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Nehaa Maheswari
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SCIENCE CAREER COACHING Umesh Rajoria ‘Near Nawalgarh Bus Stand, Sikar Contact No.: 8003024131, 9309068859 SCIENCE CAREER COACHING Umesh Rajoria 15. SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS Semiconductors - The materials which have Conductivity and resistivity inbetween conductors and insulators are calle semiconcluctors. Examples - Silicon Csi) , Germanium Cae) ete. Enexay Band Theory af Solids — Accowding to Gehr's theory Hore axe well olefineol entsgy Awels of electrons In an atom. Ig le Numben. of atoms are bro close sto one another to form a crystal, they begin to influence each other. Dus to this interotomic. interaction there 1s no moolificaton in the enurgy Lwvels of the electrons in the cuter shell but there ib a Consiclrable modification in tha energy duels of the electrons in the outer shells - Y lees FORBIDDEN [ i ENERGY GAP 1 2 — (+ 3P Tee | = h 1 CRYSTAL LATTICE SPACING ; a2 T ' a ‘ 3s =— iN --> 1 r 1 1 ' ' 1 1 : ' ' 1 ' T t ' ! i ‘ ' 1_2pe 5 : t ‘ 1 & ) ! H ' 2s? 2 r a ' H a 6 € d x INTERATOMIC SPACING, r——> To Unckrstand modificadion in ensrgy Levels of elechons Considtr a Silicon crystad containing Natoms, Near Nawalgarh Bus Stand, Sikar ‘Contact No.t 8003024131, 9309068859 oL SCIENCE CAREER COACHING data Silicon Csi) odoms have fowr valance elechons te. number of electrons in the outermost orbit is 4. Therefore the totel number. of valenu elechons in the crystal of Si ds 4N. (i) Ty the intercctomic spacing: of the si atoms is very Longe Cvs), then ture Js no intercdomic intevaction. Gi) When the interatomic spacing x is Luss then ol but greeter than cj ther thee is no visible spliting of energy dwels. (i) When the interatomic Spacing x is equal 40 C, the energy of Outermest Shel) electrons of neighboukin Silicon atoms start changing ie. the spliting: of these energy Levels occurs. Whuwas Hure is no change in the energy. Awels of electrons in the inner shells. Gv) When intevadmie spacing y Lies inbetween b and ¢ C ber 3ev) ENERGY Sey) Contact No.: 8003024131, 9309068859 SCIENCE CAREER COACHING Umesh Rajoria Semiconductors — In semicenductrs the valence band Ad totally Filled omd tHe Conduchon band is empty bub the gep betwen cCerslucHen bona and valance. band id quite small. It i ew than 3 ev. Ey for germomium Js ot2ev oma for silicon it is Itev. At zero Kelvin temperature semiconoluctoy behaves as inatotor. Insulotors — Tn putotors Hie enengy gap is quite longe CEy > sev). Dus 4d Large gop no electron 44 “able to ge frm the valance band 40 te Conduction band. Hence electical cenduchon im these modetials 43 impossible omd trey behave ak insulotors. INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS - : A pure Semjtonducty edhich is free of every impwuty Js called intrinsic semiconductor. Examples- Silicon Csi} anol Germanium Cae), ' aca: EMPTY Tae ia co CONDUCTION eeeea ie aeteeay ee) odie Cent eee BAND Cee \\ FILLED cn aheder sn ctnly con batero= VALENCE Teo AW tat al Silicon (tu) 1s 2872 pS at ap? Geemanium (32) 1s" 2.8" 2p achaptad!yct up Both the atoms (Si and Ge) have four valance electrons. Near Nawalgarh Bus Stand, Sikar Contact No.: 8003024131, 9309068859. (eu) SCIENCE CAREER COACHING Umesh Rajoria TAe four valance eleehons of @ germaniurn atom form four Covalent bands by shoring the electrons of neigivoouring four qeemanium apoms. The minimum enagy required to break a covalent bemd iA 0-72 ev for Ge omd Liew for si. At room temperature when an electron breaks a m a Covalent bond , tre empty place or ee in the borol is catleol a hole. Wwhen an extemal electie field is applies, e free electrons amd holes meve in opposite olvections and Comsttute A Cweent. The number of free electrons omd holes are exactly equod in an intrinsic Semiconcluctoy. Ne = ry Also the Conductivity of intrinsic semiconcluctor is very low. The hole is Consiolradl as an active particle in the vatance bemol , having a positive charge equot to thot of an electron. Doping :- =ema Dopin is a process of addition of @ olesivable Impurity atims to a pure semicencluctor +o moolify tts properties in a Controlled manner. The impurid atoms added are calle! clepants. a fl pepg Q semitencluctor increases tts electrical comoluctivity a great extend. Méthods of cteping : - Ct) Aoll the impurity atoms in the melt of semicondlucter. Gi) Implant elopant atoms by bombaring the Semitorduchy with Heir cons. Gil) Heat ythe semicercluctor in admosphere 64 clopant atoms. Near Nawalgarh Bus