BASIC CONCEPT IN CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS

WHAT IS CHILD AND ADOLESCENT LEARNERS?

According to UNICEF, adolescence is not only a time of vulnerability, but it is also an age of opportunity.
For UNESCO, adolescents struggle to define themselves and what they want to accomplish.
 Human Development is the pattern of movement or change that begins at conception and continues
through the life span.
 Development includes growth and decline.
 Development can be positive and negative.
GROWTH
▪ Pertains to the physical change and increase in size
▪ Can be measured quantitatively; can be measured in kilos, lbs, meters, inches, etc.
▪ Indicators of growth are height, weight, bone size and dentition.
▪ The growth rate is rapid
during the:
(1) Prenatal (2) Neonatal (3) Infancy (4) Adolescence
Development
▪ Pertains to the behavioral aspect of growth
▪ Involves progressive increase in skill and capacity of function.
▪ It is qualitative change in the child’s functioning; can be measure through
MATURATION
▪ Does not necessarily happen along with aging or physical growth but is a part of growth and
development.
▪ Refers to the sequential characteristics of biological growth and development (internal ripening).

2 Approaches to Human Development

Traditional Approach
- Shows extensive change from birth to adolescence, little or no change in adulthood and decline in late
old age.
Life-Span Development
- Even in adulthood, developmental change takes place as is does during childhood.

Paul Baltes (Santrock, 2002), an expert in life-span development, gives the following characteristics:
⚫ Development is lifelong- It does not end in adulthood. Ken and Naschielle will continue developing
even in adulthood.
⚫ Development is plastic- Plasticity refers to the potential for change. Development is possible
throughout the life-span. No one is too old to learn. There is no such thing as “I am too old for that...”
Aging is associated with declines in certain intellectual abilities. These declines can be prevented or
reduced. In one research study, the reasoning abilities of older adults were improved through
retraining (Willies & Schose, 1994 cited by Santrock J., 2005).
⚫ Development is multidimensional- Development consists of biological, cognitive, and
socio-emotional dimensions. Development as a process is complex because it is the product of
biological, cognitive, and socio-emotional processes (Santrock, 2002).
⚫ Development is contextual- Individuals are changing beings in a changing world. Individuals
respond to and act on contexts. These contexts include the individual’s biological make up, physical
environment, cognitive processes, historical, social and cultural contexts. (Santrock, 2002)
⚫ Development involves growth, maintenance, and regulation. Growth, maintenance, and
regulations are three (3) goals of human development. The goals of individuals vary among
developmental stages. For instance, as individuals reach middle and late adulthood, concern with
growth gets into the backstage while maintenance and regulation take the center stage.

⚫ Principles of Growth and Development

1. Growth and Development: Nature or Nurture?
✓ Development is influenced by both heredity (nature) and environment (nurture)
✓ Nature (heredity) is responsible for many of physical characteristics such as hair, and eye color, facial
features, and to some extent the height and weight.
✓ Nurture (environment) can influence a person’s many characteristics
Nature Nurture
Is development due to biology? Is development due to environment?
Stage Continuous
Is developmental change abrupt? Is developmental change gradual?
Universal Culture-Specific
Does development proceed in the same way Are children’s behaviors determined by
everywhere? the situations in which thy currently act?
Traits Situations
Are children’s behaviors consistent from one Is developmental change gradual?
situation to the next?
Active Passive
Do children play important roles in their own Do children play insignificant roles in their own
development? development?
Lasting Effects Transient Effects
Do early experiences have long-tern effects upon Do early experiences have only short- term
development? effects upon development?

2. Cephalocaudal principle- Development proceeds from the head downward. The child gains control
of the head first, then the arms and then the legs. Infants develop control of the head and face
movements at first two months. In next few months, they are able to lift themselves up by using
their arms. Next gain control over leg and able to crawl, stand, walk, run, jump, climb.

3. Proximodistal- Development proceeds from the center of the body outward. This means that the
spinal cord develops before outer parts of the body. The child’s arms develop before the hands and
the hands and feet develop before the fingers and toes.

