Basic Theory Behind

Wind Energy

Niteeshkumar H V
Pavan Kumar C
Harsha V N
 Index
Introduction
History
Wind turbine
working of wind turbine
Onshore and offshore wind energy and their advantages and disadvantages
Factor affecting the wind energy
Advantages and disadvantages of wind energy
Some interesting fact about wind energy
Reference
 Introduction
Wind energy is the kinetic energy of air in motion, also
called wind

It is defined as total wind flowing through an imaginary

surface with area A during the time t is:

How wind forms on the earth?

Wind is a form of solar energy caused by a combination of three concurrent events:
1. The sun unevenly heating the atmosphere
2. Irregularities of the earth's surface
3. The rotation of the earth.
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How wind forms on the earth?

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 History of Wind Usage
We have been using wind energy for thousand of years
People used wind energy to propel boats along the nail river as early as 5000BC
By 200BC simple wind powered water pumps were used in chain and wind mills
with woven-reed blades were grinding grains in Persia and middle east
The first known wind turbine used to produce electricity is built in Scotland by
Prof James Blyth in the year 1887
The first known US wind turbine created for electricity production is built by
inventor Charles Brush to provide electricity for his mansion in the year 1888
By 1900: Approximately 2,500 windmills with a combined peak power capacity of
30 megawatts are being used across Denmark for mechanical purposes, such as
grinding grains and pumping water.

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 Fig 1.1 Sails Fig 1.2 Wind MIllls Fig 1.3 Wind Pump

Fig 1.5 Modern Horizontal Fig 1.6 Modern Vartical

Fig 1.4 First Known US wind turbine wind turbine
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based Wind turbine
 Wind Turbine

A wind turbine is a device that converts

the kinetic energy of wind into electrical
energy.
Hundreds of thousands of large turbines,
in installations known as wind farms.

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Types of Wind Turbine

Verticall-axis
wind turbine

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 Working of Wind Turbine

A wind turbine turns wind energy into

electricity using the aerodynamic force
from the rotor blades, which work like an
airplane wing or helicopter rotor blade.
When wind flows across the blade, the air
pressure on one side of the blade
decreases. The difference in air pressure
across the two sides of the blade creates
both lift and drag.

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The force of the lift is stronger than the drag and this causes the rotor to
spin
The rotor connects to the generator, either directly (if it's a direct drive
turbine) or through a shaft and a series of gears (a gearbox) that speed
up the rotation and allow for a physically smaller generator.

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 Onshore wind Energy
Onshore wind energy is the power that’s generated by wind turbines located on land
driven by the natural movement of the air.

As they’re usually constructed in less-populated areas where buildings and obstacles

don’t interrupt the air.

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 Advantages
Cost effective
It’s one of the least expensive forms of renewable energy (along with solar PV)
and significantly less expensive than offshore wind power. Cheaper
infrastructure and costs to run means onshore farms can help lower electricity
bills.

Quicker installation and easier maintenance

Onshore wind farms can be constructed in months, at scale, and are relatively
cheap and cost-effective to maintain compared with offshore.

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 Disadvantages
Changing wind speeds
The consistency of electricity generation from wind farms can be challenged by varying
wind speeds and changes in wind direction.

Effects on people and nature

Some people complain about the appearance of wind farms on the landscape and noise.
There are also some worries that onshore wind turbines may pose a threat to birds (find out
more about this in our article

Lesser power generation

Onshore wind farms produce less energy than their offshore counterparts (called
their ‘capacity factor’) because onshore planning often limits the turbines' ‘tip
heights’, which doesn’t apply to offshore turbines. An average onshore wind turbine
produces around 2.5 to 3 megawatts (MW), in comparison to the offshore average of
3.6 MW.
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 Offshore Wind Energy

Offshore wind farms generate

electricity from wind blowing across the
sea. They are considered more efficient
than onshore wind farms

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 Advantages
Offshore wind turbines are more efficient
Higher wind speeds and consistency in direction means offshore installations require
fewer turbines to produce the same amount of energy as onshore wind farms.

Reduced environmental impact

Being miles out from the coast, offshore turbines are further away from the local
population. Restricted access to their sites may even help to protect the surrounding
marine ecosystems.

More space to construct in

Oceans provide the perfect location to build wind farms in terms of scale and
openness. More wind farms being built means more clean, sustainable energy can be
produced.

