Introduction to Aerospace Engineering

Lecture slides

Challenge the future 1

 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering AE1-102
Dept. Space Engineering
Astrodynamics & Space Missions (AS)
• Prof. ir. B.A.C. Ambrosius
• Ir. R. Noomen

Delft
University of
Technology

Challenge the future

Part of the lecture material for this chapter originates from B.A.C. Ambrosius, R.J.
Hamann, R. Scharroo, P.N.A.M. Visser and K.F. Wakker.
References to “”Introduction to Flight” by J.D. Anderson will be given in footnotes
where relevant.
 5-6
Orbital mechanics: satellite orbits (1)

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 2|

This topic is (to a large extent) covered by Chapter 8 of “Introduction to Flight” by

Anderson, although notations (see next sheet) and approach can be quite different.
General remarks

Two aspects are important to note when working with Anderson’s

“Introduction to Flight” and these lecture notes:

• The derivations in these sheets are done per unit of mass, whereas in
the text book (p. 603 and further) this is not the case.
• Some parameter conventions are different (see table below).

parameter notation in customary

“Introduction to Flight” notation
gravitational parameter k2 GM, or µ
angular momentum h H

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 3|

 Overview

• Fundamentals (equations of motion)

• Elliptical orbit
• Circular orbit
• Parabolic orbit
• Hyperbolic orbit

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 4|

The gravity field overlaps with lectures 27 and 28 (”space environment”) of the
course ae1-101, but is repeated for the relevant part here since it forms the basis of
orbital dynamics.
 Learning goals

The student should be able to:

• classify satellite orbits and describe them with Kepler elements
• describe and explain the planetary laws of Kepler
• describe and explain the laws of Newton
• compute relevant parameters (direction, range, velocity,
energy, time) for the various types of Kepler orbits

Lecture material:
• these slides (incl. footnotes)

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 5|

Anderson’s “Introduction to Flight” (at least the chapters on orbital mechanics) is

NOT part of the material to be studied for the exam; it is “just” reference material,
for further reading.
 Introduction

Why orbital mechanics ?

• Because the trajectory of a satellite is (primarily) determined by

its initial position and velocity after launch
• Because it is necessary to know the position (and velocity) of a
satellite at any instant of time
• Because the satellite orbit and its mission are intimately related

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 6|

Satellites can perform remote-sensing (”observing from a distance”), with

unparalleled coverage characteristics, and measure specific phenomena “in-situ”. If
possible, the measurements have to be benchmarked/calibrated with “ground truth”
observations.
LEO: typically at an altitude between 200 and 2000 km. GEO: at an altitude of
about 36600 km, in equatorial plane.
 Introduction (cnt’d)
Which questions can be addressed through orbital mechanics?

• What are the parameters with which one can describe a satellite
orbit?
• What are typical values for a Low Earth Orbit?
• In what sense do they differ from those of an escape orbit?
• What are the requirements on a Geostationary Earth Orbit, and what
are the consequences for the orbital parameters?
• What are the main differences between a LEO and a GEO, both from
an orbit point of view and for the instrument?
• Where is my satellite at a specific moment in time?
• When can I download measurements from my satellite to my ground
station?
• How much time do I have available for this?
• ……….

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 7|

Some examples of relevant questions that you should be able to answer after having
mastered the topics of these lectures.
 Fundamentals
[Scienceweb, 2009]

Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion:

1. The orbits of the planets are ellipses, with the Sun at
one focus of the ellipse.
2. The line joining a planet to the Sun sweeps out equal
areas in equal times as the planet travels around the
ellipse.
3. The ratio of the squares of the revolutionary periods
for two planets is equal to the ratio of the cubes of
their semi-major axes.

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 8|

The German Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) derived these empirical relations based
on observations done by Tycho Brahe, a Danish astronomer. The mathematical
foundation/explanation of these 3 laws were given by Sir Isaac Newton (next sheet).
 Fundamentals (cnt’d)

Newton’s Laws of Motion:

1. In the absence of a force, a body either is at rest or
moves in a straight line with constant speed.
2. A body experiencing a force F experiences an
acceleration a related to F by F = m×a, where m is
the mass of the body. Alternatively, the force is
proportional to the time derivative of momentum.
3. Whenever a first body exerts a force F on a second
body, the second body exerts a force −F on the first
body. F and −F are equal in magnitude and opposite
in direction. AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 9|

Sir Isaac Newton (1643-1727), England.