4. Growth and Development is a continuous process- In the early years of life, development consists
of changes that lead the child to maturity not only of body size, and functioning, but also of behavior
Even after maturity has been at tainted, development does not end. Changes continue which lead to
the period of life known a senescence or old age.

5. Development proceeds from the simple to the more complex- Children use their cognitive and
language skills to reason and solve problems. Example: Learning relationships between things (how
things are similar) or classification, is an important ability in cognitive development.

6. Growth and Development proceed from general to specific- Growth occurs from large muscle
movements to more refined movements to more refined (smaller) muscle movements. Example: the
infant will be able to grasp an object with whole hand before using only the thumb and forefinger.

7. There are individual rates of growth and development- Each child is different and the rates at which
individual children grow are different. Although the patterns and sequences for growth and
development are usually the same for all children, the rates at which individual children reach
developmental stages will be different.

8. Development as a process is complex because it is the product of biological, cognitive and

socio-emotional processes- Development due to genes inherited from parents, such as in height and
weight, brain, heart, and lungs development all point towards the role of biological processes. The
role of cognitive processes relates to mental activities associated with the processes of knowing, and
 experiencing, such as thought, perception, attention, problem solving. Socio emotional processes
refer to changes in an individual’s interaction with other people, changes in emotions, and in
personality.

D. Periods of Development Havighurst’s Developmental Task Theory.

The main assertion of Robert Havighurst is that development is continuous throughout aperson’s
entire lifespan, occurring in stages. A person moves from one stage to the next by means of successful
resolution of problems or performance of certain developmental tasks. These tasks are typically
encountered by most people in the culture where that person belongs.

▪ Infancy and Early Childhood, which lasts from birth to age 5. These are babies who are just learning to
walk and talk and figuring out the world around them.
▪ Middle Childhood lasts from age 6 to age 12. During this time, children become more self-sufficient as
they go to school and make friends.
▪ Adolescence, which lasts from age 13 to age 18, comes with hormonal changes and learning about who
you are as an individual.
▪ Early Adulthood lasts from age 19 to age 30 and involves finding an occupation and often finding a life
partner as well.
▪ Middle Age lasts from age 30 to age 60 and is the time when most people start a family and settle into
their adult lives.
▪ Later Maturity is the time of life after age 60. During this time, people adjust to life after work and begin
to prepare themselves for death.

E. Domains of Development
▪ Biological/Physical Domain. This is defined as the biological change that occur in the body and brain,
including changes in size and strength, integration of sensory and motor activities, and development of
fine and gross motor skills.
▪ Cognitive Domain. This is defined as the changes in the way we think, understand, and reason about the
world.
▪ Socio-emotional Domain. This includes a child's growing understanding and control of their emotions.
They also begin to identify what others are feeling, develop the ability to cooperate,
show empathy, and use moral reasoning.

F. Issues on Human Development

Both genes and environment are necessary for a person even to exist. Without genes, there is no
person; without environment, there is no person (Scarr and Weinberg, 1980, quoted by Santrock, 2002).
Heredity and environment operate together or cooperate and interact – to produce a person’s
intelligence, temperament, height, weight, ability to read, and so on.
If heredity and environment interact, which one has a greater influence orcontribution, heredity, or
environment? The relative contributions of heredity and environment are not additive. So, we can’t say
50% is a contribution of heredity and 50% of environment. Neither is it correct to say that full
genetic expression happens once, around conception or birth, after which we take our genetic legacy into
the world to see how far it gets us. Genes produce proteins throughout the life span, in many different
environments. Or they do not produce these proteins, depending on how harsh or nourishing those
environments are (Santrock, 2002).
 COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