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 Disadvantages
Higher cost
Offshore wind farms require more complex infrastructure to support them and, as a
result, are more expensive to construct.

Maintenance and repairs

Higher wind speeds, strong seas and accessibility issues makes offshore wind farms
more challenging to maintain.

Less local involvement

While onshore wind turbines can be owned or operated by local cooperatives, or even
by individuals, offshore wind turbines require a considerable scale of investment that
means they’re usually corporately owned. However, they do provide significant
employment for the development and working life of the wind farm.

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 Factors Affecting Wind Power Output
Rotor Area

Wind power output is directly proportional to rotor area. If rotor area is doubled, turbine
output also doubles. Rotor area is the area swept by the blades of the wind turbine. So,
the larger the turbine blades, the greater is the power output. This is clear by the data
shown here.

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Wind Speed
Wind power is exponentially proportional to wind speed. If wind speed doubles, power generation becomes
eight times greater. So, wind speed study of any proposed site is done extensively to ensure good returns on
investment. Typically wind speeds are measured for a year at the site before any decision is taken.

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Height of Tower
Wind speed depends on height of the turbine from the ground. At ground level, there are many
obstructions in the form of buildings, houses, trees, etc. They obstruct smooth flow of wind and hence
decrease its speed. Doubling the height of tower almost doubles wind power output. (Please compare
to the actual productivity as affected by height).

Air Density
Wind power is directly proportional to air density. Air density is maximum at sea level. That is the
reason why we have so many wind farms near or in seas or oceans (read more about on-shore and off-
shore wind farms). At higher altitude, air density decreases significantly, so wind farms cannot be
made in the mountains. Also, making the turbine taller and taller will not give more power.

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Advantages and disadvantages of wind energy
Advantages
Free Fuel
One of the Cleanest Forms of Energy
Doesn’t Disrupt Farmland Operations
Reduces Our Dependence of Fossil Fuels

Disadvantages
Dangerous to Some Wildlife
Noisy
Expensive Upfront Cost
Unreliable/Unpredictable

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 Some interesting fact about Wind energy

Haliade-X is currently the biggest wind turbine in the world. It is 260 meters high and
has a rotor span of 220 meters , capable of generating enough clean electricity for
16,000 households. (It's in china)
The average onshore wind turbine can power more than 1,500 average EU
households(for off shore i.e 3312)
Wind power is unique for the fact that it does not use any water
Wind energy is the fastest growing mode of electricity production across the planet
Albert Betz (1885-1968) was a German physicist and the pioneer of wind turbine
technology

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20
 Installation of wind energy in the world

Energy in GW

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Historic development of new installations (GW)

Energy in GW

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Historic development of total installations (GW)

Energy in GW

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Operation Mechanism

A working fluid contains potential energy (pressure head) and kinetic energy (velocity head).
The fluid may be compressible or incompressible. Several physical principles are employed by
turbines to collect this energy:

Impulse turbines change the direction of flow of a high velocity fluid or gas jet. The resulting
impulse spins the turbine and leaves the fluid flow with diminished kinetic energy. There is no
pressure change of the fluid or gas in the turbine blades (the moving blades), as in the case of a
steam or gas turbine, all the pressure drop takes place in the stationary blades (the nozzles).
Before reaching the turbine, the fluid's pressure head is changed to velocity head by accelerating
the fluid with a nozzle. Pelton wheels and de Laval turbines use this process exclusively. Impulse
turbines do not require a pressure casement around the rotor since the fluid jet is created by the
nozzle prior to reaching the blades on the rotor. Newton's second law describes the transfer of
energy for impulse turbines. Impulse turbines are most efficient for use in cases where the flow
is low and the inlet pressure is high.

Reaction turbines develop torque by reacting to the gas or fluid pressure or mass. The pressure of
the gas or fluid changes as it passes through the turbine rotor blades.A pressure casement is
needed to contain the working fluid as it acts on the turbine stage(s) or the turbine must be fully
immersed in the fluid flow (such as with wind turbines). The casing contains and directs the
working fluid and, for water turbines, maintains the suction imparted by the draft tube. Francis
turbines and most steam turbines use this concept. For compressible working fluids, multiple
turbine stages are usually used to harness the expanding gas efficiently. Newton's third law
describes the transfer of energy for reaction turbines. Reaction turbines are better suited to higher
flow velocities or applications where the fluid head (upstream pressure) is low.