Stand, Sikar Contact No.: 8003024131, 9309068859 (CS SCIENCE CAREER COACHING EXTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTORS ~ Umesh Rajoria F olopec) semiconductor or a semicenductor esi th Suitable impurity atom addecl to it is Called extrinsic semiconductor Extrinsic: SemiCenoluctors one of two types - id n- type Semiconductor Gi) P-type Semiconoluctor (i) N-type Semiconductor — when A pure Semicenoluctor of silicon (si) or Germenium (Ge) 14 cloped with pentavalent atoms which have’ five valance electrons (Phosphorous, Arsenic, antimmy oy Bismuth D ten tt ts coltecd n-type Semiconductor: The four of the five valance electrons of the Impurity atoms wlll form Covalent band with He acljoining four atvms of the silfeon , vohile the Fifth electron id free fo move- Tus each tmpurdty atom added corotes one gree electron to the erystal, hese impurity atoms are Called cloner odoms. Since the Conduction op electricity a4 otis. to the motion of electrons (te negotve charges), so thot the veaulting semiconocluctor® is c n-tye. or olonoy Aype Semiconductor. Tr n-type Semiconductors electrons are majority Canniers and holes ake minority carriers. Near Nawalgarh Bus Stand, Sikar Contact No.: 8003024131, 9309068859 © [OG SCIENCE CAREER COACHING Umesh Rajoria Cit) P- type Semiconductor — When a Pure semitonduchr of silicon Csi) or Germanium (Ge) 13 oped with @ Controlled amount ob trivalent atoms ,which have three valance electrons (Boren, Aluminium, “Gallium, Inclium) then sd is Cabbed P-Aype semiconcluctor- The three valance electons of the impurt otom will form Covalent bonds with the adjoining three atoms of geemanium Cae), while there ull be one incomplete Covalent bond witha nelghbourin, Ge atom, this oleficiency of an electron creates @ ‘hole’. The trivalent atoms are calteol acceptor atoms and He Conduction of electricity occurs clue to motion of holes (be Positive charges) 5so the veaubting Aen} condachr JA Collect p- type or acceptor Lype sem) conductor. “ACCEPTOR ENERGY STATE E= .01 to .045eV In p-type Semitmoluetor elechons One minor ty Carsiers amd holes Ae majority Comiers. Near Nawalgarh Bus Stand, Sikar Contact No.: 8003024131, 9309068859 SCIENCE CAREER COACHING Distneton behven Intrinsic and extrensic semcoiductors- INTRINSIC SEMICONDUCTOR |. It is pure semiconducting material and no impurity atoms are added to it. Examples are crystalline forms of pure silicon and germanium. }. The number of free electrons in conduction band and the number of holes in valence band is exactly equal and very small indeed. Its electrical conductivity is low. 3. Its electrical conductivity is a function of temperature alone. n-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR |. Itisan extrinsic semiconductor which is obtained by doping the impurity atoms of Vth group of periodic table to the pure germanium or silicon semiconductor. The impurity atoms added, provide extra electrons in the structure, and are called donor atoms, The electrons are majority carriers and holes are The electron density (n,) is much greater than the hole density (n,), i2., 1, >> My 3. The donor energy level is close to the conduction band and far away from valence band. |. Itis an extrinsic semic Umesh Rajoria eee alee late + Itisprepared by doping asmall quantity of impurity atoms to the pure semiconducting material. Examples are silicon and germanium crystals with impurity atoms of arsenic, antimony, phos- phorous etc. or indium, boron, aluminium ete. ‘The number of free electrons and holes is never equal. There is excess of electrons in n-type semiconductors and excess of holes in p-type semiconductors. Its electrical conductivity is high. Its electrical conductivity depends upon the temperature as well as on the quantity of impurity atoms doped in the structure, P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR ‘which is obtained by doping the impurity atoms of HI] group of periodic table to the pure germanium or silicon semiconductor. ‘The impurity atoms added, create vacancies of electrons (i.e. holes) in the structure and are called acceptor atoms. ‘The holes are majority carriers and electrons are minority carriers. The hole density (n,) is much greater than the electron density (n,), ie. ny >> Ry. 3. The acceptor energy level is close to valence band and is far away from conduction band. Near Nawalgarh Bus Stand, Sikar Contact No.: 8003024133, 920906859 (08 ) SCIENCE CAREER COACHING P-N TUNCTION — when a p-type semicencluctor crypt 4s Joines| with an n-type Aemiconcluctor crystal , tren the resulting arxangement 4s