Note: force F and acceleration a are written in bold, i.e. they are vectors (magnitude
+ direction).
 Fundamentals (cnt’d)

Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation:

Every point mass attracts every single other point mass
by a force pointing along the line connecting both points.
The force is directly proportional to the product of the
two masses and inversely proportional to the square of
the distance between the point masses:

m1 m2
F = G
r2
AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 10 |

Note 1: so, F has a magnitude and a direction
it should be written, treated as a

vector.
Note 2: parameter “G” represents the universal gravitational constant; G = 6.6732 ×
10-20 km3/kg/s2.
 Fundamentals (cnt’d)

3D coordinate system:

• Partial overlap with “space

environment” (check those
sheets for conversions)
• Coordinates: systems and
parameters

-90° ≤ δ ≤ +90°
0° ≤ λ ≤ 360°

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 11 |

Selecting a proper reference system and a set of parameters that describe a position
in 3 dimensions is crucial to quantify most of the phenomena treated in this chapter,
and to determine what a satellite mission will experience. Option 1: cartesian
coordinates, with components x, y and z. Option 2: polar coordinates, with
components r (radius, measured w.r.t. the center-of-mass of the central object; not to
be confused with the altitude over its surface), δ (latitude) and λ (longitude).
 Fundamentals (cnt’d)
Gravitational attraction:

G msat ρ dv
Elementary force: dFi =
r2

Total acceleration
GM earth
due to symmetrical r = −
ɺɺ
Earth: r2

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 12 |

Parameter “G” is the universal gravitational constant (6.67259×10-11 m3/kg/s2),

“msat” represents the mass of the satellite, “r” is the distance between the satellite
and a mass element of the Earth (1st equation) or between the satellite and the
center-of-mass of the Earth (2nd equation), “ρ” is the mass density of an element
“dv” of the Earth [kg/m3], “Mearth” is the total mass of the Earth (5.9737×1024 kg).
The product of G and Mearth is commonly denoted as “µ” , which is called the
gravitational parameter of the Earth (=G×Mearth=398600.44×109 m3/s2).
 Gravitational acceleration for
different “planets”
“planet” mass radius radial acceleration
[kg] [km] [m/s2]
at surface at h=1000 km
Sun 1.99 × 1030 695990 274.15 273.36
Mercury 3.33 × 1023 2432 3.76 3.47
Venus 4.87 × 1024 6052 8.87 6.53
Earth 5.98 × 1024 6378 9.80 7.33
Moon 7.35 × 1022 1738 1.62 0.65
Mars 6.42 × 1023 3402 3.70 2.21
Jupiter 1.90 × 1027 70850 25.26 24.56
Saturn 5.69 × 1026 60000 10.54 10.20
Uranus 8.74 × 1025 25400 9.04 8.37
Neptune 1.03 × 1026 25100 10.91to Aerospace Engineering
AE1102 Introduction 10.09 13 |

G = 6.6732 × 10-20 km3/kg/s2. Accelerations listed here are due to the central (i.e.
main) term of the gravity field only.
 Numerical example acceleration

Question:

Consider the Earth. What is the radial acceleration?

1. at sea surface
2. for an earth-observation satellite at 800 km altitude
3. for a GPS satellite at 20200 km altitude
4. for a geostationary satellite at 35800 km altitude

Answers: see footnotes below (BUT TRY YOURSELF FIRST!)

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 14 |

Answers (DID YOU TRY?):

1. 9.80 m/s2
2. 7.74 m/s2
3. 0.56 m/s2
4. 0.22 m/s2
 Numerical example acceleration
Question:

1. Consider the situation of the Earth, the Sun and a satellite

somewhere on the line connecting the two main bodies. Where
is the point where the attracting forces of the Earth and the Sun,
acting on the satellite, are in equilibrium?
Data: µEarth = 398600.4415 km3/s2, µSun = 1.327178×1011
km3/s2, 1 AU (average distance Earth-Sun) = 149.6×106 km.
Hint: trial-and-error.
2. The Moon orbits the Earth at a distance w.r.t. the center-of-
mass of the Earth of about 384000 km. Still, the Sun does not
pull it away from the Earth. Why?

Answers: see footnotes below (BUT TRY YOURSELF FIRST!)

