Statistical Process

Control
Session Objectives

• Understanding the Seven QC Tools of continuous improvement and

solving problems: Pareto charts, checksheets and histograms,
process flow diagrams and cause and effects diagrams.
• Understanding basic statistical concepts like measures of central
tendency and dispersion, population, sample and normal
distribution.
• Overview of application of data-based approach for basic statistical
tools for continuous improvement and solving problems.
• Studying Statistical control charts, types and some application
examples.
A Pareto diagram

Alfredo Pareto (1848–1923) conducted extensive studies of the

distribution of wealth in Europe. He found that there were a few people
with a lot of money and many people with little money.

This unequal distribution of wealth became an integral part of economic

theory.

Dr. Joseph Juran recognized this concept as a universal that could be

applied to many fields. He coined the phrases vital few and useful many.
A Pareto
diagram
example
Process Flow Diagram

For many products and These diagrams show the flow

services, it may be useful to of the product or service as it
construct a process flow moves through the various
diagram processing operations.

The diagram makes it easy to Standardized symbols are used

visualize the entire system, by industrial engineers;
identify potential trouble spots, however, other symbols may be
and locate control activities. used if appropriate
Process Flow Diagram
Example Flow

Chart of an
order entry
process
 Cause-and-Effect Diagram
• A cause-and-effect (C&E) diagram is a picture composed of lines and
symbols designed to represent a meaningful relationship between an
effect and its causes.
• It was developed by Dr. Kaoru Ishikawa in 1943 and is sometimes
referred to as an Ishikawa diagram or a fishbone diagram because of
its shape.
• C&E diagrams are used to investigate either a “bad” effect and to take
action to correct the causes or a “good” effect and to learn those
causes that are responsible.
• Cause and effects Diagram for House Paint Peeling

C &E Diagram examples

Check Sheets
• The main purpose of check sheets is to ensure that the data is
collected carefully and accurately by operating personnel.
• Data should be collected in such a manner that it can be quickly and
easily used and analyzed.
• The form of the check sheet is individualized for each situation and is
designed by the project team.
Checksheet example
 • A Histogram describes the variation in the
process.
• The histogram graphically estimates the process
Histogram capability and, if desired, the relationship to the
specifications and the nominal (target).
• It also suggests the shape of the population and
indicates if there are any gaps in the data.
 Histogram Example
• The number of cells should be between 5 and 20. Broad
guidelines are as follows:
• Use 5 to 9 cells when the number of observations is less than 100;
• use 8 to 17 cells when the number of observations is between 100 and
500; and
• use 15 to 20 cells when the number of observations is greater than
500.
Different Histogram Shapes
Sample and Population
Normal Curve
Properties of
Normal
Distribution
Standard Normal Distribution
• Concept of standard normal distribution (SND) is extensively used in
statistical quality control procedures.
• SND has Mean m=0 and Standard Deviation s=1.
• Any other normal distribution can be transformed easily to SND in order to
calculate areas between or beyond given X values.
• Z-Score ‘converts’ the ‘X’ value from any normal distribution in to ‘standard’ value
such that area to the right (or left) of the X and Z values are same. This is a very
useful concept that helps us in ‘standardizing’ X-value

x−m
Z=
s

• Z-score is actually the distance from the mean m in multiples of standard deviations.
The reason for this transformation is we can refer to the standard normal tables to
calculate areas included between or beyond given X values.
 Application Example
A company manufactures motorcycles. The test data of motorcycles shows that mean is
50 kilometres per litre of petrol with standard deviation of 2 kilometres. The company
has advertised that the motorcycles will give at least 45 kilometres fuel economy.
Assuming normal distribution of data, What percentage of motorcycles is expected to
be below the claimed economy of 45?

Mean m =45 and standard deviation s = 2. Distribution Plot

Normal, Mean=50, StDev=2

Lower specification is 45. 50

We want to estimate what percent of

motorcycles will be below 45. Thus x=45.

Transform x to equivalent Z-score:

0.0062
Z=(x-m)/s= (45-50)/2 = -2.5.
From table E given in appendix, area to the left x=45.00 50
X
of z=-2.5 is 0.0062. Thus proportion of
motorcycles below 45 is 0.0062 or 0.62%.
 Central Limit Theorem
• Why should we plot averages of subgroups rather than individual
values?
• The reason behind plotting control chart of averages of subgroups is
the concept of Central Limit Theorem.
• According to Central Limit Theorem (CLT), averages of sufficiently
large sample sizes tend to be normally distributed even if
individual values are not normally distributed.
• Also, as per CLT, if s is the standard deviation of individual data
points in the population, then the standard deviation of the
averages is s /n. Or
As the averages tend to be normally
distributed, rules of Normal Distribution can
be applied to identify presence of assignable
or special causes.
CLT forms an important theoretical basis of
many statistical tools such as control charts,
hypothesis tests etc.
 • Variation
1. Within-piece variation is illustrated by the surface
roughness of a piece, wherein one portion of the
surface is rougher than another portion or the width
of one end of a keyway varies from the other end.
2. Piece-to-piece variation occurs among pieces
Introduction to produced at the same time. Thus, the light intensity
of four consecutive light bulbs produced from a
Control Charts machine will be different.
3. Time-to-time variation is illustrated by the difference
in product produced at different times of the day.
Thus, product produced in the early morning is
different from that produced later in the day, or as a
cutting tool wears, the cutting characteristics
change.
Run Chart

