488 Chapter 19/Sheet Metalworking

FIGURE 19.10
(a) Shaving, and (b) fine
blanking. Symbols: v ⫽
motion of punch, Fh ⫽
blank holding force.

Trimming, Shaving, and Fine Blanking Trimming is a cutting operation per-

formed on a formed part to remove excess metal and establish size. The term has
the same basic meaning here as in forging (Section 18.4). A typical example in sheet
metalwork is trimming the upper portion of a deep drawn cup to leave the desired
dimensions on the cup.
Shaving is a shearing operation performed with very small clearance to obtain
accurate dimensions and cut edges that are smooth and straight, as pictured in Fig-
ure 19.10(a). Shaving is typically performed as a secondary or finishing operation on
parts that have been previously cut.
Fine blanking is a shearing operation used to blank sheet-metal parts with close
tolerances and smooth, straight edges in one step, as illustrated in Figure 19.10(b).
At the start of the cycle, a pressure pad with a V-shaped projection applies a holding
force Fh against the work adjacent to the punch in order to compress the metal and
prevent distortion. The punch then descends with a slower-than-normal velocity and
smaller clearances to provide the desired dimensions and cut edges. The process is
usually reserved for relatively small stock thicknesses.

19.2 Bending Operations

Bending in sheet-metal work is defined as the straining of the metal around a straight
axis, as in Figure 19.11. During the bending operation, the metal on the inside of the neu-
tral plane is compressed, while the metal on the outside of the neutral plane is stretched.
These strain conditions can be seen in Figure 19.11(b). The metal is plastically deformed

w Metal stretched
Neutral axis
plane Neutral axis
R t
α
Metal compressed
α′
FIGURE 19.11 Bend axis
(a) Bending of sheet metal;
(b) both compression and
tensile elongation of the
metal occur in bending. (a) (b)

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 Section 19.2/Bending Operations 489

FIGURE 19.12 Two common bending methods: (a) V-bending and (b) edge bending; (1) before and (2) after bending.
Symbols: v ⫽ motion, F ⫽ applied bending force, Fh ⫽ blank

so that the bend takes a permanent set upon removal of the stresses that caused it.
Bending produces little or no change in the thickness of the sheet metal.

19.2.1 V-BENDING AND EDGE BENDING

Bending operations are performed using punch and die tooling. The two common
bending methods and associated tooling are V-bending, performed with a V-die;
and edge bending, performed with a wiping die. These methods are illustrated in
Figure 19.12.
In V-bending, the sheet metal is bent between a V-shaped punch and die. Included
angles ranging from very obtuse to very acute can be made with V-dies. V-bending is
generally used for low-production operations. It is often performed on a press brake
(Section 19.5.2), and the associated V-dies are relatively simple and inexpensive.
Edge bending involves cantilever loading of the sheet metal. A pressure pad is
used to apply a force Fh to hold the base of the part against the die, while the punch
forces the part to yield and bend over the edge of the die. In the setup shown in
Figure 19.12(b), edge bending is limited to bends of 90° or less. More complicated
wiping dies can be designed for bend angles greater than 90°. Because of the pres-
sure pad, wiping dies are more complicated and costly than V-dies and are generally
used for high-production work.

19.2.2 ENGINEERING ANALYSIS OF BENDING

Some of the important terms in sheet-metal bending are identified in Figure 19.11.
The metal of thickness t is bent through an angle called the bend angle a. This results
in a sheet-metal part with an included angle a⬘, where a ⫹ a⬘ ⫽ 180°. The bend ra-
dius R is normally specified on the inside of the part, rather than at the neutral axis,
and is determined by the radius on the tooling used to perform the operation. The
bend is made over the width of the workpiece w.

Bend Allowance If the bend radius is small relative to stock thickness, the metal
tends to stretch during bending. It is important to be able to estimate the amount
of stretching that occurs, if any, so that the final part length will match the specified

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490 Chapter 19/Sheet Metalworking

dimension. The problem is to determine the length of the neutral axis before bend-
ing to account for stretching of the final bent section. This length is called the bend
allowance, and it can be estimated as follows:
a (R ⫹ K t)
Ab ⫽ 2p ____ (19.6)
ba
360
where Ab ⫽ bend allowance, mm (in); a ⫽ bend angle, degrees; R ⫽ bend radius,
mm (in); t ⫽ stock thickness, mm (in); and Kba is factor to estimate stretching. The
following design values are recommended for Kba [3]: if R ⬍2t, Kba ⫽ 0.33; and if R ⱖ
2t, Kba ⫽ 0.50. The values of Kba predict that stretching occurs only if bend radius is
small relative to sheet thickness.

Springback When the bending pressure is removed at the end of the deforma-
tion operation, elastic energy remains in the bent part, causing it to recover par-
tially toward its original shape. This elastic recovery is called springback, defined
as the increase in included angle of the bent part relative to the included angle of
the forming tool after the tool is removed. This is illustrated in Figure 19.13 and is
expressed:
a⬘ ⫺ a⬘
SB ⫽ ________b (19.7)
a⬘b
where SB ⫽ springback; a⬘ ⫽ included angle of the sheet-metal part, degrees; and
a⬘b ⫽ included angle of the bending tool, degrees. Although not as obvious, an in-
crease in the bend radius also occurs due to elastic recovery. The amount of spring-
back increases with modulus of elasticity E and yield strength Y of the work metal.
Compensation for springback can be accomplished by several methods. Two com-
mon methods are overbending and bottoming. In overbending, the punch angle and
radius are fabricated slightly smaller than the specified angle on the final part so that
the sheet metal springs back to the desired value. Bottoming involves squeezing the
part at the end of the stroke, thus plastically deforming it in the bend region.