In the case of steam turbines, such as would be used for marine applications or for land-based
electricity generation, a Parsons-type reaction turbine would require approximately double the
number of blade rows as a de Laval-type impulse turbine, for the same degree of thermal energy
conversion. Whilst this makes the Parsons turbine much longer and heavier, the overall
efficiency of a reaction turbine is slightly higher than the equivalent impulse turbine for the same
thermal energy conversion.

In practice, modern turbine designs use both reaction and impulse concepts to varying degrees
whenever possible. Wind turbines use an airfoil to generate a reaction lift from the moving fluid
and impart it to the rotor. Wind turbines also gain some energy from the impulse of the wind, by
deflecting it at an angle. Turbines with multiple stages may use either reaction or impulse
blading at high pressure. Steam turbines were traditionally more impulse but continue to move
towards reaction designs similar to those used in gas turbines. At low pressure the operating fluid
medium expands in volume for small reductions in pressure. Under these conditions, blading
becomes strictly a reaction type design with the base of the blade solely impulse. The reason is
due to the effect of the rotation speed for each blade. As the volume increases, the blade height
increases, and the base of the blade spins at a slower speed relative to the tip. This change in
speed forces a designer to change from impulse at the base, to a high reaction-style tip.

Classical turbine design methods were developed in the mid 19th century. Vector analysis related
the fluid flow with turbine shape and rotation. Graphical calculation methods were used at first.
Formulae for the basic dimensions of turbine parts are well documented and a highly efficient
machine can be reliably designed for any fluid flow condition. Some of the calculations are
empirical or 'rule of thumb' formulae, and others are based on classical mechanics. As with most
engineering calculations, simplifying assumptions were made.

Turbine inlet guide vanes of a turbojet

Velocity triangles can be used to calculate the basic performance of a turbine stage. Gas exits the
stationary turbine nozzle guide vanes at absolute velocity Va1. The rotor rotates at velocity U.
Relative to the rotor, the velocity of the gas as it impinges on the rotor entrance is Vr1. The gas is
turned by the rotor and exits, relative to the rotor, at velocity Vr2. However, in absolute terms the
rotor exit velocity is Va2. The velocity triangles are constructed using these various velocity
vectors. Velocity triangles can be constructed at any section through the blading (for example:
hub, tip, midsection and so on) but are usually shown at the mean stage radius. Mean
performance for the stage can be calculated from the velocity triangles, at this radius, using the
Euler equation:
Modern turbine design carries the calculations further. Computational fluid dynamics dispenses
with many of the simplifying assumptions used to derive classical formulas and computer
software facilitates optimization. These tools have led to steady improvements in turbine design
over the last forty years.
The primary numerical classification of a turbine is its specific speed. This number describes the
speed of the turbine at its maximum efficiency with respect to the power and flow rate. The
specific speed is derived to be independent of turbine size. Given the fluid flow conditions and
the desired shaft output speed, the specific speed can be calculated and an appropriate turbine
design selected.
The specific speed, along with some fundamental formulas can be used to reliably scale an
existing design of known performance to a new size with corresponding performance.
Off-design performance is normally displayed as a turbine map or characteristic.
The number of blades in the rotor and the number of vanes in the stator are often two different
prime numbers in order to reduce the harmonics and maximize the blade-passing frequency.
 TYPES OF TURBINES

⮚ The type of hydropower turbine selected for a project is based on the height of standing
water—referred to as "head"—and the flow, or volume of water over time, at the site.
Other deciding factors include how deep the turbine must be set, turbine efficiency, and
cost. Here are some of the most commonly used turbines in the World today.
⮚ Water turbines are divided into two groups:
1. Reaction turbines
2. Impulse turbines

REACTION TURBINE
⮚ A reaction turbine generates power from the combined forces of pressure and moving
water. A runner is placed directly in the water stream, allowing water to flow over the
blades rather than striking each individually. Reaction turbines are generally used for
sites with lower head and higher flows and are the most common type currently used in
India.
⮚ The two most common types of reaction turbines are Propeller (including Kaplan) and
Francis. Kinetic turbines are also a type of reaction turbine

PROPELLER TURBINE
⮚ A propeller turbine generally has a runner with three to six blades.
⮚ Water contacts all of the blades constantly. Picture a boat propeller running in a pipe.
⮚ Through the pipe, the pressure is constant; if it wasn't, the runner would be out of
balance.
⮚ The pitch of the blades may be fixed or adjustable.
⮚ The major components besides the runner are a scroll case, wicket gates, and a draft tube.
There are several different types of propeller turbines:
TYPES OF PROPELLER TURBINE

Bulb turbine: The turbine and generator are a sealed unit placed directly in the water stream.