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 15 |

Answers (DID YOU TRY?):

1. at a distance of 258811 km form the center of the Earth
2. two reasons: the Sun not only attracts the satellite in between, but also the Earth
itself, so one needs to take the difference between the two; also, the centrifugal
acceleration needs to be taken into account.
 Fundamentals (cnt’d)

Gravitational attraction between 2 point masses or

between 2 homogeneous spheres (with masses M and
m): mM
F = G = M aM = m am
r2
Relative acceleration between mass m and mass M:
m+M
r = − a M − am = − G
ɺɺ
r2
Or, with m << M (planet vs. Sun, or satellite vs. Earth):
M µ
r = −G
ɺɺ = −
r2 r2
AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 16 |

Note 1: m << M holds for most relevant combinations of bodies (sat-Earth, sat-Sun,
planet-Sun), except for the Moon w.r.t. Earth.
Note 2: the parameter “µ” is called the gravitational parameter (of a specific body).
Example: µEarth = 398600.4415 km3/s2 (relevant for the motion of satellites around
the Earth), and µSun = 1.328 × 1011 km3/s2 (relevant for motions of planets around
the Sun, or spacecraft in heliocentric orbits).
 Fundamentals (cnt’d)

Radial acceleration:
Scalar notation:
µ
r = −
ɺɺ
r2
Vector notation:
 ɺɺ
x  x
µ  ɺɺ  µ  
r = −
ɺɺ r or  y  = − r3  y 
r3  ɺɺ   
z z
equation of motion for satellites and planets
AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 17 |

Note: the vector r can easily be decomposed into its cartesian components x, y and
z; the same can be done for the radial acceleration.
Equation of motion for (1) satellites orbiting around the Earth, (2) satellites orbiting
around the Sun, and (3) planets orbiting around the Sun.
 Fundamentals: conservation of
angular momentum

1) Vectorial product of equation of motion with r:

µ
r × ɺɺ
r = − r ×r = 0
so
r3
d
( r × rɺ ) = rɺ × rɺ + r × ɺɺ
r = 0
dt
and
r × rɺ = r × V = constant = H
• The motion is in one plane
• H = rVφ = r2 (dφ/dt) = constant
• Area law (second Law of Kepler): dA/dt = ½r r (dφ/dt) = ½ H

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 18 |

Note: all parameters in bold represent vectors, all parameters in plain notation are
scalars.
 Fundamentals: conservation of energy

2) Scalar product of equation of motion with dr/dt:

µ
rɺ ⋅ ɺɺ
r + 3 rɺ ⋅ r = 0
r
or
1 d 1 µ d 1 d 1 µ d 2
( rɺ ⋅ rɺ ) + ( r ⋅r ) = (V 2 ) + (r ) = 0
2 dt 2 r 3 dt 2 dt 2 r 3 dt

or d 1 2 µ 
 V −  = 0
dt  2 r 

Integration: V2 µ
− = constant = E
2 r



potential energy
kinetic energy (incl. minus sign!)

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 19 |

Note: the step from (1/2) (µ/r3) d(r2)/dt to d(–µ/r)/dt is not a trivial one (if only for
the change of sign….)
 Fundamentals: orbit equation
3) Scalar product of equation of motion with r:
µ
r ⋅ ɺɺ
r+ r ⋅r = 0
r3
Therefore:
d µ
( r ⋅ rɺ ) − ( rɺ ⋅ rɺ ) + = 0
dt r

Note that r ⋅ rɺ = r ⋅ V = rVr and rɺ ⋅ rɺ = V⋅V = V 2

so: µ
r + rɺ 2 − V 2 +
r ɺɺ = 0
r

Substitution of V2 = Vr 2 + Vϕ 2 = rɺ2 + ( r ϕɺ )2
µ
yields: r − r ϕɺ 2
ɺɺ = −
r2

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 20 |

Note 1: we managed to get rid of the vector notations, and are left with scalar
parameters only.
Note 2: Vr is the magnitude of the radial velocity, Vφ is that of the tangential
velocity (together forming the total velocity (vector) V).
Fundamentals: orbit equation (cnt’d)
µ
Combining equations r 2 ϕɺ = H r − r ϕɺ 2 = −
and ɺɺ
r2

gives the equation for a conical section (1st Law of Kepler):

p
r=
1 + e cos(θ )
where
• θ = φ – φ0 = true anomaly
• φ0 = arbitrary angle
• e = eccentricity
• p = H2/µ = semi-latus rectum