COGNITION vs INTELLIGENCE
In brief, cognition and intelligence are two intertwined concepts. Cognition is the mental process of
acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses. At the same time,
intelligence is the ability to learn or understand things quickly and to deal with new or
difficult situations. Therefore, this is the main difference between cognition and intelligence (Hasa, 2020).
Three Cognitive Theories
1. Piaget’s developmental theory (1936)
Schema
• Refers to the cognitive structures by which individuals intellectually adapt to and organize their
environment.
• An individual’s way to understand or create meaning about a thing or experience.
• Describes both the mental and physical actions involved in understanding and knowing.
• Are categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and understand the world.
Assimilation
• The process of integrating new information or a new experience into an existing cognitive structure or
schema.
• Occurs when a learner encounters a new idea, and must ‘fit’ that idea into what they already know.
Accommodation
• The process of creating a new schema
• Involves any modification of an existing scheme or formation of a new cognitive structure when it is
not possible to fit information into an existing structure.
Equilibration
• A process of maintaining a cognitive balance between our existing knowledge and new experiences.
• It is achieving proper balance between assimilation and accommodation.

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Stage 1. Sensori-motor Stage
• Begins at birth and lasts until 2 years of age
• Involves the use of motor activity without the use of symbols.
• The stage when a child who is initially reflexive in grasping, sucking and reaching becomes more
organized in his movement and activity.
• Knowledge is limited in this stage, because it is based on physical interactions and experiences.
• Intelligence is external and behavioral, with infants constructing knowledge from sensory perceptions
and motor actions (Brained, 2003)
• Early language development begins during this stage.
Object permanence. This is the ability of the child to know that an object still exists even
when out of sight. This ability is attained in the sensory motor stage. This occurs at 7 – 9
months, demonstrating that memory is developing. Infants realize that an object exists after it can no
longer be seen.

Stage 2. Pre-operational Stage

• Usually occurs during the period between toddler hood (2 years) and early childhood (7 years).
• Children develop semiotic (or symbolic) functions.
• Children engage in make believe, make mental representations, and can understand and express
relationships between the past and the future.
• Intelligence is egocentric and intuitive, not logical.
• The term preoperational indicates that children are unable to engage in operations that involve
two-way thinking, a characteristic of the next stage. Their operations are limited to one-way thinking
(Piaget, 1970).
Symbolic Function. This is the ability to represent objects, events or action with
signs and symbols such as language, imagery, drawing, symbolic games, and deferred imitation (mentally
storing an action and reproducing it later). A symbol is a thing that represents something else. Symbolic
function gradually develops in the period between 2 to 7 years.
• Egocentric. This is the tendency of the child to only see his point of view and to
assume that everyone also has his same point of view. The child cannot take the perspective of others.
Preoperational children typically engage in egocentric speech, talking aloud about things that interest
them without regard for the interests and conversational contributions of the listener.
• Centration. This refers to the tendency of the child to only focus on one aspect of a thing or event and
exclude other aspects. This is also the inability to focus on two dimensions simultaneously.
• Irreversibility. Pre-operational children still have the inability to reverse their thinking. They can
understand that 2 + 3 is 5, but cannot understand that 5 - 3 is 2.
• Animism. This is the tendency of children to attribute human like traits or characteristics to inanimate
objects. When at night, the child is asked, where the sun is, she will reply, “Mr. Sun is asleep”.
• Transductive reasoning. This refers to the pre-operational child’s type of reasoning that is neither
inductive or deductive.

Stage 3. Concrete-Operational Stage

• Typically develops between the ages of 8 - 11 years or the elementary school years.
• Characterized by the ability of the child to think logically but only in terms of concrete objects.
• Intellectual development is demonstrated through the use of logical and systematic manipulation of
symbols, which are related to concrete objects.
• Thinking becomes less egocentric with increased awareness of external events, and involves concrete
references.
• Decentering. This refers to the ability of the child to perceive the different features of objects and
situations. No longer is the child focused or limited to one aspect or dimension. This allows the child to be
more logical when dealing with concrete objects and situations.
• Reversibility. This refers to the ability to recognize that numbers or objects can be changed and
returned to their original condition.
• Conservation. This is the ability to know that certain properties of objects like number, mass, volume, or
area do not change even if there is a change in appearance. This involves exposure to
situations that require the ability to mentally manipulate objects.
• Seriation. This refers to the ability to order or arrange things in a series based on one dimension such as
weight, volume or size.

