Principles of International Politics

1.1 Introduction &

Realistic thinkers consider the concept of national

interest to be the most important in interpreting
and reviewing international behavior. There is
some ambiguity in this concept, yet it is the basic
mantra of international politics. National interest as
an object of foreign policy is the basis of all
decisions of the state. In this connection, in the
19th century, a quote of Britain's famous Foreign
Minister "Lord Palmerston" is repeatedly
mentioned, "No country has eternal enemies and
friends, only the national interest is eternal and
everlasting." Many scholars believe that the
significance of this statement has remained intact
since then. But the problem arises when some
basic conceptual questions are asked regarding
the national interest. For example, can national
interest be a universally accepted definition? Do
national interests keep changing with time and
place? Does the national interest always clearly
express the real interests of the people of the
country concerned or is the national interest
merely an expression of the values of the elite
class of a country. Thus there may be more
questions. Study of history makes it clear that
various statesmen have tried to justify their
policies in the name of national interest. For
example, Napoleon claimed in the war against
Russia that it was France. is for the national
interest. He made a similar
claim in his last campaign at Waterloo where he
was defeated. Thus Hitler had justified his
expansionist policies and multi-front war by calling
for Germany's national interest. In this connection,
a comment by the British scholar "Nebel Maxwell"
is also very suggestive, according to him, "the
determining element of national interest in any
state is the ruling ruling and superior class, which
according to its class interest decides the definition
of national interest". " In spite of all this, there is a
broad consensus that the unity, integrity and
protection of geographical boundaries of the
country is considered as the primary national
interest.

“Mourgentho” in his book “In Defense of National

Interest” has written that “Nationality should be
considered as the only criterion of foreign policy”.
Mourgantho classified national interest into
permanent, essential and primary and secondary.

1.2 Objectives

The main objective of national interest is at the

international level, all nations want that they
should establish their prestige and supremacy in
international politics, give strong importance to
their domestic policies as well as foreign policy, to
get economic benefits, military benefits, if possible
any

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2
Adopt the policy of non-alignment, for example,
when India became independent, at that time the
whole world was going through a period of cold
war. On the one hand, America was the capitalist
power and on the other, Soviet Russia as a
communist power, therefore India considered it
necessary to adopt the policy of non-alignment in
view of its immediate national interest. The primary
objective of national interest is to protect the unity,
integrity and geographical boundaries of the
country as well as to carry forward its policy.

1.3 National Interest: Meaning

The policy and principle on which all the countries

participating in international politics conduct their
work is called "national interest". This national
interest is the cornerstone of any country's foreign
policy. In December 1947, Jawaharlal Nehru, while
giving a speech in the Lok Sabha, said, “The basis
of the foreign policy of any country is the
protection of its national interests. The aim of
India's foreign policy is to safeguard its national
interest. ,

National interest is a very flexible and broad term.

The national interest of each country is of different
types according to its needs. It is determined by
geographical and historical conditions. The
economic and military elements of each country,
its ancient traditions, ethics, customs, religious,
philosophical, social ideologies and beliefs,
participate in the formation of national interest. On
the basis of this, the people and rulers of each
country consider certain things
necessary and useful from the point of view of
their national interest and make their foreign policy
on the basis of these.

The concept of national interest is very vague and

hence it is difficult to define it. According to "Rema
Aron" the concept of national interest is so vague
that it is meaningless or can be called a
pretentious notion at the most. According to
“Charles Lurch” and “Abdul Saeed”, “the
overarching, long-term and continuous objective
for the attainment of which the state, nation and
government all find themselves striving for is the
national interest. According to “Von Dijk”, national
interest can be defined as something which states
want to protect or achieve in competition with each
other. National interest is the desires of the
sovereign state which it seeks in relation to other
nations. The aspirations that a state has in
comparison to other states are generally called
foreign policy goals and the goals are called
national interests. These foreign policy goals are
also called goals and objectives. The goal of
foreign policy is the long-term interest while the
objectives are only the immediate short-term.

It is a controversial question whether national

interest is the object of foreign policy or whether it
is a permanent, unchanging and power-linked
concept according to value thinkers who consider
national interest to be the objective. According to
the thinkers who consider it to be a value-based
concept, it is a concept associated with additional
values of power. According to “Paddleford” and
“Lincoln”, “the concept of national interest is linked
to the basic values of society,
this value is the welfare of the nation, the
protection of many political beliefs, the national
way of life, territorial integrity and the protection of
borders.