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 21 |

 Elliptical orbit
p p 2p
Orbital equation: 2a = rθ =0 + rθ =π = + = ⇒ p = a (1 − e 2 )
1 + e 1 − e 1 − e2

a (1 − e 2 )
So: r= Q
1 + e cos(θ ) satellite

b r
a
Other expressions: A major axis θ P

latus rectum
apocentre F’ C F pericentre

• pericenter distance rp = a ( 1 - e )

minor axis
ae
• apocenter distance ra = a ( 1 + e )
• semi-major axis a = ( ra + rp ) / 2 a a

• eccentricity e = ( ra - rp ) / ( ra + rp )
• location of focal center CF = a – rp = a e

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 22 |

The wording “pericenter” and “apocenter” is for a general central body. For orbits
around Earth, we can also use “perigee” and “apogee”, and for orbits around the Sun
we use “perihelion” and “apohelion”.
 Elliptical orbit (cnt’d)

Example:

Satellite in orbit with pericenter at 200 km altitude and

apocenter at 2000 km:

• rp = Re + hp = 6578 km
• ra = Re + ha = 8378 km
• a = ( ra + rp ) / 2 = 7478 km
• e = ( ra - rp ) / ( ra + rp ) = 0.1204

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 23 |

Note: the eccentricity can also be computed from the combination of pericenter
radius and semi-major axis: rp=a(1-e) (or, for that matter, the combination of
apocenter radius and semi-major axis: ra=a(1+e) ).
Note the difference between “radius” and “altitude” or “height” !!!
 Elliptical orbit (cnt’d)
Example:

Satellite in orbit with semi-major axis of 7500 km and

eccentricity of 0.01, 0.1 or 0.3:
e = 0.01 e=0.1 e=0.3 Rearth

10000

9000
radius [km]

8000

7000

6000

5000
0 90 180 270 360
true anomaly [deg]
AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 24 |

Note: the variation in radial distance becomes larger for larger values of the
eccentricity. For e=0.3 the pericenter value dips below the Earth radius 
physically impossible orbit.
Note the difference between “radius” and “altitude” or “height” !!!
 Elliptical orbit: velocity and energy
conservation of angular momentum:
r
H = rp V p = ra Va ⇒ Va = V p p
ra
conservation of energy:
1 µ 1 µ
E = V p 2 − = Va 2 −
2 rp 2 ra
substituting rp , ra , Va yields:
µ  1+ e 
Vp2 =  
a  1− e 
and
µ  1− e 
Va 2 =  
a  1+ e 

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 25 |

Straightforward derivation of simple relations for the velocity at pericenter and

apocenter.
 Elliptical orbit: velocity and energy (cnt’d)

conservation of energy:
1 µ µ
E = Vp2 − = − = constant
2 rp 2a

more general:

1 2 µ µ
V − =−
2 r 2a
so
2 1
V2 = µ  − 
 r a 
the "vis-viva" equation

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 26 |

The “vis-viva” equation gives an easy and direct relation between velocity and
position (and semi-major axis). It does not say anything about the direction of the
velocity. In turn, a satellite position and velocity (magnitude) determine the total
amount of energy of the satellite, but can result in a zillion different orbits (with the
same value for the semi-major axis, though).
 Elliptical orbit: velocity and energy (cnt’d)
Example:
satellite in an orbit with semi-major axis of 7500 km and
eccentricity of 0.01, 0.1 and 0.03:
e = 0.01 e=0.1 e=0.3

11

10
velocity [km/s]

5
0 90 180 270 360
true anomaly [deg]

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 27 |

Note: the orbit with a very low eccentricity hardly shows any variation in velocity,
whereas for the orbit with highest velocity (e=0.3) the variation is almost a factor 2.
 Elliptical orbit: orbital period

Area law (Kepler’s 2nd equation):

T
dA 1 dA 1
= H = constant ⇒ A= ∫ dt = H T = π a b
dt 2 0
dt 2

Also:
b = a 1 − e2 and H= µp and p = a (1 − e 2 )

Leads to Kepler’s 3rd law: a3

T = 2π
µ
AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 28 |

Important conclusion: the orbital period in an elliptical orbit “T” is fully determined
by the value of the semi-major axis “a” and the gravitational parameter “µ”; the
shape of the orbit (as indicated by the eccentricity “e”) does not play a role here!
 Fundamentals (summary)

Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion revisited,

now in mathematical formulation:

a (1 − e 2 )
1. r=
1 + e cos(θ ) [Scienceweb, 2009]

dA 1 1
2. = H = r×V
dt 2 2

a3
3. T = 2π
µ

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 29 |

See earlier sheet on Kepler.