Stage 4. Formal Operational Stage

• Covering ages between 12 and 15 years where thinking becomes more logical
• Characterized by the ability to formulate hypotheses and systematically test them to arrive at an answer
to a problem
• Hypothetical Reasoning. This is the ability to come up with different hypothesis about a problem and to
gather and weigh data to make a final decision or judgment. This can be done in the absence of concrete
objects. The individuals can now deal with “What if” questions.
• Analogical Reasoning. This is the ability to perceive the relationship in one instance and then use that
relationship to narrow down possible answers in another similar situation or problem. The individual in
the formal operations stage can make an analogy.
• Deductive Reasoning. This is the ability to think logically by applying a general rule to a particular
instance or situation.
Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory
PIAGET VYGOTSKY
More individual in focus More social in focus
Believed that there are universal stages of Did not propose stages but emphasized factors in
cognitive development cognitive development
Did not give much emphasis of language Stressed the role of language in cognitive
development

Vygotsky’s Socio-Cultural Theory

Cultural factors. Vygotsky believed in the crucial role that culture played on the cognitive development of
children. Piaget believed that as the child develops and matures, he goes through universal stages of
cognitive development that allows him to move from simple explorations with senses and muscles to
complex reasoning. Vygotsky, on the other hand,
investigated the wide range of experiences that a culture would give to a child. For instance, one culture’s
view about education, how children are trained early in life all can contribute to the cognitive
development of the child.
Language
• opens the door for learners to acquire knowledge that others already have
• serves a social function but it also has an important individual function
• helps the learner regulate and reflect on his own thinking For Vygotsky, this “talking-to-oneself” is an
indication of the thinking that goes on in the mind of the child which will eventually lead to private speech.
Private speech is a form of self-talk that guides the child’s thinking and action.
Zone of Proximal Development
• represents a learning opportunity where a knowledgeable adult such as a teacher or parent or a more
advanced peer can assist the child’s development
Zone of Actual Development
• When a child attempts to perform a skill alone in which she may not be immediately proficient at it, but
she may perform at a certain level of competency.
More Knowledgeable Other (MKO)
• a competent adult or a more advanced peer who can guide the child to perform at a higher level of
competency
Scaffolding
• The support or assistance that lets the child accomplish a task he cannot accomplish independently.
• This should involve the judicious assistance given by the adult or peer so that the child can move from
the zone of actual to the zone of proximal development.