Straflo: The generator is attached directly to the perimeter of the turbine.

Tube turbine: The penstock bends just before or after the runner, allowing a straight-line
connection to the generator.

Kaplan Turbine: Both the blades and the wicket gates are adjustable, allowing for a wider range
of operation. This turbine was developed by Austrian inventor Viktor Kaplan in 1919.
FRANCIS TURBINE
⮚ The Francis turbine was the first modern hydropower turbine and was invented by
British-American engineer James Francis in 1849.
⮚ A Francis turbine has a runner with fixed blades, usually nine or more. Water is
introduced just above the runner and all around it which then falls through, causing the
blades to spin.
⮚ Besides the runner, the other major components include a scroll case, wicket gates, and a
draft tube.

Francis turbines are commonly used for medium- to high-head (130- to 2,000-foot) situations
though they have been used for lower heads as well. Francis turbines work well in both
horizontal and vertical orientations

IMPULSE TURBINE

⮚ An impulse turbine generally uses the velocity of the water to move the runner and
discharges at atmospheric pressure. A water stream hits each bucket on the runner. With
no suction on the down side of the turbine, the water flows out the bottom of the turbine
housing after hitting the runner. An impulse turbine is generally suitable for high-head,
low-flow applications.
⮚ The two main types of impulse turbine are Pelton and cross-flow turbines.

PELTON TURBINE
 ⮚ The Pelton turbine was invented by American inventor Lester Allan Pelton in the 1870s,
A Pelton wheel has one or more free jets discharging water into an aerated space and
impinging on the buckets of a runner.
⮚ Pelton turbines are generally used for very high heads and low flows.
⮚ Draft tubes are not required for an impulse turbine because the runner must be located
above the maximum tailwater to permit operation at atmospheric pressure.
⮚ The operation of a Pelton turbine is fairly simple. In this type of turbine, high speed jets
of water emerge from the nozzles that surround the turbine.
⮚ These nozzles are arranged so the water jet will hit the buckets at splitters, the center of
the bucket where the water jet is divided into two streams.
⮚ The two separate streams then flow along the inner curve of the bucket and leave in the
opposite direction that it came in.
⮚ This change in momentum of the water creates an impulse on the blades of the turbine,
generating torque and rotation in the turbine.

CROSSFLOW TURBINE
⮚ A cross-flow turbine is drum-shaped and uses an elongated, rectangular section nozzle
directed against curved vanes on a cylindrically shaped runner.
⮚ It resembles a "squirrel cage" blower. The cross-flow turbine allows water to flow
through the blades twice.
⮚ On the first pass, water flows from outside of the blades to the inside; the second pass
into a limited portion of the runner.
⮚ The cross-flow turbine was developed to accommodate larger water flows and lower
heads than the Pelton can handle.
⮚ In this type of turbine, water enters as a flat sheet instead of a round jet. The sheet of
water is guided onto the blades of the turbine by an inlet guide vane, ensuring that the
water hits the blades at the proper angle to maximize efficiency.
⮚ The water flows over the blades creating a torque on these blades. After hitting the
blades, the sheet of water moves through the turbine and hits the blades once more as it
leaves, producing more torque.
⮚ The first impact the water has with the blades produces more power than the second hit.
Difference between Impulse and Reaction Turbine
 CHAPTER 1

1.HYDROPOWER

Hydropower is a method of generating electricity that uses moving water (kinetic energy) to
produce electricity. Small-scale hydropower has been used as a common way of generating electricity
in isolated regions since the end of the 19th century. Small-scale hydropower systems can be installed
in small rivers, streams, or in existing water supply networks, such as drinking water or wastewater
networks. In contrast with large-scale hydropower systems, small-scale hydropower can be installed
with the little or negligible environmental impact on wildlife or ecosystems, mainly because the
majority of small hydropower plants are run-of-river schemes or implemented in existing water
infrastructure. Due to its versatility, low investment costs, and as a renewable energy source, small-
scale hydropower is a promising option for producing sustainable, inexpensive energy in rural or
developing areas.