• A run chart, which is shown in

the figure, is a very simple
technique for analyzing the
process in the development
stage or, for that matter, when
other charting techniques are
not applicable
 Variable Control Charts
Most popular type of variable control chart is X-bar and Range. An example is shown below
State of Control

When the assignable causes No higher degree of uniformity

have been eliminated from the can be attained with the
process to the extent that the existing process. However,
points plotted on the control greater uniformity can be
chart remain within the control attained through a change in
limits, the process is in a state the basic process resulting from
of control. quality improvement ideas.
Out-of-Control Process
Indications of special causes
Common questions to ask when investigating an out-of-
control process

1. Are there differences in the measurement accuracy of the instruments used?

2. Are there differences in the methods used by different operators?
3. Is the process affected by the environment? If so, have there been any changes?
4. Is the process affected by tool wear?
5. Were any untrained workers involved in the process?
6. Has there been any change in the source of the raw materials?
7. Is the process affected by operator fatigue?
8. Has there been any change in maintenance procedures?
9. Is the equipment being adjusted too frequently?
10. Did samples come from different shifts, operators, or machines?
Process Capability
Relationship of Limits, Specifications, and Distribution

𝑅ത
𝜎=
𝑑2
 Process Capability Index
𝑈𝑆𝐿 − 𝐿𝑆𝐿
𝐶𝑝 =
6𝜎
Where
USL -LSL = upper specification - lower specification, or tolerance
Cp = capability index
6σ = process capability

The capability index does not measure process performance in terms of the nominal
or target value. This measure is accomplished using Cpk, which is
 Cp and Cpk
Values for
Three Different
Situations
 Process Performance
• Process capability indices Cp and Cpk are calculated using standard deviation
from control charts as σ=R-bar/d2. This standard deviation is a measure of
variation within the subgroups. Thus, σ = R-bar/d2 represents random
variation only and σ is called ‘within standard deviation’.
• Capability indices Cp and Cpk calculated using the within standard deviation
are referred to as ‘Process Capability Within’.
• Strictly speaking, this is the best or potential capability of the process that
can be expected.
• In reality, there are some assignable causes present. In addition to Cp and
Cpk, SPC manual from Automotive Industry Action Group (AIAG) suggests
process performance indices Pp and Ppk. These indices are calculated using
standard deviation using the formula:
Other Control Charts for Variables
Control Charts for Attributes
Accuracy and Precision
Measurement, process and observed variation
 • Accuracy is the degree of conformity of a measured quantity to its actual or true value. For
example, a watch showing time equal to standard time can be considered accurate.
• Precision is the degree to which further measurements show the same or similar results.

Measurement • Bias is the difference between measurement and master value. To estimate bias, a ‘same
part’ needs to be measured number of times. The difference between the average of these
measurements and the true value is called bias.

System • Calibration helps in minimizing the bias during usage. For example, if a person wants to
know his or her own weight, he or she can take a few readings.

Analysis (MSA) • Repeatability is the inherent variation due to the measuring equipment. If the same
appraiser measures the same part a number of times, the closeness in the readings is a
measure of repeatability. Traditionally, this is referred to as ‘Within Appraiser Variation’. It

Definitions •
is also known as equipment variation (EV).
Linearity is the change in the bias over operating range. It is a systematic error component
of the measurement system. In many measuring systems, error tends to increase with the
larger measurements. For example, pressure gauge, dial gauge, weighing scales, etc.
• Stability is the measurement variation over time. We should calibrate a gauge or an
instrument to ensure its stability. This is sometimes also called drift. Periodic calibration of
measuring equipment is performed to assess stability.
• Reproducibility is a variation in the average of measurements made by different appraisers
using the same measuring instrument when measuring identical characteristic on the same
part. Reproducibility has been traditionally, referred to as ‘Between Appraiser’ or appraiser
variation (AV).
Typical crossed R&R study data structure
Acceptance Norms for R & R
Scatter Diagrams
Summary
• We have seen some basic and simple but quite a useful tools to solve problems. These tools include Pareto charts, cause and effects diagrams,
checksheets and histograms, process flow diagrams, run charts, control charts and scatter plots. Pareto chart is useful to identify a vital few causes or
elements and how to prioritize.
• Process flow charts are useful to visualize the trouble spots and improvement opportunities for the process
• Histograms and checksheets can make variation visible. Scatter plots can be plotted when it is required to understand whether two variables are
related to each other or not.
• Statistical control charts are powerful to assess stability of processes and to detect presence of assignable cause(s), if any.
• Control charts for subgroups such as X-bar-R and X-bar-S are more sensitive and therefore, preferred over control charts for individuals.
• Control charts for attributes data include charts for defectives and charts for defects.
• It is necessary to validate the measurement system(s) for the critical characteristics. Statistical procedures are available to analyze and quantify
measurement system uncertainty. Measurement system is considered acceptable, if R&R is less than 10% of the process variation.
• In case of attribute data, agreement analysis can be performed. Cohen’s kappa value indicates extent of agreement within and between appraisers.
• Process capability index Cp quantifies, relationship between specification limits and standard deviation. Cpk considers additionally effect of centring.