1. Concept of Intelligence (Binet)

• Alfred Binet developed the first widely used intelligence test. He developed an instrument that could
Identity school kids that needed remedial studies.
First IQ test
• First intelligence test,became basis for the intelligence test still in use today Stanford Binet Intelligence
test
• Publishes in 1916 and became the standard IT used in the US
• Only used a single number to represent am individuals score on the test
2. General Intelligence (Spearman)
• also known as a G factor
• refers to the existence of a broad mental capacity that Influences performance on cognitive ability
measure
• this general mental ability underlies multiple specific skills including verbal, spatial, numerical and
mechanical
COMPONENTS OF GENERAL INTELLIGENCE
✓ Fluid Reasoning
✓ Knowledge
✓ Quantitative Reasoning
✓ Visual- Spatial Processing
✓ Working Memory
3. Primary Mental Abilities (Thurstone)
LOUIS LEON THURSTONE
• challenged the concept of G factor
• identified a number of primary mental abilities that comprise intelligence
THE 7 PRIMARY MENTAL ABILITIES IN THURSTONE MODEL
1) Word fluency
2) Verbal comprehension
3) Numerical ability
4) Spatial visualization
5) Perceptial speed
6) Memory
7) Inductive reasoning
4. Multiple Intelligences (Gardner)
Howard Gardner – known for his theory of multiple intelligences
THEORY OF MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES
• suggests human intelligence can be differentiated into eight modalities: visual-spatial, verbal-linguistic,
musical-rhythmic, logical-mathematical, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic
and bodily-kinesthetic
• challenged the traditional notion that there is one single type of intelligence, sometimes known as “g”
for general intelligence, that only focuses on cognitive abilities
Major Characteristics of Each Type of Intelligence
VISUAL-SPATIAL INTELLIGENCE:
• People who are strong in visual-spatial intelligence are good at visualizing things. These individuals are
often good with directions as well as maps, charts, videos, and pictures.
LINGUISTIC-VERBAL INTELLIGENCE:
• People who are strong in linguistic-verbal intelligence are able to use words well, both when writing and
speaking. These individuals are typically very good at writing stories, memorizing information, and
reading.
LOGICAL-MATHEMATICAL INTELLIGENCE:
• People who are strong in logical-mathematical intelligence are good at reasoning, recognizing patterns,
and logically analyzing problems. These individuals tend to think
conceptually about numbers, relationships, and patterns.
BODILY-KINESTHETIC INTELLIGENCE:
• Those who have high bodily-kinesthetic intelligence are said to be good at body movement, performing
actions, and physical control. People who are strong in this area tend to have excellent hand-eye
coordination and dexterity.
MUSICAL INTELLIGENCE:
• People who have strong musical intelligence are good at thinking in patterns, rhythms, and sounds. They
have a strong appreciation for music and are often good at musical composition and performance.
INTERPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE:
• Those who have strong interpersonal intelligence are good at understanding and interacting with other
people. These individuals are skilled at assessing the emotions, motivations, desires, and intentions of
those around them.
INTRAPERSONAL INTELLIGENCE:
• Individuals who are strong in intrapersonal intelligence are good at being aware of their own emotional
states, feelings, and motivations. They tend to enjoy self-reflection and analysis, including daydreaming,
exploring relationships with others, and assessing their personal strengths.
NATURALISTIC INTELLIGENCE:
• Naturalistic is the most recent addition to Gardner’s theory and has been met with more resistance than
his original seven intelligence. According to Gardner, individuals who are high in this type of intelligence
are more in tune with nature and are often interested in nurturing, exploring the environment, and
learning about other species. These individuals are said to be highly aware of even subtle changes to their
environments.

5. Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (Sternberg)

• Robert Sternberg proposed a three-category theory of intelligence, integrating components that were
lacking in Gardner’s theory. This theory is based on the definition of intelligence as the ability to achieve
success based on your personal standards and your sociocultural context.
• According to the triarchic theory, intelligence has three aspects: analytical, creative, and practical
(Sternberg, 1985).
ANALYTICAL INTELLIGENCE
• referred to as componential intelligence
• refers to intelligence that is applied to analyze or evaluate problems and arrive at solutions. This is what
a traditional IQ test measure.
CREATIVE INTELLIGENCE
• the ability to go beyond what is given to create novel and interesting ideas
• involves imagination, innovation and problem-solving
• the ability to adapt to new situations and create new ideas
PRACTICAL INTELLIGENCE
• the ability that individuals use to solve problems faced in daily life, when a person finds the best fit
between themselves and the demands of the environment. Adapting to the demands environment
involves either utilizing knowledge gained from experience to purposefully change oneself to suit
the environment (adaptation), changing the environment to suit oneself (shaping), or finding a new
environment in which to work (selection)
• the ability to demonstrate common sense and street- smarts

