DTU

Bioenergy: A sustainable Energy Option for

Rural India
METTARY RAJENDRA VIVEK*1
Energy and Wetlands Research Group, Centre for Ecological Sciences,DELHI TECHNOLOGICAL UNIVERSITY ,
DELHI, 110042, India, http://ces.iisc.ernet.in/energy

DONE UNDER SIR. MR.KESARI ,DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING.

Abstract Keywords
Rural population of India depends on bio-energy for Total Primary Energy Supply (TPES); Bio-energy; Bioenergy
cooking, space and water heating. Though most of the Technologies (BETs); Agricultural and Horticultural Residues;
energy needs in India is harvested from fossil fuels, 70% of Forest Residues; Sustainable Rural Energy Supply
the rural population depends on the bio-energy for their
domestic usage in the country. About 70% of the Indian Introduction
population lives in rural area where 75% of the primary
energy need is supplied by bio-energy resources. Also, about Energy is the fundamental need of human beings with
22% of the urban households depend on firewood, 22% on air, water, shelter and food (energy). In ancient time
kerosene and 44% on LPG for cooking in India. Bio-energy energy used by human was about 2,500 kJ per day.
resources are renewable in nature and combustion would After the invention of fire and other energy harvesting
not produce poisonous gases and ash with sufficient oxygen methods from sun, water and wind, energy usage has
supply. A village level study on the present scenario of been increased to 30,000 kJ per day. At present,
domestic energy consumption will help to assess the
energy used by humans is more than 2 lakh kJ every
demand and supply of bio-energy in the country. Uttara
day. As the energy demand has increased, exploitation
Kannada district in Karnataka state, India is chosen for bio-
energy assessment which has evergreen as well as moist and of resources to produce energy is also increased where
dry deciduous forest, where the majority of the people live the fossil fuels hold the major share in generating
in rural area or in semi urban area, mostly dependent on energy. In India, more than 68% of the total primary
forest, agricultural and livestock residues for domestic energy supply (TPES) is supplied from non-renewable
energy need. energy sources (coal, crude oil or natural gas) and
Bioresource availability is computed based on the
around 18% is from hydro resources. Only about 12%
compilation of data on the area and productivity of of the energy basket is supplied by renewable energy
agriculture and horticulture crops, forests and plantations. sources which include solar, wind, geothermal, tidal,
Sector-wise energy demand is computed based on the etc. Though most of the energy need is harvested from
National Sample Survey Organisation (NSSO study) data, fossil fuels, 70% of the rural population depends on
primary survey data and from the literature. The ratio of the bio energy for their domestic usage in the country.
bioresource availability to demand gives the bioresource
status. The ratio greater than one indicates bioresource Bio-energy refers to the energy released when organic
surplus zones, while a ratio less than one indicates scarcity. carbon reacts with oxygen. This energy may be
harvested from plants or animals which are also called
The supply/demand ratio in the district ranges from less
as biomass. During the process of photosynthesis
than 0.5 to more than 2. If the ratio is less than 1 (demand
some energy will be trapped and stored in the form of
more than supply) then that is fuel wood deficit place and
where the ratio is more than 1 (supply more than demand) organic carbon in plants from which energy can be
then it is referred to as fuel wood surplus region. In Uttara extracted through burning. Biomass is the most
Kannada, most of the Taluks with ever green forest cover are processed energy form of carbon and used as primary
fuel wood surplus regions where the supply/demand ratio is energy which can substitute the non-renewable energy
currently more than 2 (compared to 8-9 in early 1990’s). sources. Bio-energy resources combine fuel wood from
Dwindling resource base could be attributed to the decline forest, biogas, bagasse, agricultural residues, livestock
in forest cover in the district.
1
DTU RESEARCH
residues, feedstock residues, solid waste etc.

