Mauryan Period are necessarily culturally homogeneous.

The centre in this definition is

embodied either in the person of the king/emperor or in the political
institution which is organized to hold together the territories under one
6th to 3rd BCE
control.
In this Unit we will outline territorial expansion of the kingdom of
• The term ‘imperial’ comes from the Latin word imperium. This indicates
Magadha. This will provide an understanding of how and why it was
relative concentration of authority at the centre. The centre controls
possible for Magadha to become an ‘empire’.
territorially contiguous units which ultimately attain some symbols of
we should be able to: common political identity. Generally, Roman empire in the ancient world
-identify the location of Magadha and note its strategic importance; is taken as the classical example to which all others, including the
Mauryan, are then compared.
-the political history of Magadha during the two centuries preceding
Mauryan rule; • The nature of central authority in early empires was either dependent on
charismatic personality of the rulers and leaders and their exploits and,
-understand the notion of ‘empire’ in the context of early periods of most importantly, their upholding of a certain order of things which are
Indian history; sanctioned by tradition.
-events leading to the establishment of the Mauryan rule; • Common view about the Magadhan empire of the Mauryas is that it
-Mauryan kings – Chandragupta and Bindusara – and their expansionist could best be understood as a centralized bureaucratic empire. This kind
activities; of ‘empire’ was prevalent in other parts of the world as well.

-explain the context of accession and coronation of Ashoka and • Centralized bureaucratic empires were usually established through
importance of the Kalinga war; military and other exploits of individuals, generally in periods of turmoil,
strife and unrest of various kinds, and thus, the establishment of their rule
• Magadha had become the nucleus of political power of the well known is considered to have brought about peace and order. At the same time it
Mauryan dynasty. would be natural for such empires to have enemies, because in their rise
Understand the notion of ‘empire’ in the context of early periods of to power they must have either usurped or challenged various interest
Indian history: groups. In new territories their policy of aggrandisement must have
nurtured animosity. The rulers have, therefore, to make allies, passive or
Modern Views on Definition of ‘Empire’:
active, to implement their aims through either matrimonial or diplomatic
• Most often, ‘empire’ is understood to designate a political system which alliances. In terms of political goals such empires visualize a unified
has under a central control a vast expanse of territories not all of which centralized polity in which decision making is monopolized. This means
that they replace earlier traditional or local tribal authorities. In the rise powerful. The seven elements (saptanga) of the state, in general texts on
and success of such empires geo-political factors are usually said to shape ancient Indian polity, are stated to be the ministers (mantri), ally (mitra),
their activities. It was absolutely essential for such empires to be able to taxes (kara), army (sena), fort (durga), land or territory (desh) and to these
mobilize various resources, those of economic raw materials and man the Arthashastra significantly adds an eighth element: the enemy (shatru).
power in particular. For active political support these empires were
• In defining the king as the most powerful being in the state, Kautilya,
usually dependent on urban economic, cultural and professional groups
the author of Arthashastra, also expects him to have exceptional qualities.
and, in a passive sense, from the wider social strata of peasants and urban
lower classes. Recruitment from upper class groups ensured proper • The success of Magadha marked the triumph of a monarchical form of
functioning of administrative bodies. In the ultimate analysis, the political organization over others such as ganga-samgha forms of political
administration, thus, evolved was expected to work for exploitative organization.
purposes. In other words, in the early empires there was a high degree of • The Mauryan period witnessed the formation of the first empire in the
inequality in society, permitting the privileged groups and regions to Indian subcontinent. The term ‘empire’ means the vast territory in which
exploit the resources produced by others. the command of the Mauryan emperor was established. The definition of
Indian Notion of Chakravarti-Kshetra: empire indicates heavy responsibility upon the Mauryan rulers to
administer the huge territory of their times.
• The idea of an emperor is expressed through the Sanskrit term
Chakravarti and the sphere of his ‘imperial rule’ by the term Chakravarti- • It included diverse regions with varied ethnic groups, different socio-
kshetra. economic conditions and multiple cultural patterns, and people of
different religious and linguistic backgrounds were brought together
• Though in early Brahmanic texts the kings performing sacrifices like
under one purview
Ashvamedha and Rajasuya are mentioned it is only in the Arthashastra
that a clear idea is given of what a chakravarti- kshetra was. It is said to The Magadhan kingdom began to grow during c. 6th century BCE itself.
be the land which extended north to south from Himalayas to the seas (of However, this process accelerated considerably under the Nandas and the
Indian Ocean) and measured a thousand yojanas. There is no doubt that Mauryas.
the Chakravarti ideal reflected the conventional ideas about an Indian The location of Ashokan inscriptions indicates that a major part of Indian
ruler’s sphere of influence and, in fact, it was an ideal never achieved subcontinent, excluding the eastern and southern extremities, had come
except, perhaps, by Ashoka. under Magadhan suzerainty.
• The Arthashastra and several other texts also list different limbs (angas) LOCATION OF MAGADHA
which together made a rashtra (state). Of the seven limbs of the state
mentioned in the Arthashastra the king is made out to be the most • Magadha was one of 16 Mahajanapadas.
• The kingdoms that surrounded Magadha were: Anga in the east, Vajji • Those pertaining to early Jaina tradition are the Acharanga Sutra and the
confederacy to the north, to its immediate west the kingdom of Kashi, and Sutrakritanga which are considered earlier than the others.
further west, the kingdom of Kosala.
• Later Buddhist chronicles like the Mahavamsa and Dipavamsa, the
• Geographically, Magadha’s location is such that it has in its vicinity comprehensive historical chronicle in Pali from compiled in Sri Lanka are
large tracts of alluvial soil. significant sources for events related particularly to Ashoka’s reign. The
Ceylonese Chronicles Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa throw light on the role
• The earliest capital of Magadha – Rajgriha – was situated to the south of
Asoka in spreading Buddhism in Sri Lanka.
the river Ganga.
• The Divyavadana (which is preserved outside India in the Tibetan and
• The capital of Magadha did, however, shift to Pataliputra (originally
Chinese Buddhist sources), they developed in the context of Buddhism’s
Pataligrama), situated on the confluence of several rivers like Ganga,
spread outside India.
Gondak, Son and Pun Pun. Pataliputra became the capital of Magadha
under the Mauryas. This enabled Magadha to effectively command the • The Arthashastra of Kautilya has been considered an important source of
uttarapatha (northern route) which lay to the north of Ganga along the information for the Mauryan period. the Arthashastra was originally
foothills of Himalayas. The river also came to be used as one of the main written by Kautilya, the minister of Chandragupta, and commented upon
arteries connecting Magadha with different regions and making heavy and edited by other writers during a subsequent period.
transport along the river possible. Thus, Magadha had certain natural
• Both inscriptions and coins as important sources of information for
advantages over other contemporaneous kingdoms, though some of which
understanding the early history of India become significant during the
like Avanti to its south-west, Kosala to its north-west and the Vajji
Mauryan period. The coins of this period, however, do not bear names of
confederacy to its north were equally powerful at the turn of 6th century
kings, and they are called punch-marked coins because different symbols
BCE.
are punched on them separately. The Mauryan punch-marked series are
• Recent researches have suggested that accessibility to iron mining areas, significant in that they were probably issued by a central authority as is
in particular, enabled the kingdoms like Magadha and Avanti to not only indicated by the uniformity of the symbols used.
produce good weapons of warfare but also in other ways. It facilitated the
• In contrast to the coins the inscriptional material for particularly
expansion of agrarian economy and thereby, the generation of substantial
Ashoka’s rule is extremely significant and unique in content. There are 14
surplus extracted by the state in the form of taxes. This, in turn, enabled
major edicts, seven minor rock edicts, seven pillar edicts and other
them to expand and develop their territorial base. Avanti, it must be noted,
inscriptions of Ashoka located at prominent places near towns and trade
became a serious competitor of Magadha for quite some time and was
routes in various parts of Indian subcontinent.
also located not far from the iron mines in eastern Madhya Pradesh.
POLITICAL HISTORY OF PRE-MAURYAN MAGADHA
Sources
• The flat plains and the availability of plentiful water from the perennial the expansion of Magadha westward and northward. Bimbisara also
rivers, such as the Ganga and its many tributaries, were among the undertook many expeditions and added more territories to his empire.
favourable ecological conditions which promoted the rise of a large state
• Magadha's most serious rival was Avanti with its capital Ujjain. Its king
in this particular region. Rivers also acted as major waterways for trade
Chanda Pradyota Mahasena fought Bimbisara, but ultimately the two
and travel.
thought it wise to become friends. He maintained friendly relations with
• Bimbisara, who was a contemporary of Buddha, started the process of Avanti but by military might annexed Brahmadatta of Anga whose capital
empire building in Magadha. It was strengthened by his son Ajatashatru Champa was an important commercial centre as a inland and maritime
and then by the Nandas. trade.
• The empire reached its glory and peaked with the advent of the Mauryan • He had cordial relations with the king of Gandhara. These diplomatic
Empire founded by Chandragupta Maurya. The first three Mauryan relations can be considered as a sign of the strength of Magadha. Thus,
emperors, Chandragupta, Bindusara and Ashoka, were the best known. Magadha became a powerful and prominent power. During his reign,
After Ashoka, the Mauryan Empire went into decline. Bimbisara patronised various religious sects and their leaders. He had an
encounter with Buddha as well. Bimbisara was a contemporary of both
Binbisara(546 - 494 B.C.):
Vardhamana Mahavira and Gautama Buddha.
• Bimbisara of the Haryanka dynasty is considered to be the first
• Tradition tells us that he was imprisoned by his son Ajatshatru who is
important ruler of Magadha. He pursued a three-pronged policy, namely,
said to have starved him to death. This is reported to have taken place
matrimonial alliances, friendship with strong rulers and conquest of weak
around 492 BCE.
neighbours to expand the empire.
Ajatshatru(494 - 462 B.C.):
• His first matrimonial alliance was with the ruling family of Kosala. He
married Kosaladevi, sister of Prasenajit. He was given the Kasi region as • The reign of Ajatasatru was remarkable for his military conquests. In
dowry which yielded large revenue. terms of expansionist policies the new Magadhan king(Ajatshatru)
followed a decisively more aggressive policy.
• Bimbisara married Chellana, a princess of the Lichchhavi family of
Vaisali. This matrimonial alliance secured for him the safety of the • King Prasenajit, ruler of Kosala, immediately took back Kasi, which he
northern frontier. Moreover, it facilitated the expansion of Magadha had handed out as dowry to Bimbisara. This led to a military
northwards to the borders of Nepal. He also married Khema of the royal confrontation between Magadha and Kosala. The struggle lasted until
house of Madra in central Punjab. Marriage relation with the different Prasenajit was overthrown and died at Rajgriha, the capital of Magadha
princely family gave enormous diplomatic prestige and paved the way for Empire. Kosala was then annexed to Magadha.
• The Vajji confederation of people whose mahajanapada lay to the north • During Udayin’s reign Magadhan kingdom extended in north to the
of the Ganga was Ajatshatru’s next target of attack. This war was a Himalayan ranges and in south to the Chota Nagpur hills. He is said to
lengthy one and tradition tells us that after a long period of 16 years he have built a fort on the confluence of Ganga and Son at Patna.
was able to defeat the Vajjis only through deceit by sowing the seeds of
• He laid the foundation of the new capital at Pataliputra situated at the
dissension amongst them.
confluence of the two rivers, the Ganges and the Son. Later it became
• His invasion of the kingdom of Avanti, the strongest rival of Magadha at famous as the imperial capital of the Mauryas.
that time, did not materialize though preparations are said to have been
• Despite the vastness of Magadha’s territories Udayin and the four kings
made for it. However, during his reign Kashi and Vaisali, the capital of
who succeeded him were unable to effectively rule and the last of these is
Vajji mahajanapada, had been added to Magadha, making it the most
said to have been overthrown by people of Magadha. Thus the Haryanka
powerful territorial power in Ganga valley.
dynasty came to an end and the Saisunaga dynasty came to power.
• Ajatashatru also fought and won a great success against a formidable
(Haryanka dynasty was succeeded by the Shishunaga dynasty followed by
confederacy led by the Lichchavis of Vaisali (king chetak) and the Mallas.
Nanda dynasty)
This had increased his power and prestige.
• Shisunaga, a viceroy at Banaras, was placed on the throne in 413 BCE.
• It was at this time that Ajatasatru realised the strategic importance of the
small village, Pataligrama (future Pataliputra). He fortified it to serve as a • Saisunaga defeated the king of Avanti which was made part of the
convenient base of operations against Vaisali. Magadhan Empire. After Saisunaga, the mighty empire began to collapse.
His successor was Kakavarman or Kalasoka. During his reign the second
• Buddhists and Jains both claim that Ajatasatru was a follower of their
Buddhist Council was held at Vaisali. Kalasoka was killed by the founder
religion. But it is generally believed that in the beginning he was a
of the Nanda dynasty.
follower of Jainism and subsequently embraced Buddhism. He is said to
have met Gautama Buddha. This scene is also depicted in the sculptures • The rule of Shisunaga dynasty, too, was of short duration and gave way
of Barhut. According to the Mahavamsa, he constructed several chaityas to the rule of the Nanda dynasty headed by the usurper Mahapadma
and viharas. He was also instrumental in convening the First Buddhist Nanda, in 362 BCE. It was during the rule of the Nandas in Magadha and
Council at Rajagriha soon after the death of the Buddha. the Ganga plains as a whole that the invasion of Alexander took place in
north-west India in 326 BCE which is often considered the beginning of
• By the time Ajatashatru died in 461 BCE Magadha had become
historic period in India. The Nandas are, therefore, often described as first
undisputedly the strongest power.
empire-builders of India. It must, however, be underlined that they did
Udayin and Nandas: inherit a large kingdom of Magadha which they then extended to more
distant frontiers. In later Purana writings Mahapadma Nanda is described
• Ajatshatru was succeeded by Udayin (460-444 BCE).
as the exterminator of all kshatriyas. It is further suggested that he ORIGIN OF THE MAURYAN RULE
overthrew all contemporary ruling houses. The enormous wealth of the
Chandragupta Maurya reign(322 – 298 B.C.)
Nandas is also referred to in the Tamil Sangam work Ahananuru by the
poet Mamulanar. • The founder of this dynasty was Chandragupta Maurya who overthrew
the last Nanda king – Dhanananda – in c. 321 BCE.
Nandas to Chandragupta Mauryas:
• It has been suggested by D. D. Kosambi that the most immediate and
• Mahapadma Nanda was succeeded by his eight sons, and they were
unexpected by-product of Alexander’s invasion of the north-west was that
together known as the navanandas or the nine Nandas. Dhana Nanda is
“it hastened the Mauryan conquest of the whole country.” He has argued
believed to be an arrogant and oppressive ruler who imposed heavy taxes
that because the tribes of Punjab had already been weakened it was not
on the common man. It made them quite unpopular among the masses and
difficult for the Magadhan army under Chandragupta to conquer the
ultimately Chandragupta took advantage of this public resentment and
whole of Punjab. Most of the Gangetic valley was already under the
along with Kautilya initiated a popular movement against the Nanda and
control of Magadha. Both Indian and foreign classical sources suggest
uprooted the Nanda rule and set up the Mauryan Empire. It was during
that Alexander’s retreat resulted in the creation of a vacuum, and,
this time that Alexander invaded India. The Nanda rule came to an end by
therefore, it was not difficult for Chandragupta to subdue the Greek
321 BCE.
garrisons left there.
• Despite all these dynastic changes Magadha continued to remain the
• Both Indian and foreign classical sources agree that Chandragupta
foremost kingdom in Ganga valley. Deeper reasons for the success of
overthrew the last of the Nanda king(Dhanananda) and occupied his
Magadha lay in its advantageous geographical location, its access to iron
capital Pataliputra and this success is linked with his accession to the
mines and the control it had come to exercise over important land and
throne around 321 BCE. As mentioned earlier, the political rise of
river trade routes.
Chandragupta was also linked with the invasion of Alexander in north-
The early kings of Magadha entrenched its stability by achieving the west. The years 325-323 BCE were crucial in the sense that many of the
following: governors who were stationed in the north-west after Alexander’s
invasion were assassinated or had to retreat and this enabled
conquering the Anga capital of Champa, & incorporating the
Chandragupta to gain control of this region rather quickly.
neighbouring kingdoms through war and alliance
• One of the first major achievements of Chandragupta Maurya on the
The Magadhan empire can be described as a centralized bureaucratic
military front was his contact with Seleucus Nikator who ruled over the
empire.
area west of the Indus around 305 BCE. In the war that ensued,
The ideal of a Chakravarti was not achieved by most ancient Indian kings. Chandragupta is said to have turned out victorious and eventually, peace
The king in the Arthasastra was expected to have exceptional qualities. was established with this Greek viceroy around 303 BCE. In return for
500 elephants Seleucus gave him eastern Afghanistan, Baluchistan and spent the rest of his life and died in the orthodox Jaina way by slow
area west of the Indus. The Satrapies, thus, called were Arachosia, starvation.