FIGURE 19.13 Springback in bending shows itself as a decrease in bend angle and an
increase in bend radius: (1) during the operation, the work is forced to take the radius
Rt and included angle a⬘b ⫽ determined by the bending tool (punch in V-bending); (2) after
the punch is removed, the work springs back to radius R and included angle a⬘. Symbol:
F ⫽ applied bending force.

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 Section 19.2/Bending Operations 491

FIGURE 19.14 Die opening

dimension D: (a) V-die, (b) wiping die.

Bending Force The force required to perform bending depends on the geometry
of the punch-and-die and the strength, thickness, and length of the sheet metal. The
maximum bending force can be estimated by means of the following equation:
Kbf (TS) wt2
F ⫽ ___________ (19.8)
D
where F ⫽ bending force, N (lb); TS ⫽ tensile strength of the sheet metal, MPa
(lb/in2); w ⫽ width of part in the direction of the bend axis, mm (in); t ⫽ stock
thickness, mm (in); and D ⫽ die opening dimension as defined in Figure 19.14,
mm (in). Equation (19.8) is based on bending of a simple beam in mechanics, and
Kbf is a constant that accounts for differences encountered in an actual bending
process. Its value depends on type of bending: for V-bending, Kbf ⫽ 1.33; and for
edge bending, Kbf ⫽ 0.33.

Example 19.2 A sheet-metal blank is to be bent as shown in Figure 19.15. The metal has a
Sheet-metal modulus of elasticity ⫽ 205 (103) MPa, yield strength ⫽ 275 MPa, and tensile
strength ⫽ 450 MPa. Determine (a) the starting blank size and (b) the bending
bending force if a V-die is used with a die opening dimension ⫽ 25 mm.
Solution: (a) The starting blank ⫽ 44.5 mm wide. Its length ⫽ 38 ⫹ Ab ⫹ 25
(mm). For the included angle a⬘ ⫽ 120°, the bend angle a ⫽ 60°. The value of
Kba in Equation (19.6) ⫽ 0.33 since R/t ⫽ 4.75/3.2 ⫽ 1.48 (less than 2.0).

Ab ⫽ 2p____
60 (4.75 ⫹ 0.33 ⫻ 3.2) ⫽ 6.08 mm
360
Length of the blank is therefore 38 ⫹ 6.08 ⫹ 25 ⫽ 69.08 mm.
(b) Force is obtained from Equation (19.8) using Kbf ⫽ 1.33.
1.33(450)(44.5)(3.2)2
F ⫽ __________________⫽ 10,909 N
25

38 w = 44.5
25

t = 3.2 R = 4.75
FIGURE 19.15 Sheet-metal 120°
part of Example 19.2 (dimensions
in mm). (Side view) (End view)

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492 Chapter 19/Sheet Metalworking

FIGURE 19.16 Flanging: (a) straight flanging, (b) stretch flanging, and (c) shrink flanging.

19.2.3 OTHER BENDING AND FORMING OPERATIONS

Some sheet-metal operations involve bending over a curved axis rather than a
straight axis, or they have other features that differentiate them from the bending
operations described above.

Flanging, Hemming, Seaming, and Curling Flanging is a bending operation in

which the edge of a sheet-metal part is bent at a 90° angle (usually) to form a rim or
flange. It is often used to strengthen or stiffen sheet metal. The flange can be formed
over a straight bend axis, as illustrated in Figure 19.16(a), or it can involve some
stretching or shrinking of the metal, as in (b) and (c).
Hemming involves bending the edge of the sheet over on itself, in more than one
bending step. This is often done to eliminate the sharp edge on the piece, to increase
stiffness, and to improve appearance. Seaming is a related operation in which two
sheet-metal edges are assembled. Hemming and seaming are illustrated in Figure
19.17(a) and (b).
Curling, also called beading, forms the edges of the part into a roll or curl, as in
Figure 19.17(c). As in hemming, it is done for purposes of safety, strength, and aes-
thetics. Examples of products in which curling is used include hinges, pots and pans,
and pocket-watch cases. These examples show that curling can be performed over
straight or curved bend axes.

Miscellaneous Bending Operations Various other bending operations are de-

picted in Figure 19.18 to illustrate the variety of shapes that can be bent. Most of
these operations are performed in relatively simple dies similar to V-dies.

FIGURE 19.17 (a) Hemming, (b) seaming, and (c) curling.

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 Section 19.3/Drawing 493

FIGURE 19.18 Miscellaneous bending operations: (a) channel bending, (b) U-bending,
(c) air bending, (d) offset bending, (e) corrugating, and (f) tube forming. Symbol: F ⫽
applied force.

19.3 Drawing
Drawing is a sheet-metal-forming operation used to make cup-shaped, box-shaped,
or other complex-curved and concave parts. It is performed by placing a piece of
sheet metal over a die cavity and then pushing the metal into the opening with a
punch, as in Figure 19.19. The blank must usually be held down flat against the die by
a blankholder. Common parts made by drawing include beverage cans, ammunition
shells, sinks, cooking pots, and automobile body panels.

19.3.1 MECHANICS OF DRAWING

Drawing of a cup-shaped part is the basic drawing operation, with dimensions and
parameters as pictured in Figure 19.19. A blank of diameter Db is drawn into a die cav-
ity by means of a punch with diameter Dp. The punch and die must have corner radii,
given by Rp and Rd. If the punch and die were to have sharp corners (Rp and Rd ⫽ 0),
a hole-punching operation (and not a very good one) would be accomplished rather
than a drawing operation. The sides of the punch and die are separated by a clearance c.
This clearance in drawing is about 10% greater than the stock thickness:

c ⫽ 1.1 t (19.9)

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