2
 DTU

Bio-energy plays a prominent role in country’s sources followed by Industries (17.40%). FIG. I(b)
economy and an important component of TPES. gives the sector wise usage of CRW in the country. It
Technical analysis of the bio energy technologies clearly shows that major part of the domestic energy
(BETs) would help to understand the recent consumption is supplied by the combustible
developments and the need for the further research in renewable or bio energy.
the respective area. Cost of energy harvesting
technology and the energy source is an important
factor of consideration for its feasibility to common
man. Bio energy is an in-exhaustive source, freely
available in most of the situations (or very
inexpensive). BETs mainly use the residues
(byproducts) of forest, agriculture, horticulture etc.
and animal waste which are abundantly available in
rural areas. Biomass based power generation system
requires less capital cost compared to other
technologies since land, infrastructure and technology
requirements are less expensive. However, bio energy FIG. I(a) SHARE OF ENERGY SOURCES IN TPES
utilization is techno-economically feasible and
contributes significantly to the economic growth of the
country. About 70% of the Indian population lives in
rural area where 75% of the primary energy need is
supplied by bio energy resources. About 70-85% of the
rural households depend on firewood, 10% on dung
cake and 5% on LPG for cooking where as 22% of the
urban households depend on firewood, 22% on
kerosene and 44% on LPG for cooking in the country.
About 7,40,00,000 households in the country are yet to
be electrified and more than 32,000 villages do not FIG. I(b) SECTOR WISE SHARE OF CRW
have access to electricity. The electric power supply in TABLE I TRENDS IN DEMAND AND SUPPLY OF PRIMARY ENERGY (Mtoe)
electrified villages is not reliable with frequent load
Population TPES Net Imports %
shedding. About 50% of the rural households depend Year
(Millions) (Mtoe) (Mtoe) Imports
on kerosene and 48% of the households depend on 1960-61 439.23 117.2 6.04 5.15
electricity for lighting. This highlights the role of bio 1970-71 547.90 147.05 12.66 8.61
1980-81 685.20 208.3 24.63 11.82
energy in meeting the region’s energy demand and the 1990-91 843.93 303.15 31.07 10.25
country’s economy. 2000-01 1027 432.75 89.03 20.57
2006-07 1130 539.09 131.97 24.48
Present Bio-energy Status in India 2007-08 1158 617.52 154.38 25.00
2008-09 1174 656.27 164.07 25.00
India is the 4th most energy producing country in the 2009-10 1190 673.84 168.46 25.00
world with the population share of 17.5% of the 2010-11 1220 715.00 111.00 15.52
world’s population. As the population increased, the (Source: http://data.worldbank.org/country/india)
energy requirement also increased over the years
Energy demand is in direct relation with population,
which has led to exploitation of resources at a higher
that is, demand increases with the population. Total
rate. Per capita Total Primary Energy Supply (TPES) in
primary energy demand in India was 117.2 Mtoe in
India was about 540 kgoe (kilogram oil equivalent) in
1960-61 and around 5.2% of the total demand was
2010 and World average was 1803 kgoe. Coal and peat
imported. Per capita energy demand was 266.82 kgoe
are the major contributors to the TPES with a share of
in 1961 while the total population was about 43.9
42.30% followed by crude oil (23.60%) and natural gas
crores. Total primary energy demand increased to
(7.20%). Combustible Renewable and waste (CRW) is
twice in 45 years which was 539 Mtoe in 2007.
the 2nd prominent source of TPES with a share of 25%.
Population in 2007 was 112.9 crores and per capita
FIG. I (a) gives the percentage share of energy sources
energy demand was about 477.12 kgoe. About 15.5%
in total primary energy supply in India. Residential
of the total energy is imported in the present day
sector gets around 78% of the energy from CRW

3
DTU RESEARCH

where the total demand has crossed 715 Mtoe. Table I TABLE II SHARE OF CRW IN TPES FOR THE DURATION OF 1983-2010