 Elliptical orbit: example

Numerical example 1:
Orbit around Earth, hp = 300 km, ha = 10000 km
Questions: a? e? Vp? Va? T?
Answers: see footnotes below (TRY FIRST !)

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 30 |

Answers: (DID YOU TRY?)

•rp = Rearth + hp = 300 = 6678 km
•ra = Rearth + ha = 16378 km
•a = (rp+ra)/2 = 11528 km
•e = (ra-rp)/(ra+rp) = 0.421
•Vp = 9.209 km/s
•Va = 3.755 km/s
•T = 2π√(a3/µ) = 12318.0 s = 205.3 min
 Circular orbit

Characteristics:
•e=0
• rmin = rmax = r
•a=r
• V = Vc = √ (µ/a)
• T = 2 π √ (a3/µ)
• Etot = - µ/2a < 0

[Aerospaceweb, 2009]
AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 31 |

Some characteristics of circular orbits. The expressions can be easily verified by

substituting e=0 in the general equations derived for an ellipse (with 0<e<1).
 Circular orbit (cnt’d)

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 32 |

The orbital velocity at low altitudes is 7-7.9 km/s, but at higher altitudes it reduces
quickly (notice log scale for altitude). The reverse happens with the orbital period.
In the case of a circular orbit, the orbital period T and the velocity V are related to
each other by the equation T*V = 2πr = 2πa. Do not confuse altitude (i.e. w.r.t.
surface of central body) and radius (i.e. w.r.t. center of mass of central body).
 Circular orbit (cnt’d)

energy at 800 km at GEO at Moon

0,0
3 4 5 6 7 8
total energy [km2/s2]

-10,0

-20,0

-30,0
log semi-major axis [km]

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 33 |

The energy required to get into a particular orbit initially quickly increases with the
value of the semi-major axis, but then levels off. The step to go from 800 km
altitude to geostationary altitude is much more difficult (energy-wise) that the step
from the GEO to the Lunar orbit (let alone into parabolic/hyperbolic/escape orbit).
 Geostationary orbit
Requirements:

• Stationary (i.e. non-moving) w.r.t. Earth surface

• orbital period = 23 hour, 56 min and 4 sec [Sque, 2009]:

• moves in equatorial plane

• moves in eastward direction
• So: orbital elements:
• e=0
• a = 42164.14 km
• i = 0°
• And:
• h = a – Re = 35786 km
• Vc = 3.075 km/s
• E = - 4.727 km2/s2

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 34 |

“geo” “stationary” as in “Earth” “fixed”. The orbital period is related to the

revolution of the Earth w.r.t. an inertial system, i.e. the stars -> use 23h56m4s instead
of our everyday-life 86400 s.
The value of ”a” is derived from the expression for the orbital period. In reality, the
effect of J2 needs to be added, which causes the real altitude of the GEO to be some
AAAA km higher.
 Geostationary orbit (cnt’d)
Questions:

Consider an obsolete GEO satellite which is put into a graveyard

orbit: 300 km above the standard GEO altitude.

1. What is the orbital period of this graveyard orbit?

2. If this graveyard orbit were to develop from perfectly circular to
eccentric, what would be the maximum value of this eccentricity
when the pericenter of this orbit were to touch the real GEO?
Assume that the apocenter of this deformed graveyard orbit
remains at GEO+300 km.

Answers: see footnotes below BUT TRY FIRST !!

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 35 |

Answers:
1) T = 24 uur, 11 minuten en 25.3 seconden.
2) e = 0.00354
Elliptical orbit: position vs. time

• Where is the satellite at a specific moment in time?

• When is the satellite at a specific position?

Why?
• to aim the antenna of a ground station
• to initiate an engine burn at the proper point in the orbit
• to perform certain measurements at specific locations
• to time-tag measurements
• to be able to rendez-vous
• …….