Called a p-n junction er junchon clicde. Formation of PN~Tunction — To make a Pen junction , the n type ome P-type silicon crystals are cut Into thin wafers. Tf on @ wafer of n-type Silican ,an aluminium film is placed and heated to Qa hit temperature 580%, aluminium Arffuses indd siliden and a p-type Aemicenductor 4s formed on an n-type Aemitoncuctor. Such a formation of P-tegion on n-region 44 Calledl P-n junction, Umesh Rajoria Diffusion and Drift - When P-n juncHon Ud formed) due to olf ference. In Concentration os Corriens in two regions of Pn Junction, the electrons from n-region oliffuse thro’ the junction into p-region and holes from p- region diffuse Into n-rveglon. The motion of Charge Carievs gives rise to diffusion curment aeross the junction. Electron Hole _ Due to diffusion of electrons and holes a Layer of positively chargeol dlenoy atoms in n-region and a Layer of Near Nawalgarh Bus Stand, Sikar Contact No.: 8003024131, 9309068859 (09 ] SCIENCE CAREER COACHING Umesh Rajoria negatively charged acceptor atoms In p-region are created. This positive anol negative space charge regions on both sides of pon junction vill form a region whieh has immobile tons and is caltecl olzpletion yégion. Due te positive anol negative Space ch fon at p-n junction, an electric. fielol is ee a jumetion- Due do this electric field olwvelopedl at the junction ,an electron on p-sicle of the junction moves to n-side and a holes on n-sicle of junction moves to P- Stole of function. The motion of these Charge carriers lure 4p electric field is Called obift. As a result of it,a drift Currerd starts, which is opposite in ctivection to the atiffusion cument - In the begining the diffusion Current is but chift Cument is small. As the oliffusion process Cont- nues the strength of electric field across Hre junction incyeases and tHuruby drift cwount Increases. This Process Continues until the oliffusion cwoent becomes equal to the olrift current. Now the p-n junction is sald to be be in equili- brium Atate ane thre 48 no Current across the pon function. At this stage, the Potential barrier across the juncton has maximum valut Ve. Now the movement of majority charge Carries across the junction stops amd the potential ac as a barrievy hence Known as Potentia) barriev. At room Aumpernctire (300k) Va Js about oaVv for Ge omd OT for Si. The value of Va increases with rise in temperature for Ge ard si. Near Nawalgarh Bus Stand, Sikar Contact No.: 8003024131, 9309068859 (10 ] SCIENCE CAREER COACHING Umesh Rajoria BIASING OF THE PN JUNCTION - Theve aes two methods of biasing the pn junction. GC) Forweerd biasing Gi) Reverse biasing (1) Forward Biasing I A pon junction 1s said 4o be forward biased if the positive terminal of the extemal battery is Connected to p-sicle and the negative terminal to the n-sidle of P-n junction. + 1 vei Jf Wen) Tn forward biasing the forwarol Vollage opposes the potential barrier Vo. As Fae of a+ potenti — and wiclth of depletion layer olecveases. The effechve value of potentiod barriey in forward biasing IS (Ve-V). Depletion Layer (2) Rewerse_Blasing :- A pn junction (s said +o be reverse biased if the positive terminal of Hw external battery is Connected) to n-side and the negative terminal do p-sicle of the P-n junction. Tn reverse biasing the reverse bias voltage supports the potentential borer Va. As a result of st bardier potential. amd evidth of olepletion region increases Near Nawalgarh Bus Stand, Sikar Contact No.: 8003024131, 9309068859 i SCIENCE CAREER COACHING Umesh Rajoria The effective value of barriey potenthal under yeyerse biat ib (Va+V). Depletion Layer ahi HH 8 In reveese biasing, there 18 no Conduction across the junction clue to majority carriers + Howey a feo minokity Cowiers of pon junction cliede cyoss the junction after bemg accelerated by high reverse bias voltage. They Consitute “a cunrenf which ts Callecl reverse Cunent or leakage cwdent CHARACTERISTICS OF PN JUNCTION DIODE ~ Ci) Forward Chanactenistcs - On plotting a graph between forward bias voltage and forword Current we get the following graph. Forward Current Voltage Voltage (for silicon diodes vm ~ 0.7V) 8 Tt 4s found that beyond forward voltage V = VK, Called Knee voltage (ov for Ge and o-7v-for Si)the current Near Nawalgarh Bus Stand, Sikar Contact No.: 8003024131, 9309068859 42 SCIENCE CAREER COACHING Umesh Rajoria throw the junction starts increasin: Yopidly with voltage and Showing the Linear variation. But belaw the Knee voltage the variation m Current is negligible omd the curve da non- Linear. (ii) Reverse