustic or tempera methods. They typically depict a single person,
showing only the head and upper chest. It's background is always monochrome, with
decorative elements added here and there. However, because wood is a perishable material,
only a few paintings have survived, such as the Severan Tondo from around 200 AD and
the well-known Fayum mummy portraits.

o Severan tondo

The Severan Tondo, also known as the Berlin Tondo,

originates from about 200 AD and is one of the few
remaining examples of panel painting. It depicts the Roman
emperor Septimius Severus with his wife, the Augusta Julia
Domna, and their two sons and co-augusti Caracalla and
Geta. One of the two brothers' faces has been intentionally
erased. It was mass-produced to be displayed in offices and
public buildings throughout the Roman Empire; as part of
Roman legal procedure, the portrait would have been
discarded or replaced with each change of emperor.

o Fayum Mummy Portraits

Fayum Mummy Portraits are naturalistically painted

portraits on wooden boards attached to upper-class Egyptian
mummies. It is regarded as one of the most prestigious forms of art.
The Fayum portraits are the only significant body of work from that
tradition to have survived.

• Triumphal Painting
- Paintings commission to painters to commemorate the military success.
- This type of history painting is made as mural painting in fresco.
o It depicts the battle of the army in great detail to inform and impress the
public.
- Although none of the painting commissioned by generals survive, there were
evidence that this genre of propagandistic art was held in Roman society.

• Mural Paintings
Romans used wall paintings as a way to open up and lighten their space. More
specifically, they used frescoes. A fresco is made by first preparing the wall with 1-3 coats
of mortar (a lime and sand mix), then covering that with 1-3 coats of lime mixed with finely
powdered marble.

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o The First Style

The first of the four styles is called Incrustation and dates
back from 200 to 60 B.C. This style is identified by colorful
blocks painted on the wall to resemble large marble slabs. Often,
the plaster on the wall is molded into raised backs, adding to the
so-called “marbleizing” effect.

o The Second Style

The second style, Architectural, dates from around 60 to 20 B.C. and serves to open
up the limited space of Roman houses. This style has a distinctly realistic feel and tends to
reflect everyday objects and scenery as they actually appear. Oftentimes, illusions of
windows and covered walkways lined with columns that looked onto imaginary scenes
were framed by painted columns.

o The Third Style

The third style, Ornamental, dates from 20 B.C.
to 20 A.D. In it, there is a closing up of space. Illusion
is rejected in favor of ornamentation. Largely
monochromatic walls were often painted with a few
pieces of architecture.

o The Forth Style

The fourth style, Intricate, dates from around 20 A.D. to the fateful year of 79 A.D.
when Mount Vesuvius erupted. This style incorporates all the elements of the earlier styles.
It doesn’t resemble any believable space, but instead consist of a variety of architectural
elements arranged in an unrealistic manner with an unrealistic perspective, set against a
flat background.

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Art Styles From the Roman Empire

The Roman Empire incorporated a host of different nationalities, religious groups and
associated styles of art. Chief among them, in addition to earlier Etruscan art of the Italian
mainland, were forms of Celtic culture - namely the Iron Age La Tene style (c.450-50
BCE) - which was accommodated within the Empire in an idiom known as Roman-Celtic
art, and the hieratic style of Egyptian art, which was absorbed into the Hellenistic-Roman
idiom.

Examples of Iron Age La Tene style

Late Roman Art (c.350-500)

Changes in Late Roman art resulted from the separation of the Roman Empire
during the Christian era into a weak Western Roman Empire (centered in Ravenna and
Rome) and a powerful Eastern Roman Empire (based in Constantinople). Life-size
sculptures and panel painting declined while mosaic art, funerary sculpture, and wall
painting flourished. Roman artists, master craftsmen, and artisans moved to the Eastern
capital to continue their trade long before Rome was conquered by Visigoths under Alaric
(410) and sacked by Vandals under Gaiseric. In Constantinople, Roman art absorbed
Eastern influences to create the Byzantine art of the late empire.

One of the most well-known instances of Roman dome architecture, the Church of
Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, used about 10,000 of these specialists and other workers.
The Hagia Sophia and the glistening Ravenna mosaics, both commissioned by Emperor
Justinian (527–565), served as the last vestiges of Roman art.

Examples of Christian Byzantine Art

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Church of Hagia Sophia

Emperor Justinian and his court

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Reference/s:

Akmenkalns, J., & Sneed, D. (2018, June 14). Geometric Period Pottery and Its
Decoration | Department of Classics. University of Colorado Boulder. Retrieved March
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and-its-decoration
Akmenkalns, J., Hander, G., Smith, S. A., & Sneed, D. (2018, June 15). The Orientalizing
Period in Ancient Greece. Department of Classics. Retrieved March 10, 2023, from
https://www.colorado.edu/classics/2018/06/15/orientalizing-period-ancient-greece

Arch of titus architecture [Photograph]. (n.d.). Visit Colosseum Rome. https://visit-

colosseum-rome.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/08/arch_of_titus_architecture-
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Diffendale, D. (n.d.). Centaur [Photograph]. https://cdn.kastatic.org/ka-perseus-

images/f320438e52551215ce6dd3d2460240f9bea0efe2.jpg

Fayum mummy portraits. (n.d.). Wikiwand. Retrieved March 10, 2023, from
https://www.wikiwand.com/en/Fayum_mummy_portraits

Gondek, R. M. (n.d.). Introduction to Ancient Greek art (article). Khan Academy.

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