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 36 |

 Elliptical orbit: position vs. time (cnt’d)
straightforward approach:
dθ H r2 r2
= ⇒ dt = dθ ⇒ ∆t = ∫ dt = ∫ dθ
dt r 2 H H
so
θ
p3 dθ
∆t =
µ ∫ (1 + e cosθ )
0
2

difficult relation →
introduce new parameter E
("eccentric anomaly")

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 37 |

The straightforward approach is clear but leads to a difficult integral. Can be treated
numerically, but then one might just as well give up the idea of using Kepler orbits
and switch to numerical representations altogether. Do not confuse E (“eccentric
anomaly”) with E (“energy”)!!
 Elliptical orbit: position vs. time (cnt’d)
r cos θ = a cos E − a e
ellipse:
GS b
= = 1 − e2
GS ' a
here:
GS r sin θ
=
GS ' a sin E
or
r sin θ = a 1 − e 2 sin E
combining:
r 2 = ( a cos E − a e)2 + ( a 1 − e2 sin E )2 = a 2 (1 − cos E )2
or (r>0):
r = a (1 − e cos E )

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 38 |

S’ and the eccentric anomaly E are related to a perfect circle with radius “a”. E and
θ are related to each other.
 Elliptical orbit: position vs. time (cnt’d)
a (1 − e 2 )
r = = a (1 − e cos E )
1 + e cos θ
from which
θ 1+ e E
tan = tan
2 1− e 2

360
true anomaly [deg]

270

e.g. e=0.6 :
180

90

0
0 90 180 270 360
eccentric anomaly [deg]

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 39 |

The relation between E and θ is unambiguous. The derivation of the relation

between tan(θ/2) and tan(E/2) is tedious…..
 Elliptical orbit: position vs. time (cnt’d)

Some numerical examples, for e=0.4 :

E [°] E/2 [°] θ/2 [°] θ [°]

80 40 52.04 104.08
100 50 61.22 122.44
170 85 86.72 173.44
190 95 93.28 186.56
260 130 118.78 237.56
Verify!
280 140 127.96 255.92
350 175 172.39 344.78

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 40 |

Verify!
 Elliptical orbit: position vs. time (cnt’d)

a (1 − e 2 ) µ e sin θ
r= so rɺ =
1 + e cos θ µ a (1 − e2 )
and
r = a (1 − e cos E ) so rɺ = a e Eɺ sin E
(all derivatives taken after time t)

r sin θ
equating and using = 1- e2
a sin E
(continued on next page)

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 41 |

2nd step in derivation of required relation.

 Elliptical orbit: position vs. time (cnt’d)

µ 1
Eɺ =
a 3 1 − e cos E
or
µ
(1 − e cos E ) Eɺ =
a3
“Kepler’s Equation”, where:
integration:
• t = current time [s]
µ
E − e sin E = (t − t p ) = n (t − t p ) = M
a 3
• tp = time of last passage pericenter [s]
or • n = mean motion [rad/s]
M = E − e sin E
• M = mean anomaly [rad]
• E = eccentric anomaly [rad]
• θ = true anomaly [rad]

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 42 |

Kepler’s equation gives the relation between time (t, in [s]) and position (M and/or
E, in [rad]). It holds for an ellipse, but other formulations also exist for hyperbola
and parabola.
 Elliptical orbit: position vs. time (cnt’d)
Example position
time:
Question:
• a = 7000 km
• e = 0.1
• µ = 398600 km3/s2
• θ = 35°
• t-tp ?
Answer:
• n = 1.078007 × 10-3 rad/s
• θ = 0.61087 rad
• E = 0.55565 rad
• M = 0.50290 rad
• t-tp = 466.5 s
verify!

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 43 |

Straightforward application of recipe.

 Elliptical orbit: position vs. time (cnt’d)

Example time
position (1-2):

Question
• a = 7000 km
• e = 0.1
• µ = 398600 km3/s2
• t-tp = 900 s
•θ?

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 44 |

Straightforward application of recipe.

 Elliptical orbit: position vs. time (cnt’d)
Example time
position (2-2):
Answer
• n = 1.078007 × 10-3 rad/s
• M = 0.9702 rad
• E = 1.0573 rad (iterate Ei+1 = M + e sin(Ei)

• θ = 1.1468 rad verify!

iteration E

0 0,970206

1 1,052707

2 1,057083

3 1,057299

4 1,057309

5 1,057310

6 1,057310

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 45 |

Straightforward application of recipe.

 Fundamentals (cnt’d)
“Conical sections”
Orbit types:
• circle
• ellipse
• parabola
• hyperbola

[Cramer, 2009]

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 46 |

Summary of orbit types. See next page for summary of characteristics.