Paropanisadae, Aria and Gedrosia. A marriage alliance was also
Bindusara(298 – 273 B.C.):
concluded. Further, Seleucus sent an ambassador called Megasthenes who
lived in the court of Chandragupta for many years. This achievement • Bindusara, the son of Chandragupta, is said to have ascended the throne
meant that the territorial foundation of the Mauryan empire had been in 297 BCE. Bindusara is called by the Greeks as “Amitragatha” meaning
firmly laid, with the Indus and Gangetic plains well under Chandragupta’s “slayer of foes”. His religious leanings are said to have been towards the
control. Ajivikas.

• It is suggested by a majority of scholars that Chandragupta ultimately • Bindusara received Deimachus as ambassador from the Syrian king
established his control not only in the north-west and the Ganges plains, Antiochus I.
but also in western India and Deccan. The only parts left out of his empire • Many scholars believe that since Ashoka is credited to have conquered
were, thus, present-day Kerala, Tamil Nadu and parts of north-eastern only Kalinga the extension of Mauryan empire beyond the Tungabhadra
India. must have been the work of his predecessors. It can, therefore, be
• According to Indian tradition Chandragupta was assisted by the Brahmin suggested that it was probably in Bindusara’s reign that the Mauryan
Kautilya, also known as Chanakya or Vishnugupta, in defeating the control of Deccan, and Mysore plateau in particular, was firmly
Nandas and taking the throne of Pataliputra to rise to power. He followed entrenched.
the policy of capturing territories (the Indus, the Gangetic plains and the • Bindusara supported the Ajivikas, a religious sect.
far north-west) and laid the territorial foundation of the Mauryan empire.
The Arthashastra is attributed to Kautilya who is said to have been well- • Buddhist sources suggest the death of Bindusara around 273-272 BCE.
versed in not only the political principles of warfare and aggrandisement After his death there was a struggle for succession among his sons for
but was also deeply knowledgeable about organization of the state and about four years. Ultimately, around 269-268 BCE Ashoka was crowned
society to ensure that the empire did not collapse. Several sources that Bindusara’s successor.
point to the role of the Brahmin Kautilya as advisor and the motivating Ashoka(273 – 232 B.C.):
force behind Chandragupta cannot be ignored. The Puranas even suggest
that Chanakya had appointed Chandragupta as king of the realm. • James Prinsep deciphered a Brahmi inscription at Sanchi referring to a
king called devanampiya (beloved of the gods) piyadassi (of pleasing
• Finally, the Jaina tradition informs us that Chandragupta, having become looks) in 1837. This was compared with what was known from the Sri
a Jaina, abdicated the throne and went to south at Sravana Belgola, near Lankan chronicle Mahavamsha and then it could be established that the
Mysore along with Jain monks led by with Bhadrabahu, the Jaina saint. king of the inscription was indeed Ashoka.
At Shravana Belgola, the Jaina religious centre in south Karnataka, he
• Ashoka, the son of Bindusara, came to the throne around 273 BCE. He Odisha, still had to be brought under Mauryan control. It was of strategic
is the renowned king of the Mauryan empire for many reasons. importance as it controlled routes to south India both by land and sea.
• The fame of Ashoka is due to the fact that he turned away from war and • Ashoka himself in Rock Edict XIII describes his conquest of Kalinga
tried to establish a system of rule based on the principle of Dhamma. At which is said to have taken place eight years after his consecration,
the time of the death of Bindusara his empire included practically the around 260 BCE. In this war the Kalingans were completely routed and
whole of the Indian subcontinent except Kalinga. Chandragupta Maurya “one hundred thousand were slain and many times that number died”.
added territories and expanded the physical boundaries of the Mauryan Though on the battlefield he was victorious the inscription goes on to
realm. But, Ashoka is credited with uniting the diverse territories through describe his remorse which then ultimately turned him towards Dhamma.
the policy of Dhamma.
• A policy of conquest through war was given up and replaced by a policy
• According to the Puranas the Mauryan rule lasted for 137 years. The of conquest through Dhammavijaya(/dhammaghosha (drum of dhamma)
Mauryan age in Indian history lasted from the late 4th century BCE to the than bherighosha (war drum).). This was meant to work both at the state
1st quarter of the 2nd century BCE (Chakravarti 2013: 131). This period and personal levels and totally transformed attitude of the king and his
has left an indelible imprint on Indian history. officials towards their subjects.
The Kalinga War: • Another most important effect of the Kalinga war was that Asoka
embraced Buddhism under the influence of Buddhist monk, Upagupta.
• During his father’s reign Ashoka served as a viceroy at Ujjain and also
at Taxila. It is suggested that he was sent to Taxila for a special purpose: Asoka and Buddhism:
to quell a revolt. After being successful at Taxila, the Buddhist sources tell
• According some scholars, his conversion to Buddhism was gradual and
us, he was sent to Ujjain as viceroy. The events in his personal life here,
not immediate. About 261 B.C. Asoka became a Sakya Upasaka (lay
like his marriage to a Vidisha merchant’s daughter and birth of their two
dsicple) and two and a half years later, a Bikshu (monk). Then he gave up
children Mahinda and Sanghamita are said to have had a great influence
hunting, visited Bodh-Gaya, and organized missions.
in turning Ashoka towards Buddhism. His conversion to Buddhism to
have taken place after the Kalinga war. • He appointed special officers called Dharma Mahamatras to speed up
the progress of Dhamma. In 241 B.C., he visited the birth place of
• About his accession, there is some general agreement that he was, in
Buddha, the Lumbini Garden, near Kapilavastu. He also visited other holy
fact, not the crown prince (Yuvaraja). Therefore, he was involved in a
places of Buddhism like Sarnath, Sravasti and Kusinagara.
struggle against other princes before he ascended the throne.
• He sent a mission to Sri Lanka under his son Mahendra and daughter
• Though his predecessors had intruded into Deccan and south and,
Sangamitra who planted there the branch of the original Bodhi tree.
perhaps, conquered parts of it, Kalinga, i.e., the present-day state of
• Asoka convened the Third Buddhist Council at Pataliputra in 240 B.C. 5. Consideration and non-violence to animals and courtesy to relations
in order to strengthen the Sangha. It was presided over by Moggaliputta and liberality to Brahmins.
Tissa.
6. Tolerance among all the religious sects.
Asoka’s Dhamma:
7. Conquest through Dhamma instead of through war.
• Although Asoka embraced Buddhism and took efforts to spread
The concept of non-violence and other similar ideas of Asoka’s Dhamma
Buddhism, his policy of Dhamma was a still broad concept. It was a way
are identical with the teachings of Buddha. But he did not equate
of life, a code of conduct and a set of principles to be adopted and
Dhamma with Buddhist teachings. Buddhism remained his personal
practiced by to all religions of the world, which he appealed to his
belief. His Dhamma signifies a general code of conduct. Asoka wished
subjects to follow. Although Ashoka himself believed in Buddhism, he
that his Dhamma should spread through all social levels.
never discrimi- nated against other faiths or religions.
• Ashoka claims that hunters and fishermen had given up killing and
• A closer look at Asokan edicts illustrates that basic attributes of
practised dharma. This means that they had taken to a sedentary
Dhamma included compassion (daya), charity (dana), truthfulness, purity
agricultural life.
and gentleness.
Ashoka's Edicts:
• His principles of Dhamma were clearly stated in his Edicts. The main
features of Asoka’s Dhamma as mentioned in his various Edicts may be • He is the first Indian king to speak directly to the people through his
summed as follows: inscriptions. They were engraved on rocks, on polished stone pillars
mounted by capitals and in the caves.
1. Service to father and mother, practice of ahimsa, love of truth,
reverence to teachers and good treatment of relatives. • The location of various Rock Edicts and Pillar Edicts through which
Ashoka preached his policy of Dhamma gives us a fair idea of the extent
2. Prohibition of animal sacrifices and festive gatherings and avoiding
of Magadhan empire during his reign. There are 33 edicts comprising 14
expensive and meaningless ceremonies and rituals.
Major Rock Edicts, 2 known as Kalinga edicts, 7 Pillar Edicts, some
3. Efficient organization of administration in the direction of social Minor Rock Edicts and a few Minor Pillar Inscriptions which give us this
welfare and maintenance of constant contact with people through the information.
system of Dhammayatras.
• The Major Rock Edicts are located at: Shahbazgarhi and Maneshra
4. Humane treatment of servants by masters and prisoners by government near Peshawar, Khalsi near Dehradun, Sopara in Thane district,
officials. Girnar near Junagarh in Kathiawar, Dhauli near Bhuvaneshwar and
Jaugada in Gangam district of Odisha.
• In Karnataka the Minor Rock Edicts appear, among other places, at: • Extension of the principle of non-violence to state policy was a unique
Siddapura, Jatinga-Rarneshwara, and Brahmagiri. experiment that was never repeated in the annals of the political history of
India. Ashoka has been idealized as a benevolent despot.
• Other Minor Rock Edicts are found at: Rupnath near Jabalpur in
Madhya Pradesh, Sahasram in Bihar, Bairat near Jaipur in Rajasthan, • The edicts reveal Ashoka’s belief in peace, righteousness and justice and
and Maski in Karnataka. his concern for the welfare of his people. By rejecting violence and war,
advocating peace and the pursuit of dhamma, Ashoka negated the
• The edicts were written mostly in the Brahmi script and in Magadhi and
prevailing philosophy of statecraft that stressed that an emperor had to
Prakrit. The Kandahar inscriptions are in Greek and Aramaic, while the
strive to extend and consolidate his empire through warfare and military
two inscriptions in north-west Pakistan are in Kharosthi script.
conquests.
• The geographical spread of the edicts essentially defines the extent of
• The Pillars bearing Asoka’s inscriptions are found at:  Delhi
the vast empire over which Ashoka ruled. The second inscription
(originally located at Topara near Ambala and Meerut); Kaushambi in
mentions lands beyond his borders: “the Chodas (Cholas), the Pandyas,
Uttar Pradesh; Lauriya Araraj, Lauriya Nandangarh and Rampurva in
the Satiyaputa, the Keralaputa (Chera), even Tamraparni, the Yona king
Bihar, Sanchi near Bhopal; Sarnath near Benaras; and Rummindei
Antiyoka (Antiochus), and the kings who are the neighbours of this
in Nepal.
Antioka”.
• Rock edict I call for a ban on animal sacrifice and social gatherings like
• In the south are mentioned the Cholas, Pandyas, Sataputras and
samaj. The Rock Edict II declares measures to be taken for the
Keralaputras as people living outside Mauryan empire. Inside the empire,
construction of hospitals, roads, inns, wells and planting of shade giving
too, there were people of diverse origins and cultures. For example, in the
trees. Third, Fourth and Twelfth rock edicts ask people to respect parents,
north-west are mentioned the Kambojas and Yavanas. They are mentioned
relatives, brahmanas and shramanas(monks). Pillar Edict III asks subjects
along with other peoples like Bhojas, Pitinikas, Andhras and Pulindas
to control violence, cruelty, anger and envy.
who can be located in parts of western India and Deccan.
• He also appointed a special type of officials called dhamma mahamatras.
• The territory of the Seleucid king Antiochus-II lay outside his empire in
Their main function was to over see and supervise the peaceful function
the north-west, so were the territories of Cholas, Pandyas, Keralaputras
of the principles of Dhamma.
and Satyaputras, as also the island of Sri Lanka, outside his empire in the
south. In east the empire of the Mauryas seems to have included north and Why did he give so much attention to this policy?
south Bengal. Magadhan empire, thus, reached its greatest territorial
• Twelfth rock edict is specially important since it says “ the king
expansion under Ashoka. However, simultaneously, there was also a
Piyadassi, the beloved of the gods, respected all sects whether ascetics or
conscious attempt to end all wars in his empire.
householders, and he honours them with gifts and honours of various
kinds…let an alien sect also be respected on every occasion.” It shows two children, Mahinda and Sanghamitta, to Sri Lanka to propagate
clearly that neither Dhamma was Buddhism nor Ashoka was trying to Buddhism. It is believed that they took a branch of the original bodhi tree
convert people to Buddhism. to Sri Lanka.
• Historians believe that by the later half of Ashoka’s rule, expansion of ADMINISTRATIVE APPARATUS
the empire was almost complete. It was an empire having different
It is beyond doubt that Asoka managed to solidify the huge empire whose
cultural, social and religious groups. In order to save the empire from
foundation was laid down by Chandragupta Maurya. The working of the
political tensions arising out of these differences there were two ways. He
vast empire was possible due to efficient administrative arrangements
could either increase the size of armed forces to seek military solutions to
undertaken in this period.
these conflicts, which might have needed increased taxes and in turn
could lead to more resistance. Another alternative was peaceful resolution Sources
of various conflicts by cementing and welding of divergent groups. The chief sources which throw light upon the nature of the Mauryan
• Ashoka chose the second alternative in order to promote harmony and administration are: i)The Arthashastra by Kautilya, ii)Fragments of
peace in his kingdom. Ashoka thus has an important place in Indian Megasthenes’ Indica, iii)Ashokan inscriptions.
history because he was the first king to initiate policies of peace rather i)The Arthashastra by Kautilya:
than of war and aggression.
• Kautilya was also called ‘Indian Machiavelli’. The manuscript of
The following statements about Ashoka are correct: Arthasastra was first discovered by R. Shama Sastri in 1904.
During the latter half of his life he turned towards Buddhism. He replaced • Arthashastra is the first Indian prescriptive text to define a state and its
the policy of conquest of war by conquest of dhamma. In his inscriptions functions.
he is usually known as Davanampiya Piyadassi.
• It is ascribed to Kautilya or Chanakya who is considered as the chief
Third Buddhist Council: minister of Chandragupta Maurya.
• One of the major events of Ashoka’s reign was the convening of the • It mentions the duties of a king, his council of ministers and the state
Third Buddhist sangha (council) in 250 BCE in the capital Pataliputra. officials.
• An important outcome of this sangha was the decision to expand the • The text also throws light upon civil and criminal law and foreign
reach of Buddhism to other parts of the region and to send missions to diplomacy.
convert people to the religion. Buddhism thus became a proselytizing
religion and missionaries were sent to regions outlying the empire such as • The problem with this source is that it is a theoretical text and a portion
Kashmir and South India. According to popular belief, Ashoka sent his of this text was composed in the Mauryan period. Therefore, it is argued
by many that it does not reflect the conditions prevailing in the Mauryan • The Megasthenes’ account envisions the workings of the state and
period. society in the court of Chandragupta Maurya.
• The Arthashastra outlines seven essential constituents of the state iii)Ashokan inscriptions:
(saptanga rajya) which are as follows: i)Svami (the king), ii)Amatyas
• The inscriptions of Asoka were first deciphered by James Princep in
(ministers), iii)Janapada (the territory and the people), iv) Durga (the
1837.
fortified capital), v) Kosha (the treasury), vi) Danda (justice), and vii)
Mitra (the ally). • The most significant archaeological source which throws light on the
Mauryan administration are the Ashokan inscriptions. These inscriptions
• The Arthashastra highlights the essential matters pertaining to
are also the first evidence of writing in ancient India.
governance.
• They are broadly divided into two major categories – 14 major Rock
• The Arthasastra contains 15 books and 180 chapters but it can be
Edicts and six Pillar Edicts. These Rock and Pillar Edicts are sets of
divided into three parts: the first deals with the king and his council and
inscriptions that occur with minor changes at different places. There are
the departments of government; the second with civil and criminal law;
several minor Rock Edicts, minor Pillar Edicts and Cave Inscriptions of
and the third with diplomacy and war. It is the most important literary
Ashoka
source for the history of the Mauryas.
• It is interesting to note that these inscriptions provide an insight into
ii)Fragments of Megasthenes’ Indica:
Ashoka’s idea as a king and are a contemporaneous account of the
• Indica is based on the travels and experiences of Megasthenes. Mauryan period. However, they provide incidental references related to
the Mauryan administration.
• He was the representative of Seleucus Nikator of Arachosia and came as
a Greek ambassador in the court of Chandragupta Maurya. • The Ashokan inscriptions reveal the royal proclamations of Ashoka .
• It gives details on city administration and social segments on an • They are written in Pali language and in some places Prakrit was used.
organized basis. It gives details on city administration and social The Brahmi script was employed for writing. In the northwestern India
segments on an organized basis, particularly the administration of the Asokan inscriptions were found in Karoshti script.
capital city of Pataliputra and also the military organization.
• The Pillar Edict VII gives a summary of his efforts to promote the
• This Greek source is available to us in fragments preserved by later Dhamma within his kingdom.
writers such as Diodorus, Strabo and Arrian. Upinder Singh highlights
Visakadatta’s Mudrarakshasa:
that different versions of the fragments of the lost text are known to us
through the works of Diodorus, Strabo and Arrian. • The Mudrarakshasa written by Visakadatta is a drama in Sanskrit.