Sometimes the term national interest is also used

for the analysis of goals. Often there is a sense of
ambiguity in its meaning.

“Paul Seabury” has expressed this ambiguity by

stating that the term “national interest” is used in at
least three senses: “First” is the idea of the
national interest embodying the ideal goals to be
attained in the future, The nation wants to achieve
through its foreign policy. It is called as idealistic
civic concept of national interest. The other
important meaning of "second" national interest is
descriptive. In this sense, national interest refers to
those goals which any nation continuously tries to
achieve through its leadership. In this sense the
national interest is not a spiritual thing but a
realistic one. “Third” in this sense means the
national interest to those goals which are accepted
by the leaders of a nation. "Joseph Frekel" in his
book "National Interest" has explained the national
interest as a functional interpreter of the nation's
aspirations, foreign policy and formulating element
of disputes.
1.4 Development of the Concept of National
Interest

The goal of foreign policy is to achieve or protect

national interests. "Lord Palmerston" said years
ago that "we have no eternal friends and we have
no everlasting enemies. Only our
interests are eternal and it is our duty to promote
those interests."

In the ancient and middle ages, the interests of the

states were not considered different from the
interests of the overlords. The king used to fight for
his personal pride, by performing Ashwamedha or
Rajasuya Yagya, he became a Chakravarti and the
people were also proud of the king's pride. The
king used to take professional soldiers to Digvijay.
On his return, he used to distribute some of the
looted goods among the subjects also. So that
was politics, foreign policy was limited only to the
policy of war or not.

With the rise of nation states, international politics

was no longer so simple. Industrial revolution,
commercial innovation, scientific outlook, the
promotion of means of transport and
communication, as a result of all this

Politics was not just a game of kings, princes,

feudal commanders. Modern nation states first
emerged in Europe. With this there was a change
in the nature of international relations. Accordingly,
the foreign policy of the states was also shaped by
taking new dimensions. Instead of the personal
interests of the rulers, the interest of the states
increased in importance. The wars of the Spanish
succession or the Austrian succession were not
fought only for the interests of any dynasties,
princes or kings. The interests and demerits of
many nations were embodied in their origin,
manifest and unmanifest.
1.5 Types of National Interest

"Thomas Robinson" has divided the various types

of national interest into six categories.

1.5.1 Interests of the First Class

These are the interests which are of utmost

importance to a state and for whose protection the
state is always ready to make the greatest of
sacrifices and sacrifices. The biggest interest of
this type is the security of the nation.

1.5.2 Secondary interests.

These are those interests which are less important

than the primary interests but still necessary for
the maintenance of the power of the state.
Examples of this class of interests are the security
of their citizens abroad and ensuring that the
diplomatic immunities of ambassadors abroad are
protected.

1.5.3 Permanent Interest

These are the long-term goals and objectives of

the state almost always. A beautiful example of
this is the maintenance of freedom of navigation in
the great seas by Great Britain to protect its
colonies and foreign trade. Such purpose of India
is to make peaceful economic development of the
country.
1.5.4 Variable Interest

These are such interests of the nation which a

nation considers necessary for the national
interest in a particular situation. Such interests are
often different from those of the first and second
order. They are influenced by public opinion and
views of different people.

1.5.5 Common Interest

Common interests are those conditions which are

going to benefit that country in general or in the
economic, commercial and political fields, it was a
common interest for Great Britain to maintain the
balance of power in Europe.

1.5.6 Specific Interests

These arise out of common interests and are

closely related to them. like power in europe

It was the common interest of Britain to maintain

the balance, but to maintain this interest it was

It was also necessary that in front of the British

island groups, across the English Channel,
Belgium and

The territories of Holland should not be owned by

any superpower of Europe. If Napoleon and Hitler
As any commander takes possession of this
region, then he will attack England from here and

Could have planned to win him. Both had tried so.

Therefore, it is always the god of Britain.

Efforts are made that Belgium should always

remain neutral and it is dominated by some
superpower of Europe.

do not install For this reason it was of special

interest to Britain.