gives the trends in demand and supply of primary

Share or CRW in Share or CRW in
energy in India from 1960-61 to 2011-12, which also Year Year
TPES (%) TPES (%)
shows the increase in population for the same 1983 52.3 1997 34.6
duration. 1984 50.8 1998 34.2
1985 48.9 1999 32.7
Energy generation in the country depends mostly on 1986 47.6 2000 32.6
fossil fuels which are limited in nature. Since India has 1987 46.7 2001 32.5
fewer fossil fuel resources and these resources should 1988 44.9 2002 32.0
1989 43.4 2003 31.5
be conserved for the future generation, the country is 1990 42.1 2004 30.2
importing significant amount of petroleum oil, nuclear 1991 41.1 2005 29.5
energy resources, coal, natural gas etc. This trade 1992 40.0 2006 28.4
affects the economic growth of the country and also 1993 39.3 2007 27.3
1994 38.1 2008 26.5
more and more fossil fuel extraction has adverse 1995 36.4 2009 24.9
effects on sustainable development. Burning of fossil 1996 35.6 2010 24.6
fuels emits enormous amount of carbon dioxide (CO 2) (Source: The World Bank Data)
and other gases (CO, SO2 or nuclear waste) which are
Investigations at village levels of domestic energy
the root cause for all global and ecological problems.
consumption will help to assess the demand and
However, renewable energy applications have
supply of bio energy in the country. For bio energy
negligible carbon dioxide emission and eco-friendly.
assessment Uttara Kannada district in Karnataka state,
About 25% of the primary energy demand is supplied
India is chosen which has evergreen as well as moist
by combustible renewable and wastes in India, where
and dry deciduous forests. In the district majority of
most of the rural population depends on bio energy.
the people live in rural area or in semi urban area, are
Rural population of India mostly depends on bio mostly dependent on forest, agricultural and livestock
energy for cooking, space and water heating. About residues for domestic energy need.
75% of the energy demand is supplied by bio energy
in rural areas of the country where 70% of the total Objectives
population live. The bio energy use in the country The primary objective of the study is to assess the bio
shows a decreasing trend over the years due to energy status in Uttara Kannada district across the
urbanization and rural electrification; nevertheless at agroclimatic zones. This includes:
present about 25% of the energy demand is met by bio
1. Identifying the bioenergy surplus and deficit
energy. More than 50% of the primary energy demand
places in the district;
was supplied by bio energy in 1983 which was about
25% in 2010. Bio energy has a significant share in the 2. Techno-economic analysis of bio energy appli-
TPES, which affects the total energy generation of the cations; and
country. Since energy independence and the per capita 3. The role of bio energy in sustainable development.
energy consumption are the prominent factors
determining country’s development, bio energy also Materials and Method
has a significant effect on developmental issues. Other
Study Area
important aspects associated with energy generation
are regarding environmental pollution and waste Uttara Kannada district located between 13° 55´ and
disposal. Bio energy resources are renewable in nature 15° 31´ latitudes and 74° 9´ and 75° 10´ longitudes (FIG.
and combustion would not produce poisonous gases II) is the 4th biggest district of the state having
and ash with sufficient oxygen supply. However, the population of 14,36,847, with more than 70% of the
CO2 generated during combustion of bio energy is people live in rural area or in semi urban area. It is
used by plants in the process of photosynthesis. Hence located in the central Western Ghats region having
the ecological balance is not disturbed by using bio rich ecology, flora and fauna. More than 75% of the
energy [14]. This process leads to forestation which is geographical area is under forests.
the important part of ecological system to maintain the The geographical heterogeneity is responsible for the
balance and to promote sustainability. Table II gives diverse growth of vegetation in the district. Taluks of
the share of Combustible Renewable and Waste (CRW) the district are categorized into 4 different types of
in TPES for the duration from 1983 to 2010 in the
country.

4
 DTU

forests which are has a major effect on bio energy supply. Evergreen
 Ever green forests normally found in Sirsi, forest found in most of the places in the central region
Siddapur and eastern hilly regions of followed by moist and dry deciduous forests.
Honnavar, Kumta and Ankola Taluks.
 Semi Deciduous forest, found in slopes of Ankola,
Kumta, Karwar, Honnavar, Siddapur and Sirsi.
 Deciduous forests are mostly found in Haliyal,
Supa and Mundgod region.
 Forest in the coastal region, normally found in
Kumta, Honnavar, Ankola, Karwar and
Bhatkal region.
FIG. II(a) gives the location of the study and FIG. II(b)
gives the climatic zones and forest types of Uttara (a) (b)

Kannada. Extent of the forest cover and type of forest FIG. II STUDY AREA: UTTARA KANNADA D ISTRICT

Built-up
Water
Cropland
Open fields
Moist deciduous forest
Ever green to semi evergreen forest
Scrub/Grass lands
1973 Acacia/Eucalyptus/ hardwood plantations 1989
Teak/Bamboo/ softwood plantations
Coconut/Areca nut
Dry deciduous forest

1999 2013
FIG III. LAND USE DYNAMICS OF UTTARA KANNADA

5
DTU RESEARCH

Method and Data products collected (normally by women and

children) which is used for cooking and water
Bioenergy status assessment is done based on the
heating through burning. Major domestic energy
resource availability and bioenergy requirement in the
need is shared by fuel wood in the rural regions
district. Having the knowledge of current bioenergy
where it is collected from nearby forest. The
usage pattern in different agroclimatic zones, demand
availability of the fuel wood for the consumers
for bioenergy is computed. Bioresourse mainly
depends on the closeness of the forest, type of the
depends on the land use pattern, forest cover and
forest and methods of extraction. FIG. IV gives the
yields of various crops. Using the earlier energy
availability of fuel wood in the districts annually.
survey data and by spatio temporal land cover
Since fuel wood is the cheapest primary energy
dynamics analysis availability of resources and
source hence the demand will be high depending
corresponding demands are calculated. All the
upon the availability.
estimations are done taluk wise and aggregated for
each agroclimatic zone.