• Although written during the Gupta period, it describes how absolutism. He advocated that the king should take the advice of his
Chandragupta with the assistance of Kautilya overthrew the Nandas. It ministry in running the administration. Therefore, a council of ministers
also gives a picture on the socio-economic condition under the Mauryas. called fMantriparishad assisted the king in administrative matters. It
consisted of Purohita, Mahamantri, Senapati and Yuvaraja.
• Two Ceylonese Buddhist texts called Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa are
other valuable source books. • Though the Ashokan inscriptions (Rock Edicts I and II) reflect the
paternal attitude of the ruler towards his subjects, there is a certain
Kingship:
authoritative element visible towards people living in the border areas.
• The king is a crucial figure in Mauryan statecraft. He is regarded as the
• The Rock Edict VIII suggests that the title of devanampiya (Beloved of
upholder of varnashrama dharma.
the Gods) was not limited to Ashoka; instead, it is seen as the traditional
• The text states that the happiness of the king rested on the happiness of dynastic epithet of the Mauryan rulers.
his subjects and the benefits of the king lies in providing benefits to his
• The capital region of Pataliputra was directly administered. The rest of
subjects. The daily (day and night) duties of a king are diligently laid
the empire was divided into four provinces based at Suvarnagiri (near
down in this prescriptive treatise. Ashoka also declared that all his
Kurnool in Andhra Pradesh), Ujjain (Avanti, Malwa), Taxila in the north-
subjects were like his children and he desired their happiness in this and
west, and Tosali in Odisha in the south-east. The provinces were
the other world.
administered by governors who were usually royal princes called kumara.
• The Megasthenes’ account also describes the hectic daily schedule of the
The Amatyas:
ruler and informs that Chandragupta carried out official affairs even
during relaxation time. The importance of state affairs is also stressed in • The Arthashastra states that the work of the state cannot be handled
Ashokan inscriptions when one of them states that all important official without assistance; therefore, amatyas need to be recruited. They are
matters should be communicated to the ruler even when the latter is in his referred to as the wheel of the chariot of the king.
inner chamber.
• The amatya is a broader term which includes high ranking officials,
• The Arthashastra gives final authority to the king in all aspects of counsellors and the executive heads of departments. And these high
administration such as the appointment and removal of ministers, ranking officials were supposed to be chosen on clearing peculiar test of
protection of the treasury, activities for the welfare of the people and deception, which shows the precarious posts held by them.
provisions of punishment to the evil. He is given primacy in determining
• On the other hand, mantri seems to be a specific term used to refer to the
these affairs.
king’s advisors and councillors. The text also mentions mantri parishad as
• Although Kautilya the foremost political theorist of ancient India the larger body of the heads of various departments. The term parishad in
supported the monarchial form of government, he did not stand for royal the Ashokan Rock Edict III appears as directing the officer known as
yukta to carry out certain duties. Further, the Rock Edict VI reveals that charge of the elephant corps. Hence, the Greek sources throw light on the
the king should be informed immediately in case of disputes amongst the administration of the army through committee setup.
members of the parishad.
• The Arthashastra places different units of the armed forces under
• This is indicative of the fact that the final power vested with the king different heads of department (adhyaksha). For instance: navadhyaksha
and the primary role of the mantri parishad was advisory in nature. as the supervisor of naval activities, goadyaksha for bullock-cart
Interestingly, Megasthenes, in his classification of the society into seven management, patyadhyaksha as in-charge of infantry, rathadhyaksha
classes, refers to the counsellors and assessors who were smaller in as in-charge of chariots, and hastyadyaksha as in-charge of elephant
number and held highest position in administration. Overall, it can be corps. Thus, we have seen that both Greek sources and Arthashastra talk
suggested that the burden of administration at the apex level was handled about the composition of the army into different units.
by high ranking functionaries (amatyas) than ministers.
• The text also mentions senapati as the commander of the army. There is
• If one looks at the Ashokan edicts it is noticed that the mahamatras are a historical reference to senapati of the Mauryan army – Pushyamitra
designated as the highest officers. There are specific types of mahamatras Sunga, the commander-in-chief of the last known Mauryan ruler
mentioned in the Ashokan inscriptions such as:  anta-mahamatras as in- Brihadratha.
charge of frontier areas,  itijhaka-mahamatras as in-charge of women in
• Besides, there is also a mention of a separate department to look after
general,  nagalaviyohalaka-mahamatras as in-charge of city
the production and maintenance of a variety of armaments whose chief
administration, and  dhamma-mahamatras as the special officers
was known as Ayudhagaradhyaksha. Kautilya also recognises that the
appointed for the propagation of the dhamma policy of Ashoka.
fighting forces were recruited from forest dwellers (aranya vaasin/van
Army Administration: vaasin). The salaries were paid in cash.
• The army was another essential component of the state. A powerful • An officer called antahpala was responsible for the security of frontier
armed force was required for maintaining frontier areas of the Mauryan forts.
empire. The fortified capital (durga) was possible only with the
Espionage Department:
availability of a military setup.
• Another important department which was closely linked with the armed
• On the basis of Greek texts, the administration of the army was carried
forces was espionage department. The well established system of
out by the following six boards, each consisting of five members: the
espionage network is elaborated in the Arthashastra. It provides detailed
first board was concerned with naval affairs, second looked after the
account of secret agents.
supply of provisions for the army with the help of bullock- carts, the
third board was in-charge of infantry, fourth took headship of cavalry, • Broadly, they are divided into two types: stationary secret agents
fifth was regarded as the in-charge of chariots, and sixth was in- (samstha), and roving secret agents (sanchara).
• The head of secret service was known as samahartta whose task was the irrigation projects (setu), v) forest (vana), vi) pasture grounds (vraja), and
collection of revenue. In order to verify the information collected by these vii) trade routes (vanika path).
spies Kautilya states that the information gathered by roving spies should
• All these resources had their own sources of collection in their areas. For
be routed through stationary spies to the head of secret service.
example, the cities collected revenues in the form of fines, sales tax
• The main tasks of the spies are stated as: i)keeping an eye over the (sulka), excise on sale of liquor, a kind of income-tax imposed on the rich,
ministers, ii)reporting on government officials, iii)collecting impressions etc. were supposed to be collected from the urban area (durga). The
regarding the feelings of citizens, and iv) to know the secrets of foreign revenues from the rural areas were appropriated by the state in the form of
rulers. These spies were supposed to adopt various guises like ascetics, income from crown lands (sita), land revenue (bhaga) from cultivators,
students, householders etc. taxes on orchards, ferry charges, etc. As all the mines were under the
control of the state the mineral wealth was a regular source of income for
• The Ashokan inscriptions also mention the terms- pativedakas and
the state.
pulisani who were supposed to report public views to the king. The term
pativedakas appears to have been used for spies and pulisani for high • Taxes were levied on merchants travelling by road or water-ways. Taxes
ranking officials. The classical texts also mention the term episcopoi as were also levied on exports and imports. Land tax constituted an
the most reliable people in the Mauryan administration. This term may important source of revenue. The rate of bhaga during Mauryan times is
have been used for spies of the Mauryan realm. likely to be at least 1/6th of the produce. It is only the Arthashastra which
states that the irrigation cess (udakabhaga) levied on cultivators ranged
Revenue Administration:
from 1/5th to 1/3rd. However, according to some scholars it is unlikely
• The maintenance of the administrative officials of different grades that the Mauryas levied this tax on the farmers.
suggests the requirement and organization of the resources of the state.
• There were certain collections made directly by the state from concerned
Therefore, revenue administration (kosha) is the essential component of
people. For example, the gamblers were supposed to part with 5% of their
the saptaanga rajya in Arthashastra.
winnings to the state and the merchants had to pay when their weights
• The text mentions Samahartri/Samharta as the chief collector of revenue were tested and certified by the state officials. The state control over
and seen as an in-charge of maintaining accounts, and samnidhartri is armament industry and salt trade increased its revenues.
regarded as the treasurer of the royal stores.
• The state was also empowered to impose taxes in case of emergency
• The taxation mechanism suggests the collection of resources from from: peasants, merchants, artisans, and even courtesans.
diverse economic activities. The chief collector was supposed to look
• There were various departments to collect, regulate and manage state
after the collection of revenue from these seven heads: i)the fortified
revenues. The details of the Arthashastra clearly indicate the fact that an
urban area (durga), ii)the countryside (rashtra), iii)mines (khani), iv)
active role was played by state over the economy of the times. It is
interesting to note that for the purpose of the collection of revenue the text that Ashoka sent his son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitra on a mission
recognises the importance of even non-agrarian pursuits as well as the to disseminate Buddhism into Sri Lanka.
profession of prostitution.
Judicial System:
• Most of the revenue collections which went to the state treasury had
• In order to maintain social order, smooth functioning of the
their outflow in the form of expenditure. the revenue of state was
administrative system and flow of revenues to the state, an orderly legal
expected to be utilized for different purposes. The major part of revenue
system is the prerequisite.
appears to be used in the maintenance of armed forces, payment of
salaries to the state officials and king’s expenses. The state must have also • Danda is the sixth element of administration and understood as force or
spent a substantial portion for the promotion of religious activities and justice in the Arthashastra. This text elaborately discusses the
gifting. administration of justice. Judges are called dharmastha and pradeshtri are
referred to as the officers responsible for the suppression of the criminals.
• Further, in the inscriptions it is noticed that he reduced the taxes of
There were also subordinate courts at the provincial capitals and districts
agricultural produce of the villages of Lumbini to 1/8th. It was due to the
under Amatyas. The king was the upholder of dharma and held supreme
fact that Lumbini was the birthplace of the Buddha
judicial power. The Arthashastra is full of codes listing punishments for
• The keen interest towards public welfare activities is noticed in Ashokan various offences. These included a vast range from violation of marriage
inscriptions as well as in the Arthashastra. Like, in the inscription of laws, divorce, murder, adulteration, wrong weights etc. There were
Rudradaman there is mention of the construction of a water reservoir different courts to try the offenders of law or settle disputes at various
(tadaga) called Sudarshana during Chandragupta’s time. This was, levels.
obviously, built to facilitate the supply of water. There are many
• Two kinds of courts are mentioned in the Arthashastra: Dharmasthiya
references to medicine men of various kinds during this period, like
were the courts which decided personal disputes, and kantakashodhana
ordinary physicians (chikitsaka), midwives (garbhavyadhi) etc. From
as the courts which decided upon matters related to individuals and the
Ashokan inscriptions we know that medical treatment and medicines were
state. For example, the first kind of courts would settle issues related to
available to both men and animals. The Arthashastra mentions that the
disputes over stridhana (wife’s wealth) or marriages inheritance and other
king should look after orphans, old unattended women etc. Another
aspects of civil life. The courts were presided over by three judges well-
important aspect of public works – construction and repair of roads and
versed in sacred laws and three amatyas (secretaries).; and the second
opening inns – is also the subject matter of the text.
category of courts also presided over by three judges and three amatyas.
• The special class of dhamma mahamatras was created for the The main purpose of these courts was to deal with wages to workers,
propagation of Ashoka’s dhamma. The text Divyavdana recounts the fact conduct of workers, murder, clear the society of anti-social elements and
various types of crimes, and it functioned more like the modern police,
and relied on a network of spies for information about such anti-social Its functions included arranging for their food, stay and comfort, security,
activities. The punishment ranged from fines to mutilation of limbs to etc. 3)The third committee’s work was registration of births and deaths.
death. It seems most of the cases were disposed off at the village level by 4)The fourth committee was supposed to look after trade and commerce,
village elders. and its functions included inspection of weights and measures, controlling
the market, etc. 5)The fifth committee inspected the manufactured goods,
• According to Megasthenes the incidence of crime committed in
made provisions for their sale and a strict watch was kept to distinguish
Mauryan India was not very high. But, the range of punishments
between new and second-hand. 6)The sixth committee was supposed to
mentioned in the Arthashastra indicates that the breakage of laws and
collect taxes on the goods sold. These committees defined the nature of
crime were not uncommon in the Mauryan social fabric. This may have
the activities of city administration.
led to the mention of detailed severe penal code in the text. The penalties
in the Arthashastra are based on Varna hierarchies, meaning that for the • The plan of administration of the city and bureaucratic head is also
same kind of offence a brahmana was punished much less severely than a noticed in the Arthashastra. Like, it mentions that the head of city
sudra. administration was called nagarika or Urban administration was handled
by a nagarika. Sthanika and gopa were subordinate officers under him.
• Police stations were found in all principal centres. Both Kautilya and
Interestingly, according to the treatise the functions of the fourth
Asokan Edicts mention about jails and jail officials. The Dhamma
committee were performed by Panyadhyaksha, the collection of taxes
Mahamatras were asked by Asoka to take steps against unjust
(sixth committee) was the responsibility of Sulkadhyaksha and the
imprisonment. Remission of sentences is also mentioned in Asoka’s
registration of births and deaths was the work of Gopa. Villages were
inscriptions.
semi-autonomous and were under the authority of a gramani, appointed
• The overall objective of the judicial system as it evolved was to extend by the central government, and a council of village elders.
government control over most aspects of ordinary life.
• Besides these, there were a host of officials whose functions have been
City Administration: elaborately defined. For example: the Bandhanagaradhyaksha looked
• Megasthenes has given a vivid description of city administration of after the jail, Rakshi, i.e. the police, was to look after the security of the
Pataliputra, probably the apex centre of the Mauryas. people, the centres where goods were manufactured was looked after
by a host of superintendents like the Lohadhyaksha, Sauvarnika, etc.
• The officer-in-charge of city administration was known as astynomoi. In
this account, the city council is divided into the following six committees, • The Arthashastra also refers to a variety of activities related to city
each committee consisting of five members: 1)The first committee looked administration. The nagalviyohalak mahamatras of Ashokan inscriptions
after industry and crafts. Its functions included inspection of such centres, certainly appear as being associated with city administration. Thus, we
fixing the wages, etc. 2)The second committee looked after the foreigners. can say that city administration, as reflected in these sources, was
elaborate and well planned.
Provincial Administration: inscription, however, says that during Chandragupta Maurya’s time his
representative in that area was a vaisya Pushyagupta.
• The vast Mauryan empire could not function only from Pataliputra, the
administrative capital or apex centre of the Mauryas. It required centres of • It is interesting to note that these governors did not carry the designation
control at the provincial and local level for administering the vast of royal prince. Further, it needs to be pointed out that the term yavana
territory. stands for people of West Asia and Tushaspa is an Iranian name. They
both appear to be situated outside the royal blood lineage. Hence, it could
• The heads of provincial centres were governors appointed by the ruler.
be suggested here that in the Mauryan empire there was an existence of
The governor was, in turn, assisted by Mahamatyas (Mahamatras during
diverse administrative units entrusted to provincial authorities of different
Ashoka’s period) and a council of ministers. It is believed that the council
types.
of ministers at provincial level not only acted as a check on the governor,
but, at times, had direct relations with the king. Local Administration:
• In Ashokan edicts (Dhauli and Jaugada) there is a reference that three • The Ashokan edicts mention that provincial administration was further
provincial capitals – Tosali (in the east), Ujjain (in the west), and Taxila subdivided into district level and the terms janapada and ahara are used
(in the north) – were governed under the charge of Kumara (a prince of for it.
royal blood). In the Major Rock Edict I Ashoka directly instructs local
• The important officers at district level were: pradeshika, rajuka, and
officers to issue orders for tour of inspection, whereas the kumara was not
yukta. These officers were supposed to go on tours every five years in
informed. This suggests that all kumaras did not have equal power in
order to instruct people in dhamma and for other purposes.
governing their provincial centres.
• The pradeshika was regarded as the overall in-charge of the district. His
• Another provincial capital – Suvarnagiri (in the south) – was under the
other functions included: survey and assessment of the land,
charge of Aryaputra. The term aryaputra probably refers to the eldest son
collection of revenue, and maintenance of law and order. His
of the family (according to Panini’s Ashtadhyayi). Hence, it suggests the
position and functions are similar to modern collectors.
exalted status of aryaputra in comparison to kumara. Possibly, the
provincial centre of south (Suvarnagiri) given to the eldest son indicates • The term rajju means rope; this reference may be related to the
the rich resource region being delegated to the one who was eldest and measurement of land using a rope. In the classical source he is referred to
most responsible. as being engaged with the measurement of land for the purpose of
revenue assessment. Similar meaning of rajuka is noticed in the Pali texts
• Certain areas within the province were administered by governors who
wherein the term rajjuggahakamachcha is used to denote the officer
may have been minor rulers of their areas. We can say this because the
holding the rope. His role as a settlement-officer holding a rope to
Junagadh inscription of Rudradaman mentions Tushaspa – a yavana – as
measure the field suggests a similar role discussed above.
the governor of Junagadh area during the time of Ashoka. The same
• Yukta was the junior officer who provided secretarial assistance to the Administration nature of Mauryan:
other two officers.