 Parabolic orbit

Characteristics:
•e=1
p
r=  • rmin = rp , rmax = ∞
1 + e cos(θ )
•a=∞
2 1
V2 = µ  −   • Vrp = Vesc,rp = √ (2µ/rp)
 r a
• Vmin = 0
• Tpericenter
inf = ∞
µ
E=−  • Etot = 0
2a

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 47 |

Some characteristics of parabolic orbits. This is an “open” orbit, so there is no

orbital period. The maximum distance (i.e. ∞) is achieved for θ=180°.
 Hyperbolic orbit

Characteristics:
•e>1
p
r=  • rmin = rp , rmax = ∞
1 + e cos(θ )
•a<0
2 1 • Vrp > Vesc,rp
V2 = µ  −  
 r a
• V2 = Vesc2 + V∞2
• V∞ > 0
• Tpericenter
inf = ∞
µ
E=−  • Etot > 0
2a

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 48 |

Some characteristics of hyperbolic orbits. This is an “open” orbit, so there is no

orbital period. The maximum distance (i.e. ∞) is achieved for a limiting value of θ,
given by the zero crossing of the numerator of the equation for “r”: 1 + e cos(θlim) =
0.
 Hyperbolic orbit (cnt’d)

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 49 |

Vcirc = √(µ/r) ; Vescape = √(2µ/r) ; Vhyperbola2 = Vescape2 + V∞2 (so, at infinite distance
Vhyperbola = V∞ as should be).
 Hyperbola: position vs. time

in a similar fashion as for an elliptical orbit:

3

hyperbolic anomaly F [-]

introduce hyperbolic anomaly F: 1

r = a (1 − e cosh F ) 0
-150 -120 -90 -60 -30 0 30 60 90 120 150
-1
without derivation:
-2

θ e +1 F -3
tan = tanh true anomaly theta [deg]
2 e −1 2
relation between time and position:
µ
e sinh F − F =
−a 3
( t −t )
p = M

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 50 |

For a hyperbola, the same question arises. The time-position problem for the
parabola is skipped because it too specific (e=1.000000000000000).

PLEASE NOTE: F is NOT an angle but a dimensionless parameter

 Hyperbola: position vs. time (cnt’d)

sinh ( x ) =
2
( e −e )
1 x −x
also : (
asinh( x ) = ln x + x2 +1 )
cosh ( x ) =
2
( e +e )
1 x −x
acosh( x ) = ln x + ( x2 −1 )
sinh ( x ) 1 1+ x
tanh ( x ) = atanh( x ) = ln
cosh ( x ) 2 1− x

sinh(x) cosh(x) tanh(x)

1
function(x)

0
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
-1

-2

-3
AE1102 Introduction
x to Aerospace Engineering 51 |

General definitions of hyperbolic functions.

 Hyperbola: position vs. time (cnt’d)

Example position
time:

Question:
• a = -7000 km
• e = 2.1
• µ = 398600 km3/s2
• θ = 35°
• t-tp ?
Answer:
• n = 1.078007 × 10-3 rad/s after [Darling, 2009]

• F = 0.38
• M = 0.4375 rad
verify!
• t-tp = 405.87 s

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 52 |

Straightforward application of recipe.

Hyperbola: position vs. time (cnt’d)

Example time
position:

Question:
• a = -7000 km
• e = 2.1
• µ = 398600 km3/s2
• t-tp = 900 s
•θ?
after [Darling, 2009]

Continued on next slide

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 53 |

 Hyperbola: position vs. time (cnt’d)
Example time
position (cnt’d):
Answer:
• n = 1.078007 × 10-3 rad/s
• M = 0.9702 rad
• F = 0.7461 (iterate Fk+1 = Fk - (e sinh(Fk) – Fk – M) / ( e cosh(Fk) -1)

Iteration (k) sinh(F) cosh(F) Fk

0 0 (first guess)

1 0 1 0,882006

2 1,000894 1,414846 0,755347

3 0,829252 1,299099 0,746161

4 0,817353 1,291536 0,746118

5 0,817297 1,291501 0,746118

• θ = 1.0790 rad (i.e. 61.8220°) verify!

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 54 |

Straightforward application of recipe. The solution for the hyperbolic anomaly F is

obtained by means of Newton-Raphson iteration (see formula); This is necessary
because a direct iteration (like in the case of elliptical orbits) does not converge for
an eccentricity greater than 1.
 Orbits: Summary

Orbit types:
• circle
• ellipse
• parabola
• hyperbola

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 55 |

Summary of orbit types. See next page for summary of characteristics.

