CHAPTER 7

QUALITY TOOLS

Expected Outcomes
Able to get understanding of 7 QC Tools
Able to apply 7 QC Tools in solving quality problems
Chapter Outline

Basic 7 QC Tools:
• Pareto Diagram
• Cause-and-Effect Diagram
• Check Sheets
• Histogram
• Control Charts For
• Variables
• Attributes

• Scatter Diagrams
• Stratification (Flow Chart or Run Chart)
* Source ASQ
Pareto Diagram

• Identified by Vilfredo Pareto (1848 to 1923), conducted

studies of the distribution of wealth
• Dr. Juran recognized the concept as a universal - he
coined the phrases vital few and useful many
• Examples of the vital few are:
• A few problems account for the bulk of the process
downtime
• A few items account for the bulk of the inventory cost
• A few suppliers account for the majority of rejected parts
• A Pareto diagram is a graph that ranks data
classifications in descending order from left to right
Pareto Diagram

Pareto chart is constructed using the following steps:

1. Determine the method of classifying the data: by
problem, cause, nonconformity and so forth
2. Determine what data to be gathered
3. Collect data for an appropriate time interval or use
historical data
4. Determine the total number of nonconformities,
calculate the percentage in each category and rank
order categories from largest to smallest
5. Construct the diagram and find the vital few
It is applicable to problem identification and the
measurement of progress
 Pareto Diagram
Example: Pareto Chart of Paint defects in a car painting shop

contamination

Orange peel

Thin paint
chipping

scratch

others
Cause and Effect Diagram

• A chart of this type will help identify causes for

nonconforming or defective products or services
• Causes are usually broken down into the major causes
of work methods, materials, machine, man / people and
the environment - each major cause is further
subdivided into numerous minor causes
• Diagram are useful in:
• Analyzing actual conditions for improvement, more efficient use
of resources and reduced costs
• Elimination conditions causing nonconformities and customer
complaint
• Educate and train personnel in decision making and corrective
action activities
• Standardization of existing and proposed operations
Cause and Effect Diagram

To construct a cause-and-effect diagram:

1. Clearly identify the effect or the problem. Problem
statement is placed in a box at the end of a line
2. Identify the causes. Brainstorming is the usual
method for identifying these causes.
3. Build the diagram. Organize the causes and sub-
causes in diagram format.
4. Draw the effect box and the center line. Connect the
potential causes boxes to the center line.
5. Analyze the diagram and take corrective action
 Man Machine Methode

Painter Nozzle Paint not reach

careless clogged all area

Paint mixer Distance between nozzle

damage and body too far

PROBLEM:
Thin paint

Current too low

Paint expired High Room
Voltage too Temperature
Thinner too strong low
High Humidity
Measuring tools
not calibrated

Material Measurement Mother Nature

7
Check Sheets

• A check sheet is a data recording device

• As events occur in categories, a check or mark is placed
on the check sheet in the appropriate category
• Given a list of items or events, the user of a check sheet
marks down the number of times a particular event or
item occurs – the user checks off occurrences
• Checklist is differ where it lists all of the important steps
or actions that need to take place or things that need to
be remembered
Check Sheets

Station 3

11
Histogram
Construction of a histogram for grouped data:
1. Collect data and construct a tally sheet
2. Calculate the range
Range = R = X high – X low

3. Create the cells

Determine cell interval, cell midpoints and cell boundary

4. Label the axes

5. Post the values
6. Interpret the histogram
Histogram
Determine the cell boundaries
• Cell boundary are the extreme or limit values of a
cell, refer to as the upper boundary and the lower
boundary
• Boundaries are established so there is no question
as to the location of an observation
• Determine the lower cell boundary :
Divide the cell interval by 2 and subtract that value from the
cell midpoint
• Determine the upper cell boundary :
Add the cell interval to the lower cell boundary
Histogram
The histogram describes the variation in the process.
It is used to :
• Solve problems
• Determine the process capability
• Compare with specifications
• Suggest the shape of the population
• Indicate discrepancies in data such as gaps
Histogram
Analysis of Histograms :
1. Shape – Symmetry / Skewness
2. Location and Spread

3. Kurtosis – Peakedness of the distribution

• Leptokurtic – distribution with a high peak
• Platykurtic – flatter curve
• Bimodal – distribution with 2 distinct peaks
 Control Chart

• The control chart is a graph used to study how a process changes

over time.
• Data are plotted in time order.
• A control chart always has a central line for the average, an upper line
for the upper control limit and a lower line for the lower control limit.
• These lines are determined from historical data.
• By comparing current data to these lines, you can draw conclusions
about whether the process variation is consistent (in control) or is
unpredictable (out of control, affected by special causes of variation).

*Source: ASQ
Control Chart
Example:
 Control Chart

There are three main elements of a control chart as shown:

• A control chart begins with a time series graph.
• A central line (X) is added as a visual reference for detecting shifts or
trends – this is also referred to as the process location.
• Upper and lower control limits (UCL and LCL) are computed from
available data and placed equidistant from the central line. This is
also referred to as process dispersion.

*Source: ASQ
 Control Chart

Control limits (CLs) ensure time is not wasted looking for unnecessary
trouble – the goal of any process improvement practitioner should be
to only take action when warranted. Control limits are calculated by:
• Estimating the standard deviation, σ, of the sample data
• Multiplying that number by three
• Adding (3 x σ to the average) for the UCL and subtracting (3 x σ from
the average) for the LCL

Mathematically, the calculation of control limits looks like:

Because control limits are calculated from process data, they are
independent of customer expectations or specification limits.
 Scatter Diagram

• Also called: scatter plot, X–Y graph

• The scatter diagram graphs pairs of numerical data, with one variable
on each axis, to look for a relationship between them.
• If the variables are correlated, the points will fall along a line or
curve.
• The better the correlation, the tighter the points will hug the line.