• Romila Thapar pointed out that a three tier administrative structure –
• At the local level Kautilya recommends that the king should establish a metropolitan, core and peripheral – must have been prevalent in the
headquarter known as sthaniya which consisted of 800 villages, a Mauryan period.
dronamukha of 400 villages, a karvatika of 200 villages and a samgrahana
• Magadha was a metropolitan state where direct royal orders of the
of 10 villages. The village was the lowest unit of administration.
Mauryan ruler were imposed. The core areas included Koshala, Vatsa,
• Sthanika was the officer-in-charge of the district. Under him were the Avanti and Gandhara that were either centres of trade or areas where the
gopas, the people in-charge of units ranging from 5 to 10 villages. state system has just begun. And, the areas which were situated at a long
Gramika was the headman of the village. However, it is not possible to distance from Pataliputra were the peripheral areas like the north-western
ascertain whether local level of administration as mentioned in the borderlands and peninsular regions. These areas can be seen as the ones
theoretical text was also practised in Mauryan period. where the state system had not started.
Department of Commerce and Industry: • Hence, one can notice that instead of defining the nature of the Mauryan
administration as either “centralized” or “decentralized” it can be defined
• This department had controlled the retail and wholesale prices of goods
as having some elements of centralized control at the apex level and
and tried to ensure their steady supply through its officers called
significant amount of transfer of authority at the provincial, district and
Adyakshas.
village levels. The relationship between the metropolitan state, core and
• It also controlled weights and measures, levied custom duties and peripheral areas varied and it was based on the extraction of resources
regulated foreign trade. from core and distant areas. However, an attempt was made to give the
Census: political system a degree of uniformity through the dhamma policy which
was an administrative tool of Ashoka.
• The taking of Census was regular during the Mauryan period. The
village officials were to number the people along with other details like • It suggests that the concept of state is not only related with polity or
their caste and occupation. They were also to count the animals in each administrative control; the economical and societal considerations were
house. also reorganizing the structure of the Mauryan state.

• The census in the towns was taken by municipal officials to track the ECONOMY AND SOCIETY: THE MAURYAS
movement of population both foreign and indigenous. • Archaeological excavations indicate that this period witnessed agrarian
• The data collected were cross checked by the spies. The Census appears and urban expansion in continuation of the earlier period.
to be a permanent institution in the Mauryan administration.
• Urban growth also brought about an expansion of crafts, trade and guild • The exact nature of which is not clear. Principal crops were various
organization. varieties of rice, barley, millet, wheat, sugarcane and most of the pulses,
peas and oilseeds, which we know today.
Agriculture:
Irrigation:
• Agriculture formed the backbone of the economy. It was the largest
sector in terms of its share in total revenue to the state and employment. • The provision of irrigation facilities is intimately linked with
agricultural production. In this period the state and individual initiative in
• The Mauryan state founded new agricultural settlements to bring virgin
providing irrigation facilities to the people can be seen. For instance,
land under cultivation. People from overpopu- lated areas and prisoners of
Megasthenes’ account informs us that there was a specific officer-in-
war were brought to these new settlements to work on the fields. These
charge (agronomoi) in the countryside whose duty was to provide
villages belonged to king and were looked after by government official
irrigation facilities to cultivators. The Arthashastra also talks about two
called sitadhyaksha or superintendent of agriculture.
types of irrigation projects being undertaken by the state.
• The Greeks noted with wonder that two crops could be raised annually
• One hydraulic project was the provision of water through natural
in India because of the fertility of the soil. Besides food grains, India also
sources while the other functioned through artificial means. Interestingly,
grew cash crops such as sugarcane and cotton, described by Megasthenes
the text mentions the irrigation tax (udaka bhaaga) for availing irrigation
as a reed that produced honey and trees on which wool grew. These were
services. The Junagarh inscription of Rudradaman I, the post-Mauryan
important commercial crops.
ruler, mentions that one of the governors during the reign of Chadragupta
• The fact that the agrarian sector could produce a substantial surplus was Maurya constructed a dam across a river near Girnar in western India.
a major factor in the diversification of the economy beyond subsistence to That dam is known as Sudarshana lake and was built to supply water for
commercial production. the region
• The economy of northern India was primarily agricultural. An attempt to Textile:
expand the areas of cultivation through agricultural policies of the state
• Kautilya’s account states that textile manufacturing was another state
(janapadanivesha) is noticed in Arthashastra.
controlled enterprise. And the details of employees, the amount of
• If we believe the Arthasastra of Kautilya, a striking social development production and salary are clearly laid out in the text. It is interesting to
of the Maurya period was the employment of slaves in agricultural note that women workers were also employed in textile manufacturing
operations. For the first time in the Mauryan period slaves were engeged unit. However, it is unlikely that all textile production took place under
in agricultural work on a large scale. the supervision of state. As textile manufacturing has been seen as an
economic activity since earlier times it could be stated that an attempt to
organize the work force for the production of textiles is noticed in the • Archaeological finds show a great qualitative and quantitative
Arthashastra. improvement in iron production after this date. Improvement in iron
technology had widespread implications for the rest of the economy.
• Spinning and weaving, especially of cotton fabrics, relying on the
universal availability of cotton throughout India, were the most • Better tools like axes made more extensive clearing of forests possible
widespread occupations outside of agriculture. for agriculture; better ploughs could improve agricultural processes;
better nails and tools improved woodwork and carpentry as well as other
• A great variety of cloth was produced in the country, ranging from the
crafts.
coarse fabrics used by the ordinary people for everyday use, to the very
fine textures worn by the upper classes and the royalty. Woodwork:
• Arthasastra refers to the regions producing specialised textiles – Kasi • Woodwork was another important craft for ship-building, making carts
(Benares), Vanga (Bengal), Kamarupa (Assam), Madurai, Varanasi, and chariots, house construction and so on.
Mathura, Bengal, Gandhara and Ujjain and many others.
Stonework:
• Cloth embroidered with gold and silver was worn by the King and
• Stone work–stone carving and polishing–had evolved as a highly skilled
members of the royal court. Silk was known and was generally referred to
craft. This expertise is seen in the stone sculptures in the stupa at Sanchi
as Chinese silk, which also indicates that extensive trade was carried on in
and the highly polished Chunar stone used for Ashoka’s pillars.
the Mauryan Empire.
Taxes:
Metallurgy:
• The Arthashastra informs that the revenue was collected through taxes
• Metal and metal works were of great importance, and the local metal
levied on urban and rural areas, irrigation projects, mines and forested
workers worked with iron, copper and other metals to produce tools,
areas, and trade routes. Thus, a tightened control over the economy by
implements, vessels and other utility items.
state is visible in this theoretical text. However, how far it was applicable
• Iron smelting had been known for many centuries, but there was a great in the real scenario is uncertain.
improvement in technology after about 500 BCE, which made it possible
• The manual also mentions the presence of private ownership of land
to smelt iron in furnaces at very high temperatures. They maintained a
apart from the state owned land (sita). The private landowners paid a part
monopoly over production of iron, which was in great de- mand by the
as tax to the state.
army, industry and agriculture. It was done through the official called
loha-adyaksha. • Urban taxes such as duties on imported and exported goods are also
mentioned in the Arthashastra.
• The bali or land tax was the main item of revenue, levied at the rate of supposed to be aware of: the goods brought in the market, ways in
one sixth of the produce. Peasants had to pay many other taxes like which the goods were brought, amount of profit, and the change in
pindakara, hiranya, bhaga, bhoga etc. demand and prices of various commodities.
• It could be suggested here that in order to extract maximum revenue • The discovery of a large number of seals suggest Bhita site in the upper
from diverse economic activities the Arthashastra laid emphasis upon the Ganga valley as an important trade centre of the Mauryan period.
state control over economy.
• The rivers in the Gangetic plains were major means for transporting
Women's Contribution: goods throughout northern India. Overseas trade by ships was also
known, and Buddhist Jataka tales refer to the long voyages undertaken by
• Women are represented in the Arthashastra as undertaking diverse range
merchants. Sea-borne trade was carried on with Burma and the Malay
of economic activities. They appear to be employed as royal bodyguards
Archipelago, and with Sri Lanka. The ships, however, were probably
and state spies. Poor women, widows and prostitutes are also viewed as
quite small and might have hugged the coastline.
being employed for spinning and weaving activities inside and outside
their households. Kautilya also seems to recognize the profession of • Goods were transported further west overland by road. Roads connected
prostitutes and outlines the appointment of Ganikadhyaksha for the the north of the country to cities and markets in the south-east, and in the
regulation of their profession. Hence, this prescriptive text appears to south-west, passing through towns like Vidisha and Ujjain. The north-
bring all sorts of women under the ambit of the generation of revenues for west route linked the empire to central and western Asia.
the state.
• In general, long-distance overland trade was undertaken by merchant
Trade: groups travelling together as a caravan for security, led by a caravan
leader known as the maha-sarthavaha. Roads through forests and
• Trade or exchange becomes a natural concomitant of economic
unfavourable environments like deserts were always dangerous. The
diversification and growth. Trade was conducted through land and river
Arthasastra, however, stresses the importance of trade and ensuring its
routes.
smooth functioning.
• Supervision over trade and commerce is noticed in the sources of
• Trade has to be facilitated through the construction of roads and
Mauryan period. The Greek accounts mention that the city officers were
maintaining them in good condition. Since tolls and octroi were collected
supposed to look after urban affairs which included: inspection of
on goods when they were transported, toll booths must have been set up
manufactured goods, the quantity and quality of goods, and tax on
and manned on all the trade routes.
sold goods.
Art & Craft:
• The Arthashastra also mentions that panyadhyaksha, i.e. the
superintendent of trade kept an eye over merchants. This head was
• Many crafts producing a variety of manufactures flourished in the Coinage:
economy.
• Though coinage was known, barter was the medium of exchange in pre-
• Evidence of specialized crafts activities such as terracotta craft, copper modern economies.
and iron working, and bead-making have been noticed in Mathura region.
• In the Mauryan Empire, the silver coins known as pana were the most
Similarly, the findings of mud brick walls, ring wells and a circular barn
commonly used currency.
suggests Atranjikhera as an urban centre.
• Hordes of punch-marked coins have been found in many parts of north
• The remains of wooden Mauryan palace and pillared hall have been
India, though some of these coins may have been from earlier periods.
found from the metropolitan area Pataliputra.
• Thus while coins were in use, it is difficult to estimate the extent to
• A whole range of luxury goods was produced, including gold and silver
which the economy was monetised.
articles, jewellery, perfumes and carved ivory.
Society:
• There is evidence that many other products like drugs and medicines,
pottery, dyes and gums were produced in the Mauryan Empire. • These sources also talk about the social conditions in the Mauryan
period. According to Megasthenes Indian society was divided into seven
• The economy had thus developed far beyond subsistence production to a
groups: philosophers, farmers, soldiers, herdsmen, artisans,
very sophisticated level of commercial craft production.
magistrates, and councillors. These were understood as castes and it
• Crafts were predominantly urban-based hereditary occupations and sons was stated that no one was allowed to change profession and marry
usually followed their fathers in the practice of various crafts. outside their groups
• Craftsmen worked primarily as individuals, though royal workshops for • Megasthenes appears to define social groups in terms of their
producing cloth and other products also existed. occupations instead of social status. And, the Arthashastra upholds the
Brahmanical ideal of social order and emphasizes upon the maintenance
• Each craft had a head called pamukha (pramukha or leader) and a jettha
of varna and asrama systems. An interesting picture of an unequal society
(jyeshtha or elder) and was organised in a seni (srenior a guild), so that
emerges from Ashokan inscriptions wherein the brahmanas and nobles are
the institutional identity superseded the individual in craft production.
regarded as arya, slaves and servants as dasabhataka, wealthy persons as
Disputes between srenis were resolved by a mahasetthi, and this ensured
mahat and low persons as khudaka.
the smooth functioning of craft production in the cities.
• The Arthashastra mentions that the ideal form of marriage is within the
• Our national emblem comes from the Asokan pillar at Sarnath near
varna but outside the gotra, i.e the practice of endogamy is highlighted
Benaras. All these pillars are circular and monolithic, and are made of
here. If we look at the Allahabad-Kosam Queen’s edict Karuvaki is
sand stone found at Chunar, near Mirzapur in U.P.
mentioned as the second queen of Ashoka. It highlights the practice of
polygamy in society. Karuvaki is represented as queen and mother of the The artistic remains of the Mauryan period can be seen in the following
prince. It suggests that the identity of queen is highlighted in relation to heads:
male members of the family, which is a prominent feature of the
Pillars:
patriarchal society.
• The pillars erected by Asoka furnish the finest specimen of the Mauryan
• Many religions, castes and communities lived together in harmony in
art.
the Mauryan society. There is little mention of any overt dissension or
disputes among them. As in many regions of that era (including ancient • Asokan pillars with inscriptions were found in places like Delhi,
Tamil Nadu), courtesans were accorded a special place in the social Allahabad, Rummindai, Sanchi and Saranath.
hierarchy and their contributions were highly valued. • Their tops were crowned with figures of animals like lion, elephant and
Culture: bull. The Saranath pillar with four lions standing back to back is the most
magnificent. The Indian government adopted this capital with some
• Sanskrit language and literature were enriched by the work of the
modifications as its state emblem.
grammarian Panini and Katyayana, who was a contemporary of the
Nandas and had written a commentary on Panini’s work. Stupas:

• Buddhist and Jain texts were primarily written in Pali. Evidently many • Asoka built a number of stupas throughout his empire but majority of
literary works in Sanskrit were produced during this period and find them were destroyed during foreign invasions. Only a few have survived.
mention in later works. • The best example is the famous Sanchi stupa with massive dimensions.
Mauryan Art and Architecture: It was originally built with bricks but later enlarged after the time of
Asoka.
Art:
Caves:
The Arthasastra notes the performing arts of the period, including music,
instrumental music, bards, dance and theatre. The caves presented to the Ajivikas by Asoka and his son Dasaratha
remain important heritage of the Mauryas. Their interior walls are
The extensive production of crafted luxury products like jewellery, ivory
polished like mirror. These were meant to be residences of monks. The
carving and wood work, and especially stone carving should all be
caves at Barabar hills near Bodh Gaya are wonderful pieces of Mauryan
included as products of Mauryan art.
architecture.
The use of stone started from the time of Asoka. The only remaining stupa
Causes for the Decline of the Mauryas:
is at Sanchi.
• The traditional approach attributes the decline to Asoka’s policies and • The last ruler Brihadratha was killed in 185 B C (BCE)by his
his weak successors. Another approach holds the inadequate political and commander-in- chief Pushyamitra Sunga who founded the Sunga dynasty
economic institutions to sustain such a vast empire. that ruled India for over hundred years.
• It was said that Asoka’s pro-Buddhist policies antagonized the Brahmins • There are multiple causes for the decline of the Mauryan empire such as
who brought about a revolution led by Pushyamitra Sunga. But Asoka weak successors, partition of empire and administrative abuses after
was never acted against Brahmins. That Asoka’s policy of non-violence Asoka’s reign. The combination of these factors speeded up the breakup
reduced the fighting spirit of his army was another charge against him. of the Mauryan empire and facilitated Pushyamitra Sunga to drive away
But Asoka had never slackened his control over his empire despite the Mauryan power and establish the Sunga dynasty.
following a pacifist policy. Therefore solely blaming Asoka for the
• However, Mauryan empire though declined had a positive effect of
decline of the Mauryan empire may not be correct because Asoka was
spreading agriculture and iron technol- ogy in the different parts of the
more a pragmatist than an idealist.
subcontinent. It facilitated the rise of several regional kingdoms in the
• The brahmanical reaction began as a result of the policy of Ashoka. post-Mauryan period.