 Orbits: Summary (Cnt’d)
circle ellipse parabola hyperbola

e 0 0<e<1 1 >1

a >0 >0 ∞ <0

r a p / (1+e cos(θ)) p / (1+e cos(θ)) p / (1+e cos(θ))

rmin a a (1-e) p/2 a (1-e)

rmax a a (1+e) ∞ ∞

V √(µ/r) < √(2µ/r) √(2µ/r) > √(2µ/r)

Etot <0 <0 0 0

θ,E,F E=θ tan(E/2) = - tanh(F/2) =

√((1-e)/(1+e)) tan(θ/2) √((e-1)/(e+1)) tan(θ/2)
M √(µ/a3) (t-τ) √(µ/a3) (t-τ) √(µ/p3) (t-τ) √(µ/-a3) (t-τ)

T M=E M = E - e sin(E) 2M = tan(θ/2) + M=e sinh(F)-F

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace
((tan(θ/2))3)/3 Engineering 56 |

Summary of orbit characteristics. After K.F. Wakker, lecture notes ae4-878

 Example elliptical orbit
Question:
Consider a satellite at 800 km altitude above the Earth’s surface, and velocity
(perpendicular to the radius) of 8 km/s.
1. compute the semi-major axis
2. compute the eccentricity
3. compute the maximum radius of this orbit
4. compute the maximum altitude

Answers:
1. 0.5 V2 – µ/r = - µ/2a
a = 8470 km
2. rp = a(1-e)
e = 0.153
3. ra = a(1+e)
ra = 9766 km Verify !!
4. h = r-Re
hmax = 3388 km

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 57 |

Straightforward application of recipe. Re = 6378.137 km, µearth = 398600.4415

km3/s2.
 Example elliptical orbit

Question:

Consider a satellite at 800 km altitude above the Earth’s surface, and velocity
(perpendicular to the radius) of 10 km/s.
1. compute the semi-major axis
2. compute the eccentricity
3. compute the maximum radius of this orbit
4. compute the maximum altitude
5. what would be the minimum velocity needed to escape from Earth?

Answers: see footnotes below (BUT TRY YOURSELF FIRST!!)

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 58 |

Answers: (DID YOU TRY FIRST??)

1. a = 36041 km
2. e = 0.801
3. ra = 64910 km
4. hmax = 58532 km
5. Vesc = 10.538 km/s
 Example hyperbolic orbit
Question:

Consider a satellite at 800 km altitude above the Earth’s surface, with its velocity
perpendicular to the radius.
1. compute the escape velocity
2. if the satellite would have a velocity 0.2 km/s larger than the escape velocity,
what would the excess velocity V∞ be?
3. idem, if V = Vesc + 0.4?
4. idem, if V = Vesc + 0.6?
5. idem, if V = Vesc + 0.8?
6. idem, if V = Vesc + 1.0?
7. what conclusion can you draw?

Answers: see footnotes below (BUT TRY YOURSELF FIRST!!)

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 59 |

Answers: (DID YOU TRY FIRST??)

1. Vesc = 10.538 km/s
2. V∞ = 2.063 km/s
3. V∞ = 2.931 km/s
4. V∞ = 3.606 km/s
5. V∞ = 4.183 km/s
6. V∞ = 4.699 km/s
7. a small increase in velocity at 800 km altitude pays off in a large value for the
excess velocity.
 Elliptical orbit: Summary
2-dimensional orbits: 3 Kepler elements:
• a – semi-major axis [m]
• e – eccentricity [-]
• tp , τ – time of pericenter passage [s]

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 60 |

The time of passage of a well-defined point in the orbit (e.g. the pericenter) is
indicated by “tp” or, equivalently, “τ” (the Greek symbol tau). Knowing this value,
one can relate the position in the orbit to absolute time (cf. following sheets).
 Fundamentals (cnt’d)

3-dimensional orbits:
another 3 Kepler
elements:
• i – inclination [deg]
• Ω - right ascension of
ascending node [deg]
• ω – argument of
pericenter [deg]

AE1102 Introduction to Aerospace Engineering 61 |

The inclination “i” is the angle between the orbital plane and a reference plane, such
as the equatorial plane. It is measured at the ascending node, i.e. the location where
the satellite transits from the Southern Hemisphere to the Northern Hemisphere, so
by definition its value is between 0° and 180°. The parameters Ω and ω can take any
value between 0° and 360°.