6. Cognitive Information Processing Theory (Atkinson and Shiffrin)

Information Processing is how individuals perceive, analyze, manipulate, use, and remember
information. This approach proposes that cognitive development is ongoing and gradual, not organized
into distinct stages.
The areas of basic cognitive changes generally occur in five
areas:
• Attention
• Memory
• Processing Speed
• Organization of Thinking
• Metacognition
Attention.
✓ Improvements are seen in selective attention (the process by which one focuses on one stimulus
while tuning out another), as well as divided attention (the ability to pay attention to two or more
stimuli at the same time).
Memory.
✓ Improvements are seen in working memory and long-term memory.
Processing Speed.
✓ With maturation, children think more quickly. Processing speed improves sharply between age five
and middle adolescence, levels off around age 15, and does not appear to change between late
adolescence and adulthood.
Organization of Thinking
✓ As children mature, they are more planful, they approach problems with strategy, and are flexible in
using different strategies in different situations.
Metacognition
✓ Older children can think about thinking itself. This often involves monitoring one’s own cognitive
activity during the thinking process. Metacognition provides the ability to plan ahead, see the future
consequences of an action, and provide alternative explanations of events.
ATTENTION:
Selective attention. The ability to focus on a single task or
stimulus while ignoring distracting information. Sharp
improvement in selective attention from age 6 to adolescence
Sustained attention. the ability to stay on task for long periods
Divided attention or multitasking. The ability to switch our focus
between tasks or external stimuli. Improves into adolescence
Memory
✓ is an information processing system; therefore, we often
compare it to a computer
✓ a set of processes used to encode, store, and retrieve
information over different periods of time.
Atkinson-Shiffrin model:
✓ Also known as the multi-store model or modal model
✓ A model of memory proposed in 1968 by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin
Atkinson-Shiffrin (A-S) or three-box model:
✓ A model of human memory which is based on the belief that we process memories in the same way
that a computer processes information.

Encoding Storage Retrieval

Encoding involves the input of information into the memory system. This occurs through automatic
processing and effortful processing.
Automatic processing. The encoding of details like time, space, frequency, and the meaning of words.
Usually done without any conscious awareness
Effortful processing. Requires a lot of work and attention in order to encode the information
THREE TYPES OF ENCODING:
Semantic encoding:
• The encoding of words and their meaning
Visual encoding:
•The encoding of images
Acoustic encoding:
• The encoding of sounds, words in particular.

Storage is the retention of encoded information. It is also the creation of a permanent record of
information. For a memory to go into storage (long-term memory), it has to pass through three distinct
stages (first proposed by Richard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin in 1968):
1. Sensory Memory
• Duration: 1⁄4 to 1⁄2 second
• Capacity: all sensory experience (larger capacity)
• Encoding: sense specific
• Storage of brief sensory events such as sights, sounds and tastes
• Can hold visual information for about half of a second and auditory information for a few seconds
2. Short-term Memory
• Duration: 0-18 seconds
• Capacity: 7+/-2 items
• Encoding: mainly auditory
• Also called working memory because this is the system where the “work” of memory happens
• A temporary storage system that processes incoming sensory memory
• The bridge between information taken in through sensory memory and the more permanent storage of
information in long-term memory
• Information is lost through displacement or decay
Maintenance rehearsal is the process of verbally or mentally repeating information which allows the
duration of short-term memory to be extended beyond 30 seconds. This type of rehearsal usually involves
repeating information without thinking about its meaning or connecting it to other information.
Continual rehearsal “regenerates” or “renews” the information in the memory trace, thus making it a
stronger memory when transferred to the Long-Term store. If maintenance rehearsal (repetition) does
not occur, then information is forgotten, and lost from short term memory through the processes of
displacement or decay.

3. Long-term Memory
• Duration: Unlimited
• Capacity: Unlimited
• Encoding: Mainly Semantic (but can be visual and auditory)
• The continuous storage of information
• Information can be recalled from LTM back into the STM when it isneeded
• If the information is given meaning (elaborative rehearsal) it is passed on to the LTM.
Elaborative rehearsal involves the process of linking new information in
a meaningful way with information already stored in long-term
memory. It is a deeper level of information-processing.
TWO TYPES OF LONG-TERM MEMORY:
Explicit Memories
✓ Also called declarative memories.
✓ Are those we consciously try to remember and recall.
✓ Include episodic (experienced events) and semantic memory (knowledge and concepts)
Implicit Memories
✓ Also called non-declarative memories.
✓ Memories that are not part of our consciousness.
✓ Memories formed from behaviors.
✓ Include procedural memory (skills and actions) and things learned through conditioning (emotional
conditioning)
Retrieval is the act of getting information out of memory storage and back into conscious awareness. Has
three ways to retrieve information from long-term memory storage systems: recall, recognition &
relearning
Recall means you can access information without cues.
Recognition happens when you identify information that you have previously learned after
re-encountering it. It involves a process of comparison.
Relearning involves learning information that you previously learned.