There is no doubt that Ashoka adopted a tolerant policy and asked the
Causes of Magadha's Success:
people to respect even the brahmanas. But he prohibited killing of
animals and birds. This naturally affected the income of the brahmanas. • The formation of the largest state in India during the period was the
The anti-sacrificial attitude of Buddhism and of Ashoka naturally brought work of several enterprising and ambitious rulers such as Bimbisara,
much loss to the brahmanas, who lived on the giftsmade to them in Ajatasatru and Mahapadma Nanda. They employed all means of fair and
various kinds of sacrifices.Hence inspite of the tolerant policy of Ashoka foul, at their disposal to enlarge their kingdoms and to strengthen their
the brahmanas developed some kind of antipathy to him.They really states. But this was not the only reason for the expansion of Magadha.
wanted a policy that should favour them and uphold the existing interests • There were some other important factors Magadha enjoyed an
and privileges. advantageous geographical position in the age of iron, because the richest
• After Ashoka’s death, the kingdom split into two. While king Dasaratha iron deposits were situated close to Rajgir, the earliest capital of
controlled the eastern part of the empire, the western part was under Magadha. The ready availability of the rich iron ores in the
Samprati. There were invasions from the north-west. The notable groups neighbourhood enabled the Magadhan princes to equip themselves with
that undertook military expeditions and established kingdoms on Indian effective weapons, which were not easily available to their rivals.
soil were the Indo-Greeks, the Sakas and the Kushanas. • Magadha enjoyed certain other advantages. The two capital of Magadha,
the first at Rajgir and the second at Patliputra, were situated at very
strategic points. Rajgir was surrounded by a group of five hills, and so it
was rendered impregnable in those days when there were no easy means fortresses and iin marching over marshy and other areas lackingroads and
of storming citadels such as cannons which came to be invented much other means of communication.
later. In the fifth century the Magadhan princes shifted their capital from
• Finally we may refer to the unorthodox character of the MAgadhan
Rajgir to Pataliputra, which occured a pivotel position commanding
society. it was inhabited by the Kiratas and Magadhas, who were held in
communication on all sides. Pataliputra was situated at the confluence of
low esteem by the orthodox brahmanas. But in underwent a happy racial
the Ganga, the Gandak and the Son, and the fourth river called the Sarayu
admixture on account of the advent of the Vedic people. Since it was
joined the Ganga not far from Pataliputra.. The position of Patana itself
recently aryanized it showed more enthusiasm for the expansion than the
was rendered invulnerable because of its being surrounded by rivers on
kingdoms which have been brounght under the vedic influence earlier.
almost all sides. While the Son and the Ganga surrounded it on thenorth
and west, the Poonpun surrounded it on the south and the east. Pataliputra • On accounts of all these reasons Magadha succeeded in defeating the
therefore was atrue water-fort(jaladurga), and it was not easy to capture other kingdoms and in founding the firts empire in India.
this town in those days. Process of Urbanisation:
• Magadha lay at the centre of the middle Gangetic plain. The alluviium, Urbanisation is the process of the establishment of towns and cities in an
once cleared of the jungles, proved immensely fertile. Because of heavy agrarian landscape.
rainffall the area could be much more productive even without irrigation.
This area are was far more productive than the areas to the west of Reasons of Urbanisation:
Allahabad. This naturally enabled the peasants to produce considerable Towns can come up for various reasons – as the headquarters of
surplus, which could be mopped up by the rulers in the formof taxes. The administration, as pilgrim centres, as commercial market centres and
country produces various paddy, which were mentioned in the early because of their locational advantages on major trade routes.
Buddhist texts.
In what way do urban settlements differ from villages or rural
• The princes of Magadha also benefitted from the use of towns and the settlements?
use of coins. On account of trade and commerce in north-east India, the
princes could levy tolls on the sale of commodities and accumulate • To begin with, towns and cities do not produce their own food and
wealthy to pay and maintain their army. depend on the efficient transfer of agricultural surplus for their basic
consumption needs.
• Magadha enjoyed a special advantage in military organization. Although
the Indian states were well acquainted with the use of horses and chariots, • A larger number of people reside in towns and cities and the density of
it was Magadha which first used elephants on a large scale oin its wars population is much higher in cities. Cities attract a variety of non-
against its neighbours. The eastern part of the country could supply agricultural workers and craftsmen, who seek employment, thereby
elephants to the princes of Magadha. Elephants could be used in storming forming the workforce for the production of manufactured goods and
services of various kinds. These goods, in addition to the agricultural • The improvements in iron technology also had an impact on economic
products brought in from the rural countryside, are traded in markets. life both in rural and urban areas. As Magadha grew, many regional
Cities also tend to house a variety of persons in service-related activities. centres like Ujjain were also incorporated into the empire.
• The sangam poetry in Tamil and the Tamil epics provide vivid pictures • Buddhist texts about Buddha’s preaching were always located in urban
of cities like Madurai, Kanchipuram and Poompuhar as teeming with centres.
people, with vibrant markets and merchants selling a variety of goods, as
Housing and Town Planning:
well as vendors selling various goods including food door to door.
Though these literary works relate to a slightly later period, it is not • Towns were often located along the rivers, presumably for ease of
different in terms of the prevailing levels of technology, and these access to transportation. They were surrounded by moats and a rampart to
descriptions may be taken as an accurate depiction of urban living. provide defensive protection. They were always open to attacks since
treasuries holding government revenue were housed in them, in addition
• The only contemporary pictorial representation of cities is found in the
to the fact that as trading centres, the local people and merchants were
sculptures in Sanchi, which portray royal processions, and cities are seen
also wealthy.
to have roads, a multitude of people and multi-storeyed buildings
crowded together. • As the towns became more prosperous, the quality of the houses, which
were built of mud brick and even of fired brick, improved. Towns also
Urbanisation in Sixth Century BCE:
had other facilities like drains, ring wells and mud pits, testifying to the
• One of the first pre-requisites for urbanisation is the development of an development of civic amenities and sanitation.
agricultural base. This had evolved in the Indo-Gangetic plain and from
• Excavations from the Mauryan period show that the standard of living
very early on there are references to cities like Hastinapura and Ayodhya.
had improved as compared to the earlier period. The houses were built of
• By about sixth century BCE, urbanization had spread to the doab and brick, and the cities had ring wells and soak pits. There was a quantitative
many new city centres like Kaushambi, Bhita, Vaishali and Rajagriha, increase in the use of iron and the variety of iron artefacts.
among others, are mentioned in the region.
City of Pataliputra :
• Cities developed primarily because of the spread of agriculture and wet
• Pataliputra was the great capital city in the Mauryan Empire. It was
rice cultivation, in particular in the doab region, after the marshy land was
described as a large and wealthy city, situated at the confluence of the
drained and reclaimed for cultivation. The fertile soil and plentiful
Ganga and Son rivers, stretching in the form of a parallelogram. It was
availability of water from the perennial rivers made it possible to raise
more than 14 kilometres in length and about 2 kilometres wide.
even two crops of rice, and the production of a large agricultural surplus
to feed the cities. • It was protected by an outer wall made of wood, with loopholes for
shooting arrows at enemies. There were 64 gates to the city and 570
watch towers. There was a wide and deep moat outside the wall, which successor of Dasaratha. The last Mauryan king was Brihatratha, who was
was fed by water from the river, which served both as a defence and an assassinated by Pushyamitra Sunga.
outlet for sewage.
The post-Mauryan period can be characterized as the period of diverse
• There were many grand palaces in the city, which had a large and dynamic polities.
population. The city was administered by a corporation of 30 members.
In the four centuries following the death of Emperor Ashoka and the
• Ashoka added to the magnificence of the city with the monumental resulting decline of the Mauryan Empire, parts of India were subject to
architecture that he vadded to the capital, like the many-pillared hall. the invasion of the Indo-Greeks, Sakas and Kushanas from West and
Central Asia. All of them established themselves as rulers over large parts
The Scythians were in a state of constant flux. The chinese ruler Shih
of India. This strengthened the process of acculturation and the
Huang Ti constructed the Great Wall of China in about 220 BC to shield
assimilation of foreign cultures and art forms into Indian society. It also
his empire against the attact of Scythians. No similar measures were taken
resulted in the integration of India with the Mediterranean world and
by Ashoka.
Central Asia and China through extended trade linkages.
Previous Year Question Analysis The Shungas, Kanvas and Kharavela
Prelims
Year-2016 The Shungas and Kanvas :(Indian Invaders)
39. Who of the following had first deciphered the edicts of Emperor
Ashoka? • The founder of the Sunga dynasty was Pushyamitra Sunga, the
a)Georg Buhler; b)James Princep; c)Max Muller; d)William Jones senapati(commander-in-chief) of the Mauryan army, is believed to have
First discoverer among archaeologists killed the last Mauryan king Brihadratha and established the Shunga
dynasty in north India. The most important challenge to the Sunga rule
POST-MAURYAN POLITIES(BC 200 and 300 AD.) was to protect north India against the invasions of the Bactrian Greeks
The breakup of the Mauryan empire was followed by the rise of a number from the northwest. The Greeks advanced up to Pataliputra and occupied
of monarchies in different parts of the Indian subcontinent. it for sometime. However, Pushyamitra succeeded in regaining the lost
territory. He also fought a campaign against Kharavela of Kalinga who
Asoka’s death in 232 B.C. was followed by the division of the Mauryan
invaded north India.
Empire into two parts – western and eastern. The western part was ruled
by Kunala, son of Asoka and the eastern part by Dasaratha, one of the • Shungas’ realm extended to only a part of the Mauryan empire. It
grand sons of Asoka. Due to the Bactrian invasions, the western part of included Pataliputra, Ayodhya and Vidisha. In some places viceroys were
the empire collapsed. The eastern part was intact under Samprati placed to look after the governance.
• It is widely accepted amongst historians that the emergence of Shunga of Vaishnavism and the Sanskrit language. In short, the Sunga rule was a
empire could be seen as an attempt at Brahmanical revival after brilliant anticipation of the golden age of the Guptas.
widespread patronage to Buddhism in the Mauryan rule. The Shungas are
{Kalinga after Ashoka:
believed to belong to the brahmana bhardvaja gotra. They tried to revive
Vedic practices and sacrifices. The Ayodhya stone inscription of king • After Ashoka, Kalinga (present day Orissa) became prominent under the
Dhana refers to Pushyamitra as the performer of two ashvamedha kings of Chedi dynasty.
sacrifices • Unfortunately we have no information about the kings of the dynasty
• There are indications that Pushyamitra Shunga came in conflict with except Kharavela. His achievements are recorded on an inscription,
Demetrius, a Bactrian Greek ruler without suffering much political known a Hathigumpha inscription. The inscription is so named because
damage. the image of an elephant is carved out of stone next to the boulder
carrying the inscription.
• The Divyavdana gives stories of Pushyamitra’s cruelty and his hatred
towards Buddhism. But there is enough evidence to show that • The inscription tells us that he was a follower of Jainism and had fought
Pushyamitra patronised Buddhist art. During his reign the Buddhist many successful battles against his neighbours. He probably lived in the
monuments at Bharhut and Sanchi were renovated and further improved. first century BC.

• An inscription engraved on a pillar at Besnagar (present day Vidisha) }

refers to one Heliodorus, native of Taxila near Rawalpindi in Pakistan, as Kharavela:
an envoy of an Indo-Greek ruler Antialkidas in the court of Bhagabhadra,
who has been identified with one of the later Shunga rulers. According to • Kharavela emerged as an important ruler in the coastal and eastern part
the inscription he was devotee of Lord Krishna. of Odisha around mid 1st century BCE. He belonged to the Meghvahana
lineage associated with the Chedis
• After the death of Pushyamitra, his son Agnimitra became the ruler. The
last Shunga king, Devabhuti, became a victim of conspiracy devised by • He is said to have raided a major part of the country including Magadha
his brahmana minister Vasudeva Kanva the founder of the Kanva dynasty. and the Satavahana and Pandya countries. Kalinga was an independent
It was a short-lived rule. In Magadha the Kanvas made way for the Mitra kingdom under his rule. Kalinga was associated as one of the centres of
dynasty in 30 BCE. The Mitras were eventually displaced by the Shakas. Mauryan administration. The process of state formation in this area was
seen as the result of interaction with the Mauryan empire. Some features
• The rule of the Sungas was important because they defended the of the Mauryan empire, like respect for different religious practices and
Gangetic valley from foreign invasions. In the cultural sphere, the Sungas welfare issue of the subjects, were given consideration by Kharavela in
revived Brahmanism and horse sacrifice. They also promoted the growth this region. The Hathigumpha inscription, situated in the Udayagiri hills
near Bhuvaneshvar in Orissa, records the conquest, patronage and welfare
of subjects of this ruler. Some features of the Mauryan empire, like • In 212 BCE, the king of Bactria was a Greek named Euthydemus. The
respect for different religious practices and welfare issue of the subjects, Seleucid emperor Antiochus III was unable to subjugate Euthydemus and
were given consideration by Kharavela in this region. agreed to negotiate a settlement with him, since Antiochus himself needed
to turn his attention to his dominions in the West. But Antiochus III did
• He was an ardent follower of Jainism. The Hathigumpha inscription
come down the Kabul river and managed to defeat the local Indian king,
records the patronage given to Jain monks and the fact that brahmanas
known as Subhagasena.
were also exempted from taxes; respect towards every sect; and
construction of canals and tanks for the purpose of irrigation. • Euthydemus’s son Demetrius succeeded him (c. 200 BCE), and another
Demetrius, probably Demetrius II, was the first known Indo- Greek king.
• He continued the use of punch-marked coins.
The distinguishing feature of the reign of the Indo-Greek kings was their
• However, the dynasty did not last for a long time and disappeared after exquisite coinage. Minted in the same style as Greek coins of silver, they
the death of Kharavela. carried the portrait of the reigning king on one side with his name. The
The Indo-Greeks(Bactrians):(Foreign Invaders) coins thus give us a visual picture of the kings, who are represented in
various kinds of headgear and with distinctive facial and physical
• After the death of Alexander in 323 BC, many Greeks came to settle on features. Extensive collections of these coins have been found from the
the northern western boarders of India with Bactria (area to the north-west period, which makes it possible to reconstruct the lineage of the Indo-
of the Hindukush mountains in the present day north Afghanistan) as an Greek kings with certainty.
important centre.
• On accounts of growing pressure from the Scythian tribes, the later
• The first to cross the Hindukush were the Greeks(Yavanas), who ruled Greek rulers were unable to hold their power in this areas. With the
Bactria, lying south of the Oxus river in the area covered by the north construction of Chinese Wall the Scythians were now not in a position to
Afghanistan. push forward into China. So they turned their attention to the
• The Greeks of Bactria were originally kshatraps (subordinate rulers) of neighbouring Greeks and Parthians. Pushed by the Scythians tribes, the
Seleucid empire of West Asia. Bactria is the ancient name of modern Bactrians were forced to invade India and extended their kingdom and
northern Afghanistan. In mid 3rd century BCE there was a revolt against reached to the south of the Hindukush mountains. Around 145 BCE they
Seleucid empire and independent Bactria and Parthia was carved out. lost their control over Bactria and established control in north-western
[The governor of Bactria, Diodotus, revolted against Antiochus II and part of the Indian subcontinent. After this, the yavanas continued to rule
became the independent ruler of Bactria.]One important cause of invasion in central and southern Afghanistan and north-western India. The first to
was the weakness of the Selucid empire, which had been established in invade India were the Bactrian Greeks who ruled in the north-west part of
Bactria and the adjoining areas of Iran called Parthia. India between c. 2nd century BCE to 1st century CE are known as Indo-
Greeks or Bactrian Greeks because of their Hellenistic (Greek) ancestry.
• In the beginning of the second century BC, the Indo-Greeks occupied a become a follower of Vishnu. (The pillar stands in isolation in the middle
large part of the north-western India, much larger than that conquered by of a open ground in Vidisha, Madhya Pradesh.)
Alexander. It is said that they pushed forward as far as Ayoodhya and
• The Indo-Bactrian rule is important in the history of the Indian because
Pataliputra. But the Greeks failed to establish united rule in India. Two
of the large number of coins which the Greeks issues. The Indo-Greeks
Greeks dynasties ruled in India on parallel lines on one end and the same
were the first rulers in India to issue coins which can be definately
time. However, since the Greeks seem to have been beset by internal
attributed to the kings. This is not possibble in the early punched-marked
dissensions, they did not retain any of this territory. They ceded land to
coins, which cannot be assigned with certainty to any dynasty. The Indo-
Pushyamitra, the Sunga emperor who had usurped the throne after the last
Greeks were the first to issue gold coins in India, which increased in
Mauryan ruler. Numismatic evidence also proves Demetrius’s association
number of the Kushanas.
with India. He issued bi-lingual square coins with Greek on the obverse
and Kharoshti (the local language of north-western Pakistan) on the • The Greek rule is also memorable on account of the introduction of
reverse. Hellorustic art features in the niorth-west frontier of India, giving rise to
the Gandhara art.
• The most famous Indo-Greek ruler was Menander. He is also known by
the name Milinda. He had his capital at Sakala(modern Sailkot) in Panjab The Shakas and the Pahlavas:(Foreign Invaders)
and he invaded the Ganga-Yamuna doab. He was converted to buddhism The Shakas:
by Nagasena, who is also known as Nagarjuna. Menander asked
Nagasena many questions relating to Buddhism. these questions and • The Greeks were followed by the Sakas, who controlled a much larger
Nagasena's answeres were recorded in the form of book known as part of India than the Greeks did.
Milinda Panha or the Questions of Milinda which contains philosophical • The Shakas belonged to the Scythian ethnic stock living in Jaxartes
questions that Milinda asked Nagasena (the Buddhist author of the text) (central Asia). Shaka is the Indian term used for the people called
and informs us that impressed by the answers, the king accepted Scythians, who originally belonged to central Asia.