*Source: ASQ
 Scatter Diagram

When to Use a Scatter Diagram

• When you have paired numerical data.
• When your dependent variable may have multiple values for each
value of your independent variable.
• When trying to determine whether the two variables are related,
such as…
• When trying to identify potential root causes of problems.
• After brainstorming causes and effects using a fishbone diagram, to
determine objectively whether a particular cause and effect are related.
• When determining whether two effects that appear to be related both occur
with the same cause.
• When testing for autocorrelation before constructing a control chart.
 Scatter Diagram

Scatter Diagram Procedure

• Collect pairs of data where a relationship is suspected.
• Draw a graph with the independent variable on the horizontal axis
and the dependent variable on the vertical axis. For each pair of data,
put a dot or a symbol where the x-axis value intersects the y-axis
value. (If two dots fall together, put them side by side, touching, so
that you can see both.)
• Look at the pattern of points to see if a relationship is obvious. If the
data clearly form a line or a curve, you may stop. The variables are
correlated.
Scatter Diagram
Scatter Diagram
 Scatter Diagram

• Correlation coefficients measure the strength of association between

two variables. The most common correlation coefficient, called the
Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient, measures the
strength of the linear association between variables.

*Source: Stattrek
 Scatter Diagram
How to Interpret a Correlation Coefficient
• The sign and the absolute value of a correlation coefficient describe
the direction and the magnitude of the relationship between two
variables.
• The value of a correlation coefficient ranges between -1 and 1.
• The greater the absolute value of a correlation coefficient, the
stronger the linear relationship.
• The strongest linear relationship is indicated by a correlation
coefficient of -1 or 1.
• The weakest linear relationship is indicated by a correlation
coefficient equal to 0.
• A positive correlation means that if one variable gets bigger, the
other variable tends to get bigger.
• A negative correlation means that if one variable gets bigger, the
other variable tends to get smaller.
Scatter Diagram
 Stratification – Flow Chart

• A flowchart is a picture of the separate steps of a process in

sequential order.
• Elements that may be included are: sequence of actions, materials or
services entering or leaving the process (inputs and outputs),
decisions that must be made, people who become involved, time
involved at each step and/or process measurements.
• The process described can be anything: a manufacturing process, an
administrative or service process, a project plan. This is a generic tool
that can be adapted for a wide variety of purposes.

*Source: ASQ
 Stratification – Flow Chart

When to Use a Flowchart

• To develop understanding of how a process is done.
• To study a process for improvement.
• To communicate to others how a process is done.
• When better communication is needed between people involved
with the same process.
• To document a process.
• When planning a project.
 Stratification – Flow Chart

Flowchart Basic Procedure

• Define the process to be diagrammed. Write its title at the top of the
work surface.
• Discuss and decide on the boundaries of your process: Where or
when does the process start? Where or when does it end?
• Brainstorm the activities that take place. Write each on a card or
sticky note.
• Arrange the activities in proper sequence.
• When all activities are included and everyone agrees that the
sequence is correct, draw arrows to show the flow of the process.
• Review the flowchart with others involved in the process (workers,
supervisors, suppliers, customers) to see if they agree that the
process is drawn accurately.
 Stratification – Flow Chart

Flowchart example

High–Level Flowchart for an Order-Filling Process

*Source: ASQ
Stratification – Flow Chart
Detailed Flowchart for an Order-Filling Process

*Source: ASQ
 Stratification – Flow Chart
Commonly Used Symbols in Detailed Flowcharts

• One step in the process

• Direction of flow from one step or decision to another

• Decision based on a question. The question is written in the diamond. More than one arrow
goes out of the diamond, each one showing the direction the process takes for a given answer to
the question. (Often the answers are “ yes” and “ no.”)

• Delay or wait

• Link to another page or another flowchart. The same symbol on the other page indicates that
the flow continues there

• Input or output

• Document

• Alternate symbols for start and end points

*Source: ASQ
 Stratification – Run Chart

• A run chart is used to monitor the behavior of a variable over time

for a process or system.
• Run charts graphically display cycles, trends, shifts, or non-random
patterns in behavior over time.
• Run charts can help identify problems and the time when a
problem occurred, or monitor progress when solutions are
implemented.

*Source: ASQ
 Stratification – Run Chart

Benefits
• Simple to create and maintain
• Does not require in-depth statistical training to use
• Displays data in a straightforward, easy to analyze manner
 Stratification – Run Chart

How to Use

Step 1. Determine the purpose of the chart and the data to be

monitored, collected, and analyzed. Select the time interval (minute, hour,
day, month, etc.).
Step 2. Collect the data that will be plotted.
Step 3. Plot time on the horizontal axis (typically located at the
bottom).
Step 4. Label the vertical axis and plot the data collected in step 2 on
the vertical axis (typically located on the left-hand-side).
Step 5. Title the chart. Indicating which direction is better with an up or
down arrow may be helpful.
Stratification – Run Chart
Example
A payment processing manager is checking a recently
hired associate’s error rate for the month. Below is the
number of errors that occurred in March.

*Source: ASQ
 References

• http://asq.org/index.aspx#
• http://stattrek.com/statistics/correlation.aspx?Tutorial=AP