Factors Affecting Cognitive Development

1. Nutrition- Major nutritional risk factors for poor child development:
• Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR)- Refers to the poor growth of a baby while in the mother's womb
during pregnancy. Low birthweight, a proxy for IUGR, is associated with poor cognitive development.
• Stunting- Stunting at age two or three has been associated with school attainment, dropout, and later
life cognitive deficits.
• Iodine deficiency- This is the main cause of preventable mental impairment in childhood. Severe iodine
deficiency during pregnancy can lead to cretinism; however, even sub-clinical deficiencies are
associated with intellectual impairment and neurological abnormalities.
• Iron-deficiency anemia- Iron is essential for both mental and physical development. Iron-deficiency
anemia may result in impaired motor development, coordination, and scholastic achievement in
young children.
2. Environment
Major Environmental Risk Factors for Poor Child Development:
• Malaria- In severe of cerebral malaria, organisms can directly damage the brain and central nervous
system, causing neurological impairment. Malaria infection can indirectly lead to poor child development
outcomes through poor nutrition, decreased exploration of the environment, and
decreased physical activity.
• Lead exposure- Lead is a neurotoxin which has been associated with decreased intelligence and
impaired neurobehavioral development. Even at levels below those considered toxic, lead exposure is
associated with 2-5 point decreases in IQ.
• HIV- HIV-affected children are at increased risk for poor health and development outcomes. Two
systematic reviews found delays in all domains of cognitive development in both children infected with
HIV and those affected by HIV. The WHO recommends ARV for pregnant women with HIV to reduce
mother-to-child-transmission (MTCT). Without treatment, approximately a third of infants born to
HIV-infected mothers will be infected during pregnancy, birth, or breastfeeding.

3. Maternal-child interactions
Poor maternal mental health is associated with poor child growth and development. It is thought
that depressed women interact differently with their children than mothers without depression, leading
to poorer cognitive, social-emotional, and behavioral outcomes. A 2006 systematic review of studies from
41 countries worldwide found the reported prevalence of post-partum depression (PPD) ranged from 0%
to more than 73%. Interventions to address PPD include antidepressants, psychotherapy, support, or a
combination of these treatments.

Maternal education is associated with higher child development. Better-educated women are more likely
to delay pregnancy until after adolescence, leading to better birth and early life outcomes in their
offspring; conversely, children of young mothers are more likely to suffer from low birthweight,
under-nutrition, and poor physical and cognitive development

Language Development
• Language is described as a tool which helps in the transmission of feelings and thoughts, from one
person to another.
• Communication is described as an act of interchanging ideas, information or message from one person
or place to another, via words or signs which are understood to both the parties.
• Communication involves both speech and language. Speech is the verbal means of communication, and
language is using shared rules to put words together to express thoughts and feelings.

WHAT IS LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT?

• Language development is the process by which children come to understand and communicate
language during early childhood.
• In general, girls develop language faster than boys.
• Language development reflects the growth and maturation of the brain.

WHAT IS RECEPTIVE LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT?

• is the ability to comprehend language.
• It usually develops faster than expressive language (the ability to communicate).

TWO DIFFERENT STYLES OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

• Referential language development: Children first speak single words and then join words together, first
into two-word sentences and then into three-word sentences.
• Expressive language development: Children first speak in long unintelligible babbles that mimic the
cadence and rhythm of adult speech.