Buddhism as his religion. Interestingly, in his coins, he is described as
“king” and “soter” or saviour, and not as a great conqueror. • The Sakas or the Scythians attacked Bactria and Parthia and captured
them from the Greek rulers. Following the footsteps of the Greeks, the
• Another Indo-Greek king whose name is remembered is Antialcidas (or Sakas gradually extended their rule over northwestern India.
Antialkidas), (c. 110 BCE). He is known to us primarily because his
emissary, Heliodorus, who was sent to the court of King Bhagabhadra • In India, the Sakas became assimilated into Hindu society. They began
erected a pillar or garuda-dhvaja with its capital adorned by a figure of to adopt Hindu names and religious beliefs, so much so that their coins
Garuda, in honour of God Krishna (Vasudeva). Heliodorus had evidently had representations of Hindu gods on one side. The Sakas appointed
kshatrapas or satraps as provincial governors to administer their
territories. Many of the kshatrapas titled themselves mahakshatrapas and inscriptions were composed in Prakrit. Sakas rulers of Taxila were
were virtually independent rulers. overthrown by the Parthians. His name indicates that the process of
assimilation into Indian society was complete by that time.
• There were five branches of the sakas with their seats of power in
different parts of India and Afghanistan. One branch of the Sakas settled The Pahlavas(Parthians):
in Afghanistan. Another branch of the Sakas settled in Punjab with Taxila
• Parthia is a place in Iran and people of this area are known as Parthians.
as their capital. A third branch settled in Mathura. A fourth branch
established its hold over western India(Maharashtra). A fifth branch of the • The Saka domination in the north-western India was followed by that of
Sakas established its power in the upper Deccan. the Parthians and in many ancient Indian Sanskrit texts the two people are
together mentioned as Saka-Pahlavas .
• The founder the Saka rule in India in the first century B.C. was Maues.
His son and successor was Azes I, who was considered to be the founder • The important inscription indicating the Parthian rule in northwestern
of the Vikrama era. The Sakas did not meet much effective resistance area of Pakistan is the famous Takht-i-Bahi inscription recovered from
from the rulers and peoples of India. In about 58 BC, we hear a king of Mardan near Peshawar.
Ujjain who effectively faught against the Sakas and succeeded in drowing • The history of the Shakas-Pahlavas is known through inscriptions and
them out of his time. He called himself Vikramaditya, and an era called coins. An inscription from Taxila mentions a Shaka king Moga and his
the Vikrama Samvat is reckoned from the event of his victory over the kshatrapa (governor) Patika. Some coins suggest the practice of conjoint
Sakas in 58 BC. From this time oonwards Vikramaditya became a coneted rule. For instance, Spalirises and Azes I seem to have been co-rulers at a
title. Whoever achieved anything great adopted this title. time.
• Although the Sakas established their rule in different parts of the • Another important ruler was Gondophernes in whose reign St. Thomas
country, only those who ruled in western India held power for any is said to have come to India for the propogation of christianity.
considerable length of time. The most famous Saka ruler(kshatrapas) in
India was Rudradaman. His exploits are celebrated in the famous rock • In his coins the position of governor and military governor is mentioned.
inscription of Junagadh (in Gujarat).According to this inscription, he had Regarding the nature of polity it is understood that the Shakas’ kingdom
even defeated the Satavahanas in battle. he ruled not only over Sindh, was divided into provinces.
Kutch and gujarat but had also recovered from the Satavahanas Konkan, • Each province was under a military governor known as mahakshtrapa.
Narmada valley, Malwa and Kathiawar. He is famous in history because And, further subdivision of provinces was under a lesser governor known
of the repairs he undertook to improve the Sudarsana lake in the semi-arid as kshatrapa. They were also known as subordinate rulers. These
zone of the Kathiawar. This lake has been in use for irrigation for a long kshatrapas are seen as issuing inscriptions and minting coins in their own
time , and was as old as the time of the Mauryas. Rudradaman issued the right. Hence, it appears that these governors enjoyed independent status
first-ever long inscription in chaste Sanskrit. All the earlier longer rather than being state officials working under the direction of their rulers.
The Shakas carried out their administration on the basis of Achaemenid of the Hindukush region. His successor, Vima Kadphises, earlier acted as
and Seleucid systems in Iran. a co-ruler along with his father and later ruled independently. He
conquered Kandahar region from the Parthians and established his control
The Kushanas(78 – 120 A.D.)::(Foreign Invaders)
over the Indus valley and Mathura region. He issued gold coins with high-
• The Parthians were followed by the Kushanas, who were also known as sounding titles like the ‘Lord of the Whole World’. He was a devotee of
Yuechis or Tocharians. Lord Siva.The Kadphises were succeeded by that of Kanishka. The
• Another central Asian force which entered into the Indian subcontinent Kushana empire reached its height under the ruler Kanishka(78 – 120
was the Kushanas. The Kushanas, originally belonged to western China. A.D.).
They were a branch of the Yueh-chi tribe, whose original home was • Kanishka was the most important ruler of the Kushana dynasty. He was
central Asia . The Yueh-chi tribe earlier belonged to central Asia and was the founder of the Saka era which starts from 78 A.D. and is used by the
later displaced by Wu-sun and moved westwards. At this point there was a Government of India. He was not only a great conqueror but also a patron
split in the tribe into two parts – Great Yueh-chi and Little Yueh-chi. The of religion and art.
former moved to the Tibet region and the latter moved further west and
• During Kanishka’s reign the empire extended in east till the Ganga
finally settled down in Afghanistan(Bactria) displacing the Sakas. The
valley and southwards in the Malwa region. Kushanas’ influence was
great Yueh-chi was divided into five principalities in the valley of Oxus.
noticed in western and central India as well where the Shaka-Kshatrapas
One of the principalities was the Kushanas. Then they gradually moved to
recognised the overlordship of Kushana rulers. Kanishka’s rule in
the Kabul valley and seized the Gandhara region by crossing the
Pataliputra and Champa in Bihar is attested in the Rabatak inscription.
Hindukush, replacing the rule of the Greeks and Parthians in these areas.
The Chinese source Hou-Han-shu indicates that the Kushanas became
Finally they set up their authority over the lower Indus basin and the
powerful and wealthy due to their conquest over the lower Indus region.
greater part of the Gangetic basin. Their empire axtended from the Oxus
At the time of his accession his empire included Afghanistan, Gandhara,
to the Ganga, from the Khorasan in Central Asia to the Varanasi in Uttar
Sind and Punjab. Subsequently he conquered Magadha and extended his
Pradesh.
power as far as Pataliputra and Bodh Gaya. According to Kalhana,
•We come across two successive dynasties of the Kushanas i.e. Kadphises Kanishka invaded Kashmir and occupied it. His coins are found in many
and Kanishka. The founder of the Kushana dynasty was Kujula Kadphises places like Mathura, Sravasti, Kausambi and Benares and therefore, he
or Kadphises I. He occupied the Kabul valley and issued coins soth of the must have conquered the greater part of the Gangetic plain.
Hindukush in his name. His son Wima Kadphises.
• He also fought against the Chinese and acquired some territories from
• Around the beginning of the 1st century CE Kujula Kadphises them. During the first expedition he was defeated by the Chinese general
amalgamated the five principalities and laid the foundation of an unified Pancho. He undertook a second expedition in which he was successful
Kushana empire. Coins of Kujula Kadphises have been found in the south and he scored a victory over Panyang, the son of Pancho. Kanishka
annexed the territories of Kashgar, Yarkand and Khotan into his empire. portraits of Kushana rulers has been followed after the Mediterranean
The empire of Kanishka was a vast one extending from Gandhara in the customs. These titles suggest that in order to establish their authority over
west to Benares in the east, and from Kashmir in the north to Malwa in lesser kings and chiefs of those times Kushana kings adopted them. On
the south. His capital was Purushapura or modern day Peshawar. He built the one hand, they were making an attempt to legitimize their position in
in the city of Purushpura, a giant stupa to house the Buddha’s their empire; on the other hand, the impact of central Asian traditions is
relics.Mathura was another important city in his empire. also visible in the wake of taking these titles.
• B. N. Mukherjee opined that the mining areas of Malwa region and the • The administrative system of Kushanas does not appear to be a
trade potential in lower Indus region led to the expansion of Kushanas in centralized one. Perhaps the whole empire was divided into provinces
these areas. Further, it was argued that the decline in trading relations with different regions of the vast empire seem to have had different degrees of
the Makran coast led to the decline of the Kushanas. This argument is control. Some regions were under the direct rule of the king while other
suggestive of the fact that economic factor played an important role in the regions were under the control of lesser governors – the mahaksatrapas,
expansion of the Kushana rulers. who was assisted by ksatrapas. There were other regions which accepted
the overlordship of Kushana rulers and governed their territories in their
• Kanishka’s empire probably included most of Afghanistan, easternmost
own manner. Hence, a three-tier system of control is known in Kanishka’s
part of China and extended up to the north of Oxus valley in central Asia.
time: direct control, control through the local kshatrapas, and that
The inclusion of vast regions proved to be a major stimulus to trade.
through the subordinate rulers.
• In other words, the vast empire played a key role in facilitating trade
• Kanishka is regarded as a great patron of Buddhism. He is credited for
from China to West Asia through India. The great Silk Route passed
the establishment of a stupa at Purushapura and sending missions to
through the northern portion of the Kushana empire.
propagate Buddhism to Kashgar, Yunan and China. A Buddhist council
• Formerly, the Kushana empire was a central Asian kingdom. Later, it was held in his reign in Kashmir, where the doctrine of the Mahayana
expanded to Afghanistan and north-western India. The centre of this vast form of Buddhism were finalized. It was in this council that Buddhism
empire was Bactria. In India, Purushapura (Peshawar) and Mathura were got split into two schools – Hinayana and Mahayana.
two important capitals of the Kushana power. The immediate successors
• Surprisingly, in his coins different religious deities – Indian, Greek and
of Kanishka were Vasishka, Huvishka, Kanishka I and Vasudeva I. The
West Asian – are represented. This suggests that an attempt was made by
Kushana power declined by mid 2nd century CE.
him to acknowledge religious diversity in the composition of his empire.
• The Kushana rulers took grand titles like: devaputra (son of god), This may have been part of the royal policy to connect the rulers with
maharajadhiraja (king of kings), soter (saviour), and kaisara different religious tendencies that existed in their vast empire. The state
(Caesar). Thapar has suggested that these titles were borrowed from tried to sustain and perpetuate itself by accommodating the essentials of
Persians, Chinese and Romans; and the practice of depicting a halo on the divergent communities.
• The Kushana power began to decline due to the victory of Iranian • However, his coins exhibit the images of not only Buddha but also
Sassanids. Bactria, being the apex centre, went into the hands of Iran. In Greek and Hindu gods. It reflects the Kanishka’s toleration towards other
the same period there was a resurgence of different types of principalities religions. Kushana coins were of the highest quality and conformed to the
– local and sub-regional – in different parts of India. weight standards of Roman coins. In the coins, Kushana rulers are
referred to as “king of kings”, “Caesar”, “lord of all lands” and by other
• Kanishka also patronized the Gandhara and Mathura schools of
such titles.
sculptural art.
• The artefacts found along the Karakoram highway also establish that
Kanishka and Buddhism:
this was the route taken by Buddhist monks travelling to China on their
• Kanishka embraced Buddhism in the early part of his reign. In the age of mission to spread Buddhism. Merchants followed the missionaries, so this
Kanishka the Mahayana Buddhism came into vogue. It is different in became a major commercial route for the import of Chinese silk and
many respects from the religion taught by the Buddha and propagated by horses from the West into India.
Asoka. The Buddha came to be worshipped with flowers, garments,
Successors of Kanishka and end of Kushana Rule:
perfumes and lamps. Thus image worship and rituals developed in
Mahayana Buddhism. • The successors of Kanishka ruled for another one hundred and fifty
years. Huvishka was the son of Kanishka and he kept the empire intact.
• He patronised Buddhist scholars like Vasumitra, Asvagosha and
Mathura became an important city under his rule. Like Kanishka he was
Nagarjuna. He also convened the Fourth Buddhist Council to discuss
also a patron of Buddhism
matters relating to Buddhist theology and doctrine. It was held at the
Kundalavana monastery near Srinagar in Kashmir under the presidentship • The last important Kushana ruler was Vasudeva. The Kushana empire
of Vasumitra. About 500 monks attended the Council. The Council was very much reduced in his rule. Most of his inscriptions are found in
prepared an authoritative commentary on the Tripitakas and the and around Mathura. He seems to have been a worshipper of Siva. After
Mahayana doctrine was given final shape. Asvagosha was a great Vasudeva, petty Kushan princes ruled for sometime in northwestern India.
philosopher, poet and dramatist. He was the author of Buddhacharita.
Contribution of the Kushanas:
Nagarjuna from south India adorned the court of Kanishka. The famous
physician of ancient India Charaka was also patronized by him. • The Kushanas occupy a special place in the ancient Indian history
because of their contribution to various aspects of life.
• Kanishka also sent missionaries to Central Asia and China for the
propagation of the new faith. Buddhist chaityas and viharas were built in • Their vast empire helped in the growth of internal and external trade. It
different places. resulted in the rise of new urban centres.
• The rich state of economy under the Kushanas is also evidenced by the
large number of gold and copper coins that they struck.
• Even in literature and medicine, India made progress. Charaka, known • Central Asian contacts brought a fresh wave in the art of sculpture
as father of Ayurveda, wrote a book on medicine called Charaksamhita making. Buddhist sculptures of the Gandhara school, as explained here
whereas Asvaghosha, a Buddhist scholar, wrote Buddhacharita, a full below, evolved as a result of the amalgamation of the Indian and the
length biography of the Buddha. Both these scholars were believed to be Greek styles.
the contemporaries of king Kanishka.
Houses:
• The Kushanas patronized the Gandhara and the Mathura schools of
• The Saka-Kushan phase registered a distinct advance in building
sculptural art which are known for producing the earliest images of
activities.
Buddha and Buddhisattavas.
• In houses we find the use of burnt bricks for flooring and that of tiles for
Contributions of Central Asia:
both flooring and roofing.
• Invasions of the Bactrian Greeks and Saka-Pahilavas on India and its
• The period is also marked by the construction of brick-wells.
subsequent political contact with Central Asia under the Kushanas
resulted in immense cul- tural intermingling between the two regions. Pottery:
These foreign groups gradually lost their foreign identity and were • Its typical pottery is red-ware, both plain and polished with medium to
incorporated in the Brahmanical society lower grade as kshatriyas. Many fine fabric.
of them adopted Buddhism. We have already re- ferred to the Indo-
Bactrian ruler Menander who was converted to Buddhism by a monk • The distinctive pots are sprinklers and spouted channels.
named Nagasena. Since they did not had their own script, language or religion, they adopted
• Central Asian contacts also brought to India new methods of making these elements of culture from india. They became an integral part of
coins. The crude punch-marked coins which were used earlier gradually Indian society to which they contributed considerably.
gave way to refined Greek style coins containing legends and the bust of They introduced better cavalry and the use of the riding horse on a large
the ruler. This new format became the model for the subsequent coinage scale. The Sakas and Kushanas were excellent horsemen.
in India.
They made common the use of reins and saddles, which appear in the
• Besides, Indians also borrowed from central Asians, particularly the Buddhist sculptures of the second and third centuries AD.
Greeks, knowledge of astronomy. Early Indian literary works on
astronomy frequently quote the Greek astronomers who are referred to as Some of these foreign horsemen were heavily armoured, and fought with
yavanacharya. Indians also learned the art of making horoscopes from the spears and lances.
Greeks. Kushanas were the first rulers in India to isse gold coins on a wide scale.
Religion: Cloth:
• Some of the foreign rulers were converted to Vaishnavism, which means The Sakas and Kushanas introduced turban, tume, trousers and heavy
the worship of Vishnu, the god of protection and preservation. The Greek long coat.
embassador called Heliodorys set up a pillar in honour of vishnu near
The Central Asians also brought in cap, helmet and boots which were
Visisa in Madhya Pradesh.
used by warriors. Because of these advantages they made a clean sweep
• Few other ruler adopted Buddhism. The famous Greek ruler Menander of their opponents in Iran, Afghanistan, pakistan and India.
was converted to Buddhism.
Non-Monarchies/Ganasanghas/Clan-Based Polities:
• The Kushana ruler worshipped bith Shiva and Buddha, and the images
• This period also witnessed the emergence of different tribal or clan-
of this two gods appeared on the Kushan coins. Several Kushana rulers
based polities in different parts of north India.
were the worshippers of Vishnu.