Characteristics - On plotting a gmph behoen reverse bias voltage and reverse Curent, we get the sevease characterisHes as Shewn in fig. From the cwwe we note that in verse biasing of pn Junction , the Cwwount is very smal) (@ HA) and Js indepenolent on voltage upto certain reverse blas Vo ltege. » Known ab breakoloun voltage * REVERSE BIAS (V) 8-6 4 -2 (wel) aNgwuNO 3SUAATY Th the reverse bras Veltoge exceeds the breakaloan voltage the reverse curscant thro the pon junction usil] increase abwiptly. Ih tis cuvunt exceeds the vated value. of p-n junction (specified by manufacturer), the p-n junchion wail get damaged. Near Nawalgarh Bus Stand, Sikar Contact No.: 8003024131, 9309068859 SCIENCE CAREER COACHING Umesh Rajoria PN-DIoDE As A RECTIFIER- Rectifier is a dajce which is used for Conver ting altemating current Voltage ivto ollvect cwrent [Vorrage, Thre ane two types of rectifier - Gn) Half wave rechifier Gi) Full Wave Rectifier (1) HALF WAVE RECTIFIER - A-C. Voltege Ao be rectified 18 connected +o the. paAimary usincling P,P. of a Stepelown transformer: S;S2 4 the secone Coil of the transformer, S, dd Connected to the Potton P of the p-n junction. Sa is comnected to the postion n through Load! resistance R. Output 44 taken across the lead resistance R, INPUT VOLTAGE WORKING - During positive half cycle of A.c-, suppose Sy becomes positive, Si becomes negative and the p-n junction 4s forward biased. The seslstance of pn junction betames Low. The maximum Forward current flows in the elreut ond we Get output across - Load. During negative halfy cycle of Ac, S, becomes negative. and % Cee fag hon Junction is reverse Near Nawalgarh Bus Stand, Sikar Contact No.: 8003024131, 9309068859 (14) SCIENCE CAREER COACHING Umesh Rajoria biased. Tt offers high versistance and hence there no flow of curtent and thus no output across Load. Hence in the output, we have current Correspon— aling 40 one halk eycle of the wave and the other half 4& missing. That is why the process LL Catteo/ hodf wave rechHeotion - (2) FULL WAVE RECTIFIER — For full wave rectification» we have to use two P-n junction codes Dd, and Da+ The Ciyewit Us Shown In the given fiz (4 i 1 MVORKING During the, postive half le Of AG the Mook Dy, Js forward biased and the olidde Do ts reverse biased. The forward current flows through cliode Dd, in the civection as Shown in fig. Dung the negative hy cle of AL. the cliode D, ee ro and casey is forward biased. The forward Curent flows trough oliode Dor We Observe thot during both the half cycles of A.C. Curent through R flows in the same clirection. Near Nawalgarh Bus Stand, Sikar Contact No.: 8003024131, 9309068859 SCIENCE CAREER COACHING Umesh Rajoria ‘ TIME 1 Due to | Due to ! 1 ' ' 1 1 1 Due to 1 D2 ' {TIME Hence the output signal Voltage is uniolivectonaf having nprle contents Ci-e. cle. Components and ae. Components of voltage). It can be Converted into alc, voltage by Filtering through a filter circuit - FILTER- A single capacitor of high value of Capacitance Commected across the. output of rectifier Can wark ab the filter. ; The Capacitor offers Low impedance to a.c. Component (Xe = de tuber) ond offers infinite impedance fo abc. Due to ot, the ae. Component is byparsed or filterrel out. Tt produces a voltege clrdp across Lead yerjstonce Re as a filtered ob. output, which i almost Ac. voltage» Such filtey is wlclly used din power supplies, INPUT AC. YSISILOSe Time ‘Near Nawalgarh Bus Stand, Sikar . Contact No.: 8003024131, 9309068859 (16 SCIENCE CAREER COACHING SPECIAL PURPOSE PN JUNCTION DIODE - Umesh Rajoria Seme duis which are basicaly P-n juncHom ods au clewelopes| for olifferertd applications. (i) Zener pDrope- Tt ss oluignecl specially 40 operote in reverse breakdown veltage region continuously without bei clamag ect. In zener diode beth p-side omal n- sie of Pon junction are heavily cloped. Forward current Reverse current (WA) A zener Hoole has a unique feature that the Voltage olvop across Jt 1A imdepenclent of current Flowing through t+ Zener diodes ab a Voltage Ragulotor — Zener cliode lu ued jn making the Constont Voltoge power Supply: Tts working Us basecl on the fact that nm reverse. breakelown vegion , @ very small Chemge in voltage acyoss the zener ciode produas Q Very Laxge Change In current through the cincult bud the voltage across the zener cliods vemains Constant. The Zener keds Ud jomed in reverse bias to the fluctuating ole. input volt thro a resistance R ye ae Near Nawalgarh Bus Stand, Sikar Contact No.: 8003024131, 9309068859 iF

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