In addition to the above six types of interests,

Robinson has also described three other types of
international interests. In this, “the first common
interest” is the “proven interest”. They mean such
interests which are equally beneficial and useful
for two or more states. Like both the US and
Britain wanted the Soviet Union over Europe. Or
do not be dominated by any one superpower. "The
other type of interest is complementary interest".
These interests, although not similar, can form the
basis of agreements on certain questions in two
countries, such as the interests of Britain and
Portugal. It had the advantage in maintaining
friendship with and keeping it independent, that by
this he could control the power of Spain and could
extend his power in the dark ocean.Similarly,
Portugal was also required to maintain relations
with Britain and This was a great advantage in
stabilizing his maritime sovereignty that he could
secure protection from potential Spanish
domination. "Interests of the third type are
conflicting interests; It is often a cause of
conflict between two countries. Jammu and
Kashmir is a part of India due to the legal
accession of India, Pakistan wants to make it a
part of its state. There has also been a failed
military struggle with this.It is the conflicting
interest of both.

1.6 Long term and immediate national

Basically, there are two types of national interest -

virtuous and non-verbal interest or long-term and
immediate national interest. The national interest
in the long run is the fundamental and most
important interest of a nation. These are the
interests of a state on which no state is ready to
make concessions, and for whose protection it can
be ready to wage war if necessary, the poignant
interest of a country is considered so basic that
other interests of the national interest. All aspects
are considered secondary before it. In this, the
protection of national security, independence and
integrity etc. is prominent. The basic objective of
the state is to provide protection from external
enemies and to maintain order in the internal area.
In the interest of national security, foreign policy
makers join in mutual security treaties, form treaty
arrangements against potential enemy countries,
try to encircle them diplomatically, and by adding
or strengthening economic, cultural trade relations
with many countries, they are in the sphere of
influence. Trying to bring and maintain. Until the
First World, the system of secret security treaties
was the most important and recognized tool of
national
security. How much war time these treaties were
kept secret, what can be estimated from this that
the address of the two-party treaty was not known
to anyone other than some supreme policy makers
of the countries concerned. Many decisions of the
Yalta summit became known to President Tyuman
only after taking office. In the name of national
security, after the Second World War, America
established the NATO Santo, Sito, Ryo Treaty
Organization. India, despite being non-aligned,
had signed a friendship treaty of twenty years
(1971) with the Soviet Union.

Those interests which are not poignant are

secondary interests of immediate importance and
for which a state does not want to take the risk of
war, they are called national interests of non-poor
and temporary nature. Growth is the spread of
culture etc.

1.7 Means of Promotion of National Interest

In international politics, there are conflicts and

conflicts between the national interests of the
states. India and China The national interests of
India and Pakistan, India and the US have at times
been seen at odds with each other. The purpose of
foreign policy of these countries is to conduct their
foreign relations in such a manner that the national
interest is guaranteed to be served in the most
favorable manner possible.

For the fulfillment of national interests, the state

adopts various means. "Kautilya" has written,
"Weak kings should be
extinguished by understanding and if necessary,
they should be made favorable by giving
something, but the king who is strong should be
subdued by secret and punishment.

According to Palmer and Perkins, the promotion of

national interest in international politics has the
following:

(1)

(2) Propaganda and political warfare

(3) Economic means

(4)

Imperialism and Colonialism

(5)

war

1.8 Central Elements of National Interest

National interest varies under the influence of

many factors. For example, the founder of China,
Dr. Suniyat Sen, believed that China's interest was
in establishing friendly relations with the Soviet
Union. But the belief of his successor Chiang Kai-
shek was just the opposite. Tauman and
Eisenhower considered America's security in
adopting the policy of
communist China, while Nichson and Kissinger
began to understand the promotion of American
interests in establishing good relations with China.
President Bill Clinton believed the stability of
American democracy in the success of economic
reforms in Russia and that is why he accepted a
loan of $ 1.60 billion to Russia.

There may be differences in national interests in

expansion, but in principle, the basic elements of
national interest are the same for all countries. All
countries want security, political independence and
want to maintain territorial integrity. After security,
all countries want trade facilities for themselves.
Security, economic prosperity, is the heart of
national interest. Apart from these, the
development of international peace, international
law, the success of international organization can
also be of national interest.