• The Arjunayanas appeared in south-east of Mathura (Alwar region in
The Origin of Mahayana Buddhism:
Rajasthan); the Malavas originated in Punjab and later migrated to
• The contacts with the foreigners brought about changes in Indian Rajasthan; the Yaudheyas lived in eastern Punjab and the areas of Uttar
religious. This especially happened to Buddhism. Pradesh and Rajasthan; Kunindas at the foot of Sivalik hills; Trigartas
between the Ravi and Sutlej river basins.
• Buddhism in its original form was too puritanical and too abstract for
foreigners, who wanted something concrete and intelligible. They did not • The Yaudheyas were famous even in the time of Panini as professional
appreciate the philosophical doctrines of Buddhism, emphasized by the warriors and, during this period, are said to have been suppressed by
sxisting Buddhist school. Rudradaman, the Shaka king.
• They wanted something which could be easily understand and which • Many of these tribes claimed kshatriya status through epic heroes and
could satify their religious craving. So they developed a new form of legends. And their coins were often issued in the name of gana or
Buddhism called the Mahayana or the Great Wheel, in which the image of janapada like in the case of the Yaudheyas.
the Buddhism began to be worshipped.
• Other tribal republics, as they are popularly known, during this period
• The doors of this sects were open t all sections of the people. Those who are those of Sibis, Malavas, Trigartas and so on. These janapadas
did not subscribe the newly-founded sect came to be known as the interspersed the region of northern and north-western India and, at the
followers of the Hinayana or the Small Wheel. same time, independent principalities like Ayodhya, Kausambi, Mathura
and Ahichhatra also re-asserted their power, having earlier succumbed to
• Fortunately for Mahayana, Kanishka became its great patron.
the Mauryas.
•
The Shaka-Kshatrapas of Western India: Gathasaptasati, also called Sattasai. It contains 700 verses in Prakrit
language.
• The Shaka-Kshatrapas came to power in western India. Earlier, they
were feudatories of the Kushanas and owed allegiance to them. Gradually, • The greatest ruler of the Satavahana dynasty was Gautamiputra
they came to the forefront and declared their independence. Satakarni. He ruled for a period of 24 years from 106 to 130 A.D. His
achievements were recorded in the Nasik inscription by his mother
• In the early centuries of the Christian era the two lines of Kshatrapa
Gautami Balasri. Gautamiputra Satakarni captured the whole of Deccan
rulers were the Kshaharatas and the Kardamakas. Bhumaka and Nahapana
and expanded his empire. His victory over Nagapana/Nahapana, the ruler
were important rulers of the Kshaharata dynasty and they were loyal to
of Malwa(Shaka ruler) was remarkable. He patronized Brahmanism. Yet,
the Kushanas.
he also gave donations to Buddhists.
• Chastana was the founder of Kardamaka dynasty. He was appointed as
• Gautamiputra Satakarni was succeeded by his son Vashishtaputra
viceroy of the south-western province of the Kushanas . The Kardamakas
Pulamayi. He extended the Satavahana power up to the mouth of the
followed the practice of senior and junior rulers with titles kshatrapa and
Krishna river in south to river Godavari in north. The Satavahanas had
mahakshatrapa respectively.
their capital at Pratishthana (modern Paithan) near Aurangabad in
• Rudradaman I was the famous ruler of the Kardamaka dynasty. He came Maharashtra. He issued coins on which the image of ships was inscribed.
to the throne in 150 CE and his conquests are inscribed in the Junagarh They reveal the naval power and maritime trade of the Satavahanas. The
inscription. It mentions that Malwa, Saurashtra, Gujarat and northern last great ruler of Satavahanas was Yajna Sri Satakarni who issued coins
Konkan were the conquered regions by this ruler. He defeated Satakarni with a ship motif, indicating the importance of the overseas trade during
ruler of Satavahana dynasty twice, probably Gautamiputra Satkarni. his reign.
The Satavahanas:(Indian invaders) • The Satavahana Empire declined around the 3rd century CE and was
Lineage of Satavahanas: replaced by the Ikshvakus, followed by Pallavas in Andhra and the
Kadambas in northern Karnataka.
• The founder of the Satavahana dynasty was Simuka.
• Satavahana's rule lasted for about 450 years.
• He was succeeded by Krishna, who extended the kingdom up to Nasik
in the west. • In the post-Mauryan period many local rulers started ruling in regions
like Vidarbha, eastern Deccan, Karnataka and western Maharashtra. The
• The third king was Sri Satakarni. He conquered western Malwa and most important of the native successors of the Mauryas in the Deccan and
Berar. He also performed asvamedha sacrifices. in central India were the Satavahanas. The Satavahana empire is said to
• The seventeenth king of the Satavahana dynasty was Hala. He reigned have been built through the consolidation of numerous local centres. They
for a period of five years. Hala became famous for his book were the earliest indigenous tribes that were transformed into a
monarchical polity. The Satavahanas probably belonged to a clan or of Satavahana empire at this time included Malwa and Saurashtra in the
branch of the Andhra tribe whose power gradually rose in the Deccan and north to the Krishna delta in south, and from Berar in the east to the
western India around 1st century BCE. They were also known as the Konkan coast in the west. The coins issued by the Satavahanas are also
Andhras. helpful in knowing the economic conditions of that period.
• They are believed to have begun their rule around 1st century BCE • The inscription also describes that the Buddhist monks were donated a
when they defeated the Kanvas and established their power in central piece of land for dwelling purposes in his reign. This is the first time in
India and the rule ended in early 3rd century CE. Simuka is known as the history when land was granted with terms and conditions, i.e. the land
founder of this dynasty whose apex political centre was Pratishthan or will not be interfered by royal authority, will be free from state control
Paithan. and the landholder will enjoy certain privileges over it.
• The Prakrit Nasik inscription mentions the Satavahana ruler • The Satavahana empire was divided into small provinces known as
Gautamiputra Satkarni as ekabrahmana. Another ruler of this dynasty – aharas/rashtras meaning districts. Each province was under civil and
Satkarni I – performed ashvamedha sacrifices is known through the military officers. The following are the titles used for officials:
Nanaghat inscription. These facts suggest that the local rulers played a Amatya(the highest official), Mahabhoja, Mahasenapati,and
significant role in the making of Satavahanas. The rulers of this dynasty Maharathi.
may have attempted to sanctify their position through the performance of
• Village/grama was the lowest administrative unit. The head of of village
Vedic sacrifices. Probably, Yajnasri Satakarni, also known as
administration known as gramasabha/grama/gramika and that of town
Gautamiputra Yajna Sri, was the last ruler of the Satavahana dynasty to
administration was known as nagarasabha. Both these officials carried out
control eastern and western Deccan.
their functions independently. There is a mention of a special official –
• The Satavahana empire comprised of Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Uparakshita – being appointed by the ruler to look after the building
north Karnataka, south Madhya Pradesh and Saurashtra. Kharavela of activities of the caves for monks. There were also officers called amatyas
Chedi dynasty of Odisha is believed to have challenged the authority of who were perhaps ministers or advisors of the king. Revenue was
the Satvahana ruler Satakarni I. Nevertheless, he appears to have had a collected both in cash and kind.
vast area under his control. This could be gleaned from the title – the lord
• The above mentioned titles indicate that their administrative system was
of Dakshinapatha – taken by him.
feudal in nature. The power was not confined to the ruler. Instead, it was
• Gautamiputra Satakarni was the famous ruler of this dynasty and this distributed through the hierarchy of officials. The fiscal and
empire reached its height under him. The Nasik cave inscription mentions administrative rights rested with feudal chiefs. Some were allowed to
him as “the destroyer of the Shakas, Pahlavas and Yavanas, the uprooter issue their coins and some entered into marital alliances with the royal
of Kshaharatas and the restorer of the glory of Satavahanas”. The extent family. Hence, it could be pointed out that the administration was carried
out through local channels with either less or no interference from royal regions. The Velir chieftains, for instance, were famous as they controlled
authorities in provinces and regions. However, a strong element of important outlets to Roman trade on the south-east coast.
monarchy appears to exist in the apex centre of this dynasty.
• Though attempts were made in the post-Mauryan period by various
• Numerous dynasties emerged after the gradual decline of the dynasties to build empires there were several instances of each of them
Satavahanas. Like the Vakatakas arose in Deccan region, the Kadambas in contending the other.
Mysore, the Abhiras in Maharashtra and the Ikshvakus in the Andhra
• Whereas, on the one hand the political decline of the Mauryas created a
region. The Satavahanas kings were succeeded by the Kings of lkshvaku
situation for many of these local powers to rise, on the other hand their
dynasty.
economic expansion witnessed in the Mauryan period continued
• Satavahanas kings were the first in Indian history to make tax free land unabated. The crisis in the Magadhan empire under the Mauryas was,
grants to Buddhists and Brahmanas to gain religious merit. This practice thus, one of organization and control of its resources and not a lack of
became more prominent in succeeding periods. The Satavahana kings them.
claimed to be Brahmanas and considered it their primary duty to uphold
Importance of Satavahana Period :
varna system i.e. the four fold division of social structure. According to
the Dharmasastras it was the function of the kshatriyas to rule, but the Offering land grants was an important development of the Satavahana
Satavahana rulers called themselves brahmanas. times. The beneficiaries of these grants were mostly Buddhists and
Brahmins. The Naneghat inscription refers to tax exemptions given to the
• They issued coins of lead, which are found in Deccan. They also issued
lands granted to Buddhist monks. Thus we notice the beginning of
potin, copper and bronze money.
priestly groups attaining higher status. These land donations created a
• In the extreme south the three important chiefdoms that continued to be group of people who did not cultivate, but owned land. This led to the
prominent from the Mauryan period were: the Cheras who controlled development of land-based social hierarchy and divisions in the society.
the Malabar area, the Cholas who held sway on the south-eastern coast
For the first time a big state covering a major part of the Deccan was
and the Kaveri valley, and the Pandyas whose power centre lay around
established. Several rock-cut caves dedicated to the Buddha sangha bear
the tip of the peninsula.
evidence that they were situated in the trade routes linking the interior to
• The Sangam texts of this period give us a considerable amount of the coastal parts of Konkan region. It was also a period of brisk Indo-
information on the society, ecology, polity and economy of the region Roman trade.
where these three kingdoms ruled. For the extreme south we know that
ECONOMY AND SOCIETY: POST-MAURYAS
the chiefs of the three main chiefdoms (the Cheras- the Colas-the
Pandyas) were constantly at war with minor chiefs of the less developed Agriculture:
• Agriculture remained a crucial source of revenue. The spread of • The most important feature of the post-Mauryan period(during the
sedentary agriculture was, for the first time, noticed in the Satavahana and Satavahana rule) was the growth of trade, commerce and industry, both
Kalinga kingdoms. The inscription from Nasik also informs us about the internally as well as externally. Tremendous increase was noticed in
coconut plantation in these regions. trading activities within and between the sub-continents in this period.
• The Milindapanho mentions eight different stages of agricultural •There were two major internal land routes in ancient India. First, known
activities – from removing weeds to harvesting of crops. It also as Uttarapatha, connected northern and eastern parts of India with the
enumerates varieties of crops and different types of rice cultivated (royal northwestern fringes, i.e., present day Pakistan and further beyond, and
and coarse) in this period. Archaeological evidences of agricultural the second, known as Dakshinapatha, connected the peninsular India with
implements such as iron ploughshare, axes, adzes, spades and sickle have the western and northern parts of India. The Dakshinapatha was the major
been found from Taxila and Sanchi. route that connected north and south India. It started from Kaushambi
near Allahabad and running through Ujjaiyini (modern Ujjain) extended
• Another important fact is that Gahapatis (large landowners) and
further up to Bhrigukaccha or Broach, an important port on western coast.
Kutumbika and halika (cultivators) appear as donors or patrons to the
The Dakshinapatha was further connected with Pratishthana (modern
Buddhist sangha. This suggests an exalted status of the cultivators in
Paithan), the capital of the Satavahanas.
economic terms.
• Other major trade end-points in northern India were: Pushkalavati in
Irrigation:
the north-west, Patala and Bhrigukachha in the west, and Muziris in
• The state and individual initiative to provide irrigation facilities the south.
continued in this period too.
• The Jatakas provide information on long-distance travels. It mentions
• The embankment of Sudarshana lake was repaired during the reign of people taking different travelling modes like bullock-carts, chariots and
Rudradaman I, the Shaka ruler. by foot. There were rest-houses for tired travellers to rest for some time.
• Canals were built by the Nandas of Kalinga. • The Satavahana period also witnessed overseas commercial activity.
• The Nasik inscription records that in the reign of Nahapana tanks were Ptolemy mentions many ports in the Deccan. The greatest port of the
built. Satavahanas was Kalyani on the west Deccan. Gandakasela and Ganjam
on the east coast were the other important seaports. Important ports of
• Another inscription informs that a Greek named Theodorus donated an India on the western coast were (from north to south direction)
excavated tank near Taxila. Bharukachchha Sopara, Kalyana, Muziris, etc. Ships from these ports
Trade: sailed to the Roman Empire through the Red Sea.

Internal and External Trade Routes Trade with West and Central Asia:
• There was a brisk commerce in luxury goods, not in the articles of day- • Ujjain was a prominent bead making centre. Textile industry was
to-day use, between India and Rome. another prominent industry. Mathura and Vanga (east Bengal) were
famous for variety of cotton and silk textiles. Mathura was a great centre
• The best account of Indo-Roman trade is given in the book called
for the manufacturing of a special type of cloth which was called sataka.
Periplus of the Erythrean Sea which was written in the first century AD
The discovery of some dying vats at some sites in south India indicates
by an anonymous author. Main requirements of the Romans were the
that dying was a thriving craft in the area during this period.
Indian products such as spices, per- fumes, jewels, ivory and fine textiles,
i.e. muslin. Spices exported from India to the Roman empire included • Coin-minting was an important craft,and the period is noted for
pepper, also called yavanapriya (perhaps because of its popularity among numerous types of coins made of gold, silver, copper, bronze, lead and
Romans). The spice trade with the Roman empire was largely based in potin.
south India. Romans also imported several precious and semiprecious
• The inscriptions of the period mention weavers, goldsmiths, dyers,
stones like diamond, carnelian, turquoise, agate, sapphire etc, besides
workers in metals and ivory, jewellers, sculptures, fishermen, smiths and
pearls, indigo, sandal- wood and steel etc.
perfumers as construtors or caves and donors of pillars, tablets, cisterns
• Against this import Romans exported gold and silver to India. It is etc.
proved by a large number of Roman coins of the first century AD found in
• The artisans in this period touched new heights of prosperity and there
the subcontinent. This indicates an enormous drain of gold from the
are numerous inscriptions which refer to the donations made by artisans
Roman empire towards India. Other important items of export from the
to monasteries.
Roman empire included wine which is indicated by wine- amphorae and
sherds of Roman ware found in significant numbers at Arikamedu in (Silkroute)
south India. Besides, the western traders also brought tin, lead, coral and • Another landmark change noticed in this period was the prospering
slave girls. long-distance trade relations. There was a huge demand of Chinese silk in
Crafts and Industries: the Roman empire. The silk reached the latter through far flung overland
route from east Asia. There were two ways of silk routes – northern and
• Crafts production started growing in this period with tremendous
southern silk routes. Bactria falls on the southern silk route. The
impetus, as trade and commerce, both internal and foreign, was dependent
significant issue is that when the Kushanas rose to power and captured
to a great extent on the craft activities.
Bactria the Roman empire found an alternative way of trade through the
• The level of specialization was very high and there were separate Indian subcontinent. It provided immense avenues to the Kushana power
artisans working in gold, silver, precious stones etc. Technological and this empire flourished on the basis of silk route from India to the
knowledge about the work of iron had made great progress. Roman empire. The discovery of south-west monsoon winds added to the
possibilities of maritime trade in the Indian Ocean. The Periplus and
Ptolemy’s Geography mention that Chinese silk entered north-western basically associations of merchants and craftsmen following the same
India through Bactria and Kabul, reached Mathura and from there to profession or dealing in the same commodity. They elected their head and
Ujjayini. From Ujjayini the merchants and merchandise reached the port framed their own rules regarding prices and quality etc., to regulate their
city Barygaza. And the items were sailed from here to the ports of Red business on the basis of mutual goodwill. They also served as banks and
Sea and eastern Mediterranean region. It also paved the way for trading received deposits from the public on a fixed rate of interest.
relations between the Indian merchants and the Roman world.
• These guilds also seem to have had a close connection with royal
The exports from India included: precious gems like diamond, pearls, officials
ivory products, finest textiles, and exotic spices. Black pepper was
Coins:
in high demand in the Roman empire.
• The Kushanas and the Satavahanas used coins for small scale
The import items included: Chinese silk, distinct potteries like
transactions. Coins of gold, silver and copper facilitated trading activities.
Arretine ware, imported amphorae, and the Mediterranean wines.
Silver coins called Karshapanas were used for trade.