1.1 Types of Hydropower

● Run-of-river hydropower
● Storage hydropower
● Pumped storage hydropower
● Offshore hydropower

● Run-of-river hydropower

A facility that channels flowing water from a river through a canal or penstock to spin a turbine.
Typically, a run-of-river project will have little or no storage facility. Run-of-river provides a
continuous supply of electricity (base load), with some flexibility of operation for daily fluctuations in
demand through water flow that is regulated by the facility.

● Storage hydropower

Typically, a large system uses a dam to store water in a reservoir. Electricity is produced by
releasing water from the reservoir through a turbine, which activates a generator. Storage hydropower
provides a base load as well as the ability to be shut down and started up at short notice according to
the demands of the system (peak load). It can offer enough storage capacity to operate independently
of the hydrological inflow for many weeks or even months.

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 ● Pumped storage hydropower

Provides peak-load supply, harnessing water that is cycled between a lower and upper reservoir
by pumps that use surplus energy from the system at times of low demand. When electricity demand
is high, water is released back to the lower reservoir through turbines to produce electricity. Learn
more.

● Offshore hydropower

A less established but growing group of technologies that use tidal currents or the power of
waves to generate electricity from seawater

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 CHAPTER 2

2.1 SMALL-SCALE HYDROPOWER

Small-scale hydropower is a renewable energy source that can provide a variety of benefits, including
low environmental impact, decentralization, cost-effectiveness and flexibility. These plants are often
site-specific, meaning they are designed and built to take advantage of the unique characteristics of the
location, such as the flow and head of the water. Additionally, small scale hydropower plants can
provide energy independence and security, particularly in remote or off-grid areas, as well as economic
and social benefits through community ownership. Small-scale hydropower refers to the generation of
electricity using water power on a smaller scale, typically at a capacity of fewer than 10 megawatts
(MW). Small-scale hydropower systems are scaled-down versions of the much larger hydro-generating
stations.

2.1.1 Types of small-scale hydropower

1. Micro-scale Hydropower

2. Mini-scale hydropower

3. Small-scale hydropower

4. Tidal power

● Micro Scale Hydro Power

Micro-scale hydropower is usually the classification given to a small homemade run-of-river

type scheme that uses DC generator designs to produce electrical power between a few hundred watts
up to 5kW as part of a battery charging stand-alone system.

● Mini Scale Hydro Power

Mini-scale hydropower is a scheme that generates power between 5kW and 100 kW, feeding
it directly into the utility grid or as part of a battery charging or AC-powered standalone system.

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 ● Small Scale Hydro Power

Small-scale hydropower is a scheme that generates electrical power of between 100kW

(kilowatts) and 1MW (megawatts) feeding this generated power directly into the utility grid or as part
of a large stand-alone scheme powering more than one household.

● Tidal power systems

Tidal power system uses the energy of tides to turn a turbine, generating electricity. They are
typically used in coastal areas where there are large tidal ranges.

2.1.2 OVERVIEW OF SMALL-SCALE HYDROPOWER

2.1.3 Equipments used in small scale hydropower

1. Inlet channel

2. Coarse screen

3. Sluice gate

4. Drive unit

5. Hydropower screw

6. Hydropower generator

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Inlet channel

Inlet channel is the first channel where the river or stream water enters the system.

Coarse screen

Coarse screens remove large solids, rags, and debris from wastewater, and typically have
openings of 6 mm (0.25 in) or larger.

Sluice gate

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 A sluice gate is traditionally a wood or metal barrier sliding in grooves that are set in the
sides of the waterway and can be considered as a bottom opening in a wall.

Drive unit

A Power Drive Unit is used to convert electrical or hydraulic power into mechanical motion.

Hydropower screw

Hydropower screw converter is driven by the weight of water, similar to water wheels, and
can be considered a quasi-static pressure machine.

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Hydropower generator

A hydraulic turbine converts the energy of flowing water into mechanical energy. A
hydroelectric generator converts this mechanical energy into electricity.

2.2 The working mechanism of Small Scale Hydropower

The working mechanism of a small-scale hydropower plant is based on the principle of converting the
kinetic energy of flowing water into electrical energy. Water is collected in a reservoir or channeled
through a diversion channel, where it flows through a pipe or penstock to the turbine. As the water
flows through the pipe or penstock, it gains kinetic energy, which is then used to turn the turbine
blades. The turbine is connected to a generator which converts the kinetic energy of the turbine into
electrical energy. The electrical energy generated by the turbine is then transmitted to a substation,
where it is transformed to a higher voltage and sent to the power grid. The water that has passed through
the turbine is then returned to the river or stream, where it can continue its natural flow.