1.9 Foreign Policy and National Interest

The concept of national interest is the fundamental

principle of foreign policy. National interest is the
starting point of foreign policy making. As long as
the world remains politically divided into states,
then national interest in world politics will remain a
poignant subject. In fact, national interest is the
key to international politics. No matter how high a
nation's ideals and how generous
It cannot base its foreign policy on any assumption
other than national interest. However, idealists like
Wilson believe that building foreign policy based
on the notion of national interest is a dangerous
trend. Ethics and utility should guide us in the field
of foreign policy. We should not have any vested
interests of our own. On the contrary, realists like
Merinthau and Arnold Woolfers believe that
national interest is the soul of foreign policy. This is
the essence of foreign policy, it is its inspiration
and cornerstone. National interest is the
horoscope of foreign policy and the essence of the
best elements. In the words of Morgenthau, “The
objectives of foreign policy must be defined in
terms of national interest and must be nurtured by
sufficient force. ,

Foreign policy is conducted in the interest of

national interests. Principles are called for, but in
practice only those things are done according to
the need and situation in accordance with the
national interests. In fairness, foreign policy has
been conducted since ancient times in accordance
with the national interests and nations have mostly
not stood firm in defending the principles at the
cost of their own interests. The theoretical
approach is losing its influence in today's
international political horizon as a result of internal
contradictions and has failed to describe the
continuities of the aims and objectives of state
policies. If we look carefully, we will find that
despite the different ruling parties and their own
private or public philosophies, there exist many
such unity in British, American, French and
Russian foreign policy which transcends individual
beliefs or
principles. At the beginning of the post-war period,
the Labor Government of England adopted a
policy of protecting the interests of the country in
its essence, whose protection was considered
necessary for centuries by the Tories and the
Higos. Similarly, Dulles Eisenhower's foreign policy
in the United States focused on the same central
goals of the country as the Roosevelt and Tauman
administrations. To protect American commercial
and economic interests, Nixon-Kisinger extended
a hand of friendship to China. That is to say that
even though the methods, measures and means
change, but the interests and objectives of a
country remain relatively constant and therefore
foreign policy is conducted according to the
national interests, there is flexibility in it, not the
obstinate principles. The politicians who formulate
foreign policy have to take paramount care of the
national interest and therefore have to curb their
beliefs, principles, etc. If the freedom of the nation
is to be protected, then its geographical location,
its international role, its interests, etc. will have to
be fully taken care of and its social, religious,
philosophy and ideological views will have to be
considered secondary. According to the time and
situation, the foreign policy has to be conducted
according to the demand of the national interest. In
this also
There is a hierarchy or hierarchy of interests. the
primary interests are protected first and

Subsequent interests. There are some interests

which are to be protected at all costs and some
such

There are interests. Other interests are those

interests which
have to be protected under certain circumstances.

Those whose protection, although desirable, are

almost never protected. This

The task of foreign policy is to determine

appropriately this hierarchy of interests and the
interests of other nations.

Decide your path while evaluating foreign policy.

advances in military science and technology,

Due to various factors like economic prosperity or

country's disintegration etc.

Changes keep coming and foreign policy changes

accordingly.

It is true that the national interest of each state

varies depending on its circumstances and needs,
but there are at least three things that each state
must necessarily place in its foreign policy. they
are

(1) self-defense; Self-Preservation

(2) Security; Security

(3) Public Welfare of the nation

Self-defense means that every nation should

maintain its sovereignty and national integrity.
Security means to protect
the state from external attacks and public welfare
means that the state should make efforts for the
happiness and prosperity of its citizens.

In short, nations set their goals keeping in mind

the interests of the nation and foreign policy is only
a means to achieve these goals.

1.10 Concept of National Interest: Critical

Evaluation

Interest: Critical Appraisal )

Idealists believe that 'the concept of national

interest is a dangerous concept. If one nation
gives priority to its vested interests or interests,
then the interests of other nations are neglected.
Today the states of the world are inter-dependent
on each other and if they give priority to their
interests, then the concept of world peace,
international cooperation etc. will remain as a
mere imagination.

Pro. Reynolds is a staunch critic of the national

interest approach. They say that the foreign policy
of a country is possible to be based on the sole
national interest if the interests of different
countries are the same,
But it is not the same. If each country conducts
foreign policy considering its own interests as
paramount, then there should always be conflict in
it, but in reality this is not the case. Therefore,
foreign policy is not based only on national
interest, it is an illusion, which politicians create for
the
fulfillment of their personal interests. When these
leaders see people angry and angry due to
internal satisfaction, misgovernance and economic
difficulties, then they fear that the public will
consider them responsible for this plight and
become their opponents and will not vote for them.
They turn their attention to the opposing countries
to strengthen the mutual situation and to mislead
the public. For example, in Indonesia, when
people were troubled by economic and social
problems, President Sukarna adopted Takaravi
from Malaysia to divert their attention, supporting
this policy to protect national interest and honor.