The trade contacts between India and east and south-east Asia also
intensified in this period. How did the Indians use the silver and gold currency which came to India
from Rome?
(Shreni/guilds)
• The Roman gold coins were naturally valued for their intrinsic worth,
• The flourishing trade relations and continuous interaction of migrating
but they also may have circulated in big transactions.
groups in north-western India provided the backdrop for craft
specialization in this period. • In the north, the Kushanas issued gold coins in considerable numbers. It
would be wrong to think that all gold coins issued by kushanas were
• The organization of these craftsmen into guilds (shrenis) to increase
minted out of Roman gold. This gold may have been extracted form the
their activities is also an important feature of the post-Mauryan period.
gold mines of Dhalbhum in south Bihar which later came under their
• Shreni was a group of professionals, merchants or artisans who decided sway.
their common interests and policies pertaining to their professions under
• On accunt of contract with Rome the Kushanas issued the dinar type of
the head called sreshthi. Another type of mercantile group was called
gold coins which became abundant under the Gupta rule.
sartha which signified mobile or caravan trading corporation of
interregional traders. The leader of such a guild was called sarthavaha. • Gold coins may not have been used in day-to-day tranactions, which
Like merchants almost all craft vocations were also organised into guilds, were carried on in coins of lead, potin or copper.
each under a headman called Jyestha. These included weavers, corn The Dharmashastras lay provisions related to taxes, profits on indigenous
dealers, bamboo workers, oil manufacturers, potters etc. The guilds were goods and foreign goods.
• The normative Brahmanical literature – Manusmriti and Yajnavalkya form of marriage. Surprisingly, the Swayamvara form of marriage is not
Smriti – upholds the fourfold varna system; it also accommodates mentioned in normative literature .
numerous jatis.
• Another important aspect noticed in the Smriti literature of the 2nd
• The offsprings born of union of two different varnas were assigned the century BCE is that the property of women (stridhana) was recognized
status of jati, and the jatis were denoted by specific or hereditary and prescriptions were laid out in this regard.
occupations. The proliferation of jatis may have been due to the
• The practice of using mother’s gotra in their names has been noticed
absorption of tribal groups into the Brahmanical structure resulting from
amongst the Satavahana rulers. This suggests that the mother may have
the gradual spread of the state society.
been considered significant, as ancestry is traced through their names.
• The Manusmriti also refers to vratya kshatriyas as kshatriyas who were
• Inscriptions indicate that the women of Satavahana dynasty made
degraded due to the non-performance of rituals.
donations in their own rights. Other epigraphic sources suggest that a
• The foreign tribes who came from central and West Asia appear to be large number of women, who did not belong to the royal background,
assimilated as the vratya kshatriyas. Earlier, they were regarded as were also donors at the Buddhist sites. This indicates that these women
outsiders (yavanas), but gradually given space in the Brahmanical may have had some degree of economic liberty.
literature in the form of degenerated kshatriyas .
Family of Satavahanas:
(Women)
• In Aryan society in north India father enjoyed greater importance than
• Regarding the position of women Manusmriti lays emphasis upon mother, and the princes whom we have considered so far seem, to have
guarding the wives and keeping them under the control of men. It states belonged to a patriarchal society. But the Satavahanas show traces of a
that women should be under the guard of father, then husband and then, matrilineal social structure.
the son. A subordinate position has been assigned to women in the domain
• It was customary for their kings to be named after his mother. Such
of household.
names as Gautamiputra and Vasisthiputra indicate that in their society
• The preference for son over daughter and women being confined to the mother enjoyed a great deal of importance.
domestic sphere is emphasized in the text.
• But basically the Satavahanas ruling family was patriarchal because
• The ideal form of marriages such as brahma, daiva, arsa and prajapatya succession to the throne passed to the male member.
are permitted for the upper varnas and for the lower varnas, asura,
Religion of Satavahanas:
gandharva, rakshasa and paishacha were prescribed. If we look at the
Mahabharata the marriage between Arjun and Subhadra was a rakshasa • The Satavahanas rulers claim to have been brahamanas, and they
represented the march of triumphant brahmanism.
• From the very beginning the kings and queens performed the Vedic • The Satavahanas rulers strove for the royal ideal set forth in the
sacrifices such as the asvamedha, vajapeya etc. dharmasastras. The king was represented as the upholder of dharma. To
him were assigned a few divine attributes.
• They also worshipped large number of Vaishnava gods such as Krishna,
Vasudeva and others. • Satavahana king is represented as possessing the qualities of ancient
gods such as Rama, Bhima, Kesava, Arjuna etc.
• They paid liberal sacrificial fees to the brahmanas.
• The Satavahanas kept some of the administrative units found in Ashokan
• However, the Satavahanas rulers promoted Buddhism by granting land
times. Their district was called ahara, as it was known in the times of
to the monks. In their kingdom the Mahayana form of Buddhism
Ashoka. Their officials were known as amatyas and mahamatras, as they
commanded considerable following, especially in the artisan class.
were known in Maurya times.
Nagararjunkonda and Amaravati in Andra Pradesh became important
seats of Buddhist culture under the Satavahanas and more so under their • But we notice military and feudal elements in the adminstration of
successors, the Ikshvakus. Satavahanas. It is significant that the Senapati was appointed provincial
governor. Since the tribal people of the deccan were not thoroughly
• Nagarjunkonda contains not only Buddhist monuments but also the
hinduized and reconciled to the new rule. It was necessary to keep them
earliest brahmanical brick temples.
under strong military control.
• The Satavahanas started the practice of granting tax-free villages to
• The administration in the rural areas was placed in the hands of
brahmanas and Buddhists monks. The cultivated fields and villages
gaulmika, who was the head of the military regiment.
granted to them were declared free from molestations by royal policemen
and soldiers, and all kinds of royal officers. These areas thereforme • The Satavahana kingdom had three grades of feudatories. The highest
became small independent island within the Satavanahan kingdom. grade was formed by the king who was called raja and who had the right
to strike coins. The second grade was formed by the mahabhoja, and the
Language of Satavahanas:
third grade by the senapati.
• The official language of the Satavahanas was Prakrit . All inscriptions
Architecture of Satavahanas:
were composed in this language and written in Brahmi script as was the
case in Ashokan times. • In the Satavahanas phase many temples and monasteries were cut out of
the solid rock in the north-western Deccan or Maharashtra with great skill
• One Prakrit text called Gathasaptasati is attributed to a Satavahana king
and patience. Rock-cut architecture have been found in Andra in the
Hala.
Krishna-Godavari region.
Pattern of Administration of Satavahanas:
• The two common structures were the temple which was called chaitya
and the monastery which was called viraha. The chaitya was a large hall
with a number of columns, and the viraha consisted of a central hall • On account of contact with the foreigners from northwest, a specific
entered by a doorway from a verandah in front. school of art called Gandhara School of art developed in this period. It
was influenced, to a great extent, by the Greek style or art forms.
• The viraha or monasteries were excavated near the chaityas for the
residence of monks in the rainy season. The most famous chaitya is that • Statues of Buddha, sculpted particularly in Taxila and the north- western
of Karle in the western Deccan. regions, show him in graceful garments, surrounded by cherubs and
leaves inspired by the Greek tradition.
• Stupas are the large round structure erected over the relic of the Buddha.
Amaravati stupa is full of sculptures which depict the various scenes from • The Buddhists began to carve out rock caves in the hills of western
the life of the Buddha. The most famous monumentsa of stupa distributed India, which served as religious centres with chaityas and viharas,
over 125km all around Ellora. stretching from the Ajanta caves to the Kanheri caves in Mumbai. Large
statues of Buddha were sculpted in these caves as a part of the Mahayana
Cultural Contributions of Satavahanas:
tradition, and in later centuries, they were further embellished with murals
• The Satavahanas patronized Buddhism and Brahmanism. They built of extraordinary beauty, as seen in the Ajanta caves.
chaityas and viharas. They also made grants of villages and lands to
• Asvaghosha is known for his Buddhacharita and is celebrated as the
Buddhist monks. Vashishtaputra Pulamayi repaired the old Amaravathi
author of the first Sanskrit play, Sariputraprakarana, in nine acts. The
stupa.
great dramatist Bhasa, whose plays were re-discovered only about a
• Their architecture in Nagarjunakonda was also notable. hundred years ago in South India, most probably belonged to this period.
• Brahmanism was revived by the Satavahanas along with the Among the Hindu treatises, we find the Manusmriti, Vatsyayana’s
performance of asvamedha and rajasuya sacrifices. Kamasutra and Kautilya’s Arthasastra taking final shape by the second
century CE.
• They also patronized the Prakrit language and literature. Hala’s Sattasai
is an excellent piece of Prakrit literature. Stupas:

Art: • A stupa was a large hemispherical dome with a central chamber in which
relics of the Buddha or some Buddhist monk were kept in a small casket.
• Art in the post-Mauryan period was predominantly religious. Two most The base was surrounded by a path for clockwise circumambulation
important features concerning art and architecture of this period are the (pradakshina), enclosed by wooden railings which were later made in
construction of stupas and development of regional schools of sculpture. stone. Buddhist stupas evolved out of the burial of the ashes of the mortal
Idols of the Buddha were carved out for the first time in this period. remains of the Buddha. Buddhist sacred architecture originated with the
eight stupas where the ashes were divided. Hemispherical shape, the stupa
symbolizes the universe; and the Buddha represents the emperor of the • Mahayana Buddhism encouraged Buddha’s worship as a god in human
spiritual universe. form. As a result a large number of Buddha images were built in different
regions.
• Three prominent stupas of this period are at Bharhut and Sanchi (both in
M.P), which were originally built by Ashoka but enlarged later, and • There were three major schools of sculptural art which developed in this
Amravati and Nagarjunkonda (both in Andhra Pradesh). period. These were: Mathura school of art, Gandhara School of art and
Amravati school of art.
• The Bharhut stupa in its present form dates to the middle of the second
century BC. It is important for its sculptures. Its railings are made of red Gandhara Art:
stone. Three big stupas were constructed at Sanchi in this period. The
• The home of the Gandhara school of art is the territory in and around
biggest of the three, which was built originally by emperor Ashoka, was
Peshawar in northwestern India. The best of the Gandhara sculpture was
enlarged to twice its size sometime in the second century BC. A number
produced during the first and second centuries A.D.
of stupas were also constructed in south India during this period but none
has survived in its entirety. • This region was successively ruled by the Greeks, Mauryas, Sungas,
Shakas, and Kushanas for many centuries. It originated during the reign
• The Amravati stupa, situated at Amravati in Andhra Pradesh took its
of Indo-Greek rulers but the real patrons of this school of art were the
final shape sometime in the second century AD. The sculptures on stupas
Sakas and the Kushanas, particularly Kanishka.
are drawn on the themes based on Jataka and other Buddhist stories.
• The theme of sculptures in predominantly Buddhist but their style is
Rock Cut Architecture:
Greek.
• This period also marks a progress in rock cut architecture. A large
• Gandhara art was a blend of Indian and Graeco-Roman elements.
number of temples, halls and places of residence for monks were cut out
Specimens of Gandhara sculpture have been found in Taxila, Peshawar
of the solid rocks near Pune and Nasik in Maharashtra under the
and in several places of northwest India.
Satavahanas. The place of worship generally had a shrine cell with a
votive stupa placed in the centre. This place was known as a chaitya and • The stone used for making idols of Buddha and Bodhisattava was
the rock cut structure used as the residence for monks was called a vihara. predominantly blue-grey schist. Chief characteristics of Gandhara school
of art lies in its beautiful portrayal of human figures with distinguished
Schools of Sculptural Art:
muscles of the body. Buddha is depicted with a garment draped in
• The first century witnessed the division of Buddhism in two parts, Graeco-Roman fashion, and with very curly hair. These beautiful images
Hinayana and Mahayana. of the Buddha are ranked among the best pieces of sculptures.
• The Gandhara school made sculptures of the Buddha in various sizes, • The Brahmanical influence on the art school of Mathura is also evident.
shapes and postures. The reliefs depict Buddha’s birth, his renunciation The Mathura school also carved out the images of Siva, Kartikeya,
and his preaching. The salient features of Gandhara art are: Kubera and Vishnu along with their consorts Parvathi and Lakshmi. The
female figures of yakshinis and apsaras of the Mathura school were
-Moulding human body in a realistic manner with minute attention to
beautifully carved.
physical features like muscles, moustache and curtly hair.
• At present the Mathura museum possesses the largest collection of
-Thick drapery with large and bold fold lines.
scultures of Kushan times in India.
-Rich carving, elaborate ornamentation and symbolic expressions.
The Amravati School of Art:
-The main theme was the new form of Buddhism – Mahayanism–and the
The Amravati school of art flourished in the region of Andhra Pradesh
evolution of an image of Buddha.
between the lower valleys of rivers Krishna and Godavari.
The Buddhist stupas erected during this period had Graeco-Roman
The main patrons of this art form were the Satavahans but it carried on
architectural impact. The height of the stupa was raised and
even later, patronized by their successor Ikshavaku rulers. This art is said
ornamentation was added to the structure of the stupa. These changes
to have flourished between 150 BC and 350 AD.
made the stupa more attractive.
Sculptures of this school are mainly found on the railings, plinths and
Mathura School of Art:
other parts of stupas.
• The school of art that developed at Mathura in modern Uttar Pradesh is
The thematic representations include the stories from the life of the
called the Mathura art. It flourished in the first century A.D. In its early
Buddha.
phase, the Mathura school of art developed on indigenous lines.
An important characteristic of the Amravati school is the ‘narrative art’.
• The most prominent contribution of the Mathura school to the
contemporary art was the images of Buddha which were carved for the The medallions were carved in such a manner that they depict an incident
first time perhaps in this art form. Mathura has also yielded large numbers in a natural way. For example one medallion depicts a whole story of
of sculptures of Jaina deities besides the ayagapatas or stone slabs to place ‘taming of an elephant by the Buddha’.
objects of worship.
Another important feature of Amravati art is the use of white marble like
• The Mathura artists used local red stone with black spots to make the stone to carve out the figures. There is prominence of human figures
images. rather than of nature.
• The Buddha images exhibit the spiritual feeling in his face which was Literature:
largely absent in the Gandhara school.
• Asvaghosha enjoyed the patronage of the Kushana. Asvaghosha wrote and long boots. Possibly the practise of making leather shoes began in
the Buddhacharitra, which is the biography of Buddha. He also composed India during this period.
Saundarananda, which is the fine example of Sanskrit Kavya.
• Working in glass during this period was especially influenced by foreign
• The progress of Mahayana Buddhism let to the composition of ideas and practices. In no other period in India did glass-making make
numerous avadanas. Most of this texts were composed in what is known such progress as it did during this period.
as the Buddhist-Hybrid Sanskrit. Their one objective was to preaach the
Urban settlements of Post Mauryan period:
teachings of Mahayana Buddhism to the people. Some of the important
books of this genre were the Mahavastu and Divyavadana. • The growing crafts and commerce and the increasing use of money
promoted the prosperity of numerous towns during this period.
• The foreigners also contributed to the development of the Indian theatre,
by introducing the use of curtain. • Important towns in north India such as Vaishali, Pataliputra, Varanasi,
Kausambi, Sravasti, Hastinapur, Mathura, Indraprastha etc are all
Sci and tech:
mentioned in the literary texts and some of them are also described in the
• Indian astronomy and astrology profited from contact with the Greeks. Chinese pilgrims. Most towns flourished in the Kushan period in the first
We notice many Greeks terms about the movement of the planets in and the second centuries AD. this can be said on the basis of excavations.
Sanskrit texts. Indian astrology came to be influenced by Greek ideas, and
• The most imporant town was Ujjain, bacause of its being the nodal point
from the Greek term horoscope was derived the term horasastra used fr
of two routes, one from Kausambi and the other from Mathura. But it was
astrology in Sanskrit.
also important because of its export of agate and carnelian stones. This
• However the Indian did not owe anything striking to the Greeks in could be possible because the raw material could be obtained in plenty
medicine, botany and chemistry. These three subjects were dealt with by from the trap bedrock in the bed of the Sipra river.
Charaka and Susruta. The Charakasamhita contains names of numerous
• Towns prospered in the Kushan and the Satavahana empire because they
plants and herbs from which drugs are to be prepared for the use of
carried on thriving trade with the Roman empire. The country traded with
patients. The processes laid down for the pounding and mixing of the
the eastern part of the Roman empire as well as with the Central Asia.
plants give us an idea of the developed knowledge of chemistry in ancient
India. For the cure of ailments the ancient Indian physician relied chiefly • Most Kushan towns in India lay exactly on the uttarapatha route passing
on plants, for which the Sanskrit word is oshadh and as a result medicine from the Mathura to Taxila. The Kushana empire ensured security on the
itself came to be known as aushadhi. routes.

• In the fields of technology also the Indian seem to have profited from
contact with the Central Asia. Kanishka is represented as wearing trousers