FOUR MAIN COMPONENTS OF LANGUAGE

• Phonology involves the rules about the structure and sequence of speech sounds.
• Semantics consists of vocabulary and how concepts are expressed through words.
• Grammar involves two parts. The first, syntax, is the rules in which words are arranged into sentences.
The second, morphology, is the use of grammatical markers (indicating tense, active or passive voice,
etc.).
• Pragmatics involves the rules for appropriate and effective communication. Pragmatics involves three
skills: using language for greeting, demanding, etc. changing language for talking differently
depending on who it is you’re talking to following rules such as turn-taking and staying on topic

COMMON PROBLEMS OF LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

• Language delay is the most common developmental delay in children. About 60% of language delays in
children under age three resolve spontaneously.

COMMON CIRCUMSTANCES THAT CAN RESULT IN LANGUAGE DELAY

• Concentration on developing skills other than language.
• Siblings who are very close in age or older siblings who interpret for the younger child.
• Inadequate language stimulation and one-on-one attention.
• Bilingualism, in which a child’s combined comprehension of two languages usually is equivalent to other
children’s comprehension of one language.
• Psychosocial deprivation

LANGUAGE DELAY CAN RESULT FROM A VARIETY OF PHYSICAL DISORDERS

• Mental retardation
• Maturation delay (the slower-than-usual development of the speech centers of the brain), a common
cause of late talking
• A hearing impairment
• A learning disability
• Cerebral palsy
• Autism (a developmental disorder in which, among other things, children do not use language or use it
abnormally)
• Congenital blindness, even in the absence of other neurological impairment
• Klinefelter syndrome, a disorder in which males are born with an extra X chromosome

PARENTAL CONCERNS
• Language development is enriched by verbal interactions with other children and adults. Parents and
care-givers can have a significant impact on early language development. Studies have shown that
children of talkative parents have twice the vocabulary as those of quiet parents. A study from the
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development (NICHD) found that children in high-quality
childcare environments have larger vocabularies and more complex language skills than
children in lower-quality situations. Language-based interactions appear to increase a child’s capacity to
learn.

Eight Main Factors Influencing Language Development of a Child

(1) General Health and Physical Status
✓ Severe and prolonged illness and poor health particularly during the first two years of life retards
the development of speech undoubtedly. Due to illness the child is separated from others and hence
cannot learn to speak.
(2) Intelligence and Cognitive Development
✓ Mentally alert young children usually talk early. They also understand or comprehend early what is
communicated to them through language.
(3) Learning and Maturation
✓ The interaction of these factors is crucial in determining the language development of the child. With
the increase in age the vocal cord of the child matures, and his learning also increases. By the
interaction of these two factors, language develops.
(4) Environment
✓ Favorable and stimulating environmental conditions improve the development of early speech and
unfavorable environment retards it. It has been observed that orphans adopted in foster homes
have better language development than orphans staying in institutions or orphanages having
unstimulating environments.
(5) Sex
✓ During the first of life effect of gender is not observed in language development i.e., boys and girls
show similar development in language. But from second year, girls show better speech development
than boys; girls show greater mastery of speech sounds and talk fluently than boys.
(6) Relationship with Family Members
✓ The relationship of the child with his family members has lasting and enduring effect on his speech
development. Excessive love and over protection of parents on the one hand and faulty child rearing
practices, careless handling of the child, lack of proper parenting, continued and constant tension
between parents and children, particularly mother and children lead to tension, anxiety and
emotional problems.
(7) Number of Family Members
✓ Some view that in a single child family, the language of the child well-developed, polished and free of
mistakes compared to a family with large number of children, where, because of competition, there
is more conflict and defects in language development are observed. But another group of
Psychologists argue that when there are large number of children in a family, the children get a
chance to talk with each other which facilities their language development.
(8) Bilingualism
✓ By learning two languages before school going age, it becomes difficult for the child for adjustment.
His language development is retarded for the simple reason that it creates confusion in the small
baby and his thinking power is affected. Defects in sentence construction and comprehension is also
observed.