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2.3 METHODOLOGY OF SMALL-SCALE HYDROPOWER

1. The Impulse Turbine

o An impulse turbine is simply a standard water wheel with specially designed spoon-shaped water
cups. The Pelton wheel is a type of impulse turbine that is driven by a single jet of water positioned in
the plane of a runner. The high-velocity jet possessing sufficient amounts of kinetic energy strikes the
buckets in succession at atmospheric pressure and mechanical rotation of the runner is produced.

o Impulse turbine is the most commonly used type of turbine in domestic systems and one that operates
in the air by having a jet of water sprayed directly at it from a well-positioned nozzle.

oImpulse turbines are widely used in micro-hydro schemes because they have several advantages over
other types of hydraulic turbines. For example, they are simple to design, easier to fabricate and

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maintain and have greater tolerances towards the sand and other particles, such as stones and grit, in
the water.

2. Water wheel design

o A water wheel is a machine for converting the energy of flowing or falling water into useful forms
of power, often in a watermill. A water wheel consists of a wheel (usually constructed from wood or
metal), with a number of blades or buckets arranged on the outside rim forming the driving car. Water
wheels were still in commercial use well into the 20th century but they are no longer in common use.
Uses included milling flour in gristmills, grinding wood into pulp for papermaking, hammering
wrought iron, machining, ore crushing, and pounding fiber for use in the manufacture of cloth.

o Water wheels are cost-effective hydropower converters, especially in rural areas.

o Water wheels are low-head hydropower machines with 85% maximum efficiency

2.4 CHARACTERISTICS OF SMALL-SCALE HYDROPOWER

1. Low Head: These plants typically use low head (less than 30 meters or 100 feet) to generate
electricity.
2. Site-specific: These plants are often site-specific, meaning they are designed and built to take
advantage of the unique characteristics of the location, such as the flow and head of the water.
3. Run-of-River: Most small-scale hydropower plants are run-of-river, meaning they use the
natural flow of water from a river or stream to generate electricity, without the need for a large
reservoir.
4. Decentralized: These plants are often decentralized, meaning they are located close to the end-
users, reducing transmission losses and increasing energy efficiency.

2.5 ADVANTAGES OF SMALL-SCALE HYDROPOWER

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 ● Small-scale hydropower has several advantages compared to large-scale hydropower and other
forms of energy generation. Some of the advantages include:
● Renewable energy source: Small-scale hydropower is a renewable energy source that generates
electricity without producing greenhouse gas emissions
● Low environmental impact: Small-scale hydropower plants typically have a lower
environmental impact compared to large hydro plants, as they do not require large reservoirs
that can displace local communities or have negative impacts on fish and wildlife.
● Cost-effective: Small-scale hydropower plants can be cost-effective, particularly in remote or
off-grid areas where the cost of extending the power grid can be high.
● Low maintenance: Small-scale hydropower plants have low maintenance costs and can operate
for long periods of time with minimal supervision.
● Flexibility: Small-scale hydropower plants can be used as standalone systems or they can be
integrated into micro grids, providing flexibility in the integration of renewable energy sources.
● Community ownership: Small-scale hydropower plants can be owned and operated by local
communities, providing economic and social benefits.
● Independency: Small scale hydropower plants can provide energy independence and security,
particularly in remote or off-grid areas.

2.5 DISADVANTAGES TO CONSIDER

● Limited capacity: Small-scale hydropower plants typically have a lower capacity than large-
scale hydroelectric power plants, which means they may not be able to meet the energy needs
of a large population or industrial area.
● Sensitive to climate: Small-scale hydropower plants can be affected by changes in weather
patterns, such as drought or floods, which can affect the availability of water for power
generation.
● High initial cost: The cost of building small-scale hydropower plants can be relatively high,
particularly if the site is remote or difficult to access.
● Environmental impact: Small-scale hydroelectric power plants may have a lower impact than
large-scale hydroelectric power plants, but they still have an impact on the environment, they
can still have negative effects on aquatic life, and they may also cause changes in water flow
and temperature.
● Safety: Small-scale hydroelectric power plants can pose safety risks, particularly if they are in
an area with a high risk of flooding or other natural disasters

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