Pro. Reynolds has also criticized the idea of

national interest because it often ignores the
interests of the individual and forgets the limits and
limits of national interest. Morgenthau has said
while discussing the limits of national interest. That
sometimes the subnational, international and
supranational interests overpower the national
interests and impose many restrictions on them.
Semi-national interests mean the minority,
economic and ethnic groups of a country that give
the form of national interests to the interests of
their specific class. If the capitalist class is
dominant in a country, then on the strength of its
wealth, it can give the form of national policy to the
policies which give special benefit to their class.
The meaning of international interests is that
sometimes the minority section of a country starts
considering itself as integral to the government of
another country and considers its interests as their
national interest. Many of the new states that were
created in Europe after the Treaty of Versailles
were German minorities. In Czechoslovakia these
Germanic
peoples were called Sudet. At the rise of Hitler, he
became a supporter of German ideology and
started emphasizing on meeting with Germany
contrary to his country's policy and national
interests. The supranational interests of a country
refer to the interests of religious institutions and
international organizations. The organization of the
church was very influential in medieval Europe.
The United Nations and many of its agencies are
higher than the nations. They impose many
restrictions on them. International law also limits
national interests to many degrees.

While making national interest the basis of its

foreign policy, every country nowadays also has to
pay attention to the fact that it should not do any
great harm to the interests of other countries. This
has become even more necessary in the atomic
age. Because at this time no country is its enemy

but may harm other countries. Therefore, it

becomes necessary to look after the interests of
other nations along with the interests of their
respective nations. At this time each keeps a close
watch not only on his own interests but also on the
work to be done by other states. Because of this,
each nation has to follow many ethical, legal and
traditional rules while determining its foreign policy.
They act as a restriction on the national interest.

1.11 Summary

In this chapter as a whole, the importance of

national
interest in international politics has been
described. The concept of national interest is the
basic principle of foreign policy. the beginning of
foreign policy making

The point is the national interest. In this unit,

national interest is mainly divided into six parts,
first of all, the meaning of national interest has
been described, in which what is the national
interest, which elements are involved in the
formation of national interest. has gone. After this,
the historical development of national interest,
types of national interest, long-term and immediate
national interest, the means of promotion of
national interest, the central element of national
interest have been described in detail. While
defining national interest as an element of foreign
policy as a whole has always been challenging, its
relevance can always be seen in international
politics.

1.12 Vocabulary

National interest- National interest is the basis of

diplomacy in the determination of foreign policy.
Interests of the first class - By the interests of the
first class, such interests for which the nation is
ready to sacrifice itself.
Secondary interest - Secondary interest is said to
be that which is of less importance than the
primary interest. Permanent interest - It is
permanent, even after changing the power of the
state, there is no effect on it. Variable interest- It
keeps on changing according to the time and
situation. Common interests - These are the
interests that bring
benefits in the economic, commercial and political
field. Specific interests arise out of common
interest in a specific situation. Complementary
interest- arises out of agreements between two
countries on certain questions.

Long term interest- This is the prime interest of the

nation on which it does not compromise.
Immediate interest - This interest is determined
according to the immediate needs.

Diplomacy In international politics, diplomacy is

used to implement foreign policy accurately.
Thinkers like Morgenthau also call it the eye and
ear of international politics.

Propaganda and political warfare - this is done by

a nation to raise the eyebrows against the enemy
nations.

custom question

Question:- "Foreign policy as the main element of

national interest" Briefly explain the above
statement?

Ans- The concept of national interest is the

fundamental principle of foreign policy. Any nation
decides its foreign policy according to its national
interest. As long as the world remains politically
divided into states, national interest will remain a
poignant subject in foreign policy. Although the
definition of national interest is quite vague and it
has been called the personal interest of the ruling
rulers at times, yet
the foreign policy of any nation is governed on the
basis of national interest. Foreign policy is a
means to achieve the goals of national interest.

1.13 Answers to Practice Questions

7.14 References

1.Mourgentho Haines (1951), “In Defense of

National Interest”, University Press of America. 2.
Pant, Pushpesh (2008), “International Relations in
the 21st Century”, Tata McGrawhill Publications
Company Ltd.

3. Hill, Christopher (2013), The National Interest in

Questions, Foreign Policy in Multiculture

1.15 Helpful Useful Text

1. Bruchiel, Scott (2005), The National Interest in

International Relations Theory, Pellgrave
Macmillan 2. Khanna, B. N. (2003), International
Relations, Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.

1.16 Essay Questions

Question: What is meant by national interest?

Explaining its development, throw light on the main
means of growth?