LULC Dynamics of Uttara Kannada

Forest resources constitute the primary source of
energy in the district. The analysis of land use
dynamics during 1973 to 2013 shows that about
75.88% of area under evergreen forest (1973) has
declined 53% in 2013. Areas under agriculture land
and forest plantations have increased from 10.22% and
7.79% to 14.13% and 18.64% respectively. FIG III
depicts the land use dynamics during 1979 to 2013 in
Uttara Kannada district. It is evident that forest cover
decreased and built up area and crop lands have
increased over the years.

Results and Discussion

FIG IV AVAILABILITY OF FOREST BIOMASS (FUEL WOOD) IN
Bioenergy resources from various sources (forests,
TONNES/ANNUM
agriculture, and horticulture) are used for domestic
applications (cooking, water heating) in the district. If the demand for the fuel wood increases then it
Fuel wood is mainly used for domestic cooking and may lead to deforestation or consumers may switch
water heating supplemented by horticultural and over to other fuels such as LPG, electricity or
agricultural residues, forest biomass and biogas kerosene due to the lack of availability. The annual
production from livestock. Majority of the fuel fuel wood availability in the district ranges from
requirement for cooking, water and space heating is less than 1,000 tonnes to 56,000 tonnes. In majority
supplied by agricultural residues, animal residues or of the villages of Sirsi, Siddapur, Kumta and
by forest in the district. More than 80% of the people Honnavar taluks, availability of fuel wood ranges
are dependent on bio energy for their requirements from 1,000 to 5,000 tonnes per annum. In northern
such as food, fuel wood for traditional stoves, timber villages of Haliyal and Supa taluks annual
for houses and cattle sheds, poles for fencing and availability of forest biomass is less than 1,000
shelter construction, leaves to prepare manure and tonnes to 5,000 tonnes. Availability of fuel wood is
covering to control weed, wood to prepare all housing high in the central region of the district due to the
structures, ropes, herbal medicines and decorative evergreen forest cover. In eastern part of Karwar
articles. Study gives the village level details of supply and Ankola and southern part of Supa fuel wood
and demand trend of bio energy in the district. availability is 10,000 to 25,000 tonnes per annum.
There are few villages Supa and Yellapur Taluks
Supply and Demand trends of Bio Energy in Uttara
where the bio-mass availability is 25,000 to 56,000
Kannada
tonnes in a year.
1) Fuel Wood
FIG. V gives the supply to demand ratio of
Fuel wood is one of the prominent forest by- available forest biomass (fuel wood) in the district.

6
 DTU

The supply/demand ratio in the district ranges the residue from paddy cultivation. The
from less than 0.5 to more the 2. If the ratio is less average higher calorific value of rice husk
than 1 (supply less than demand) then that place is ranges from 2937.5 to 3461.31 kcals and lower
fuel wood deficit place and whereas the ratio is value is from 2637.2 9 to 3161.2 5 kcals. The
more than 1 (supply more than demand) then that stalk is mainly used as fodder and husk is the
place is fuel wood surplus region. In Uttara main energy component in the residue.
Kannada, most of the taluks with evergreen forest b. Bagasse: Sugarcane is an important cash crop in
cover (Sirsi, Siddapur, Yellapur, Supa and estern the district and is mainly used to prepare
hilly areas of Kumta, Honnavar and Ankola) are jaggery. Area under sugarcane is about 1,232
fuel wood surplus regions where the supply/ ha (1.09% of total sown area). Bagasse is a
demand ratio is more than 2. The villages with major residue from sugarcane which is left
semi and moist deciduous forests (western parts of after juice is extracted from it. The fibrous
Mundgod and Haliyal, eastern parts of Bhatkal and content in the sugarcane is the major
Karwar) are also forest biomass surplus places contributor to the bagasse and normally in the
where the availability ratio is more than 1. The range of 30-32%. Bagasse is used as a fuel with
coastal and the extreme eastern part of the district wood in the process of producing jaggery from
(coastal villages of Karwar, Ankola, Kumta, sugarcane juice which has a calorific value of
Honnavar and Bhatkal with eastern part of 3,500 kcals. Bagasse is also used to generate
Mundgod and Haliyal) are the fuel wood deficit methane gas; and 1 tonne of bagasse generates
places. The bioenergy resource is dwindling in the about 20 m3 of combustible methane gas.
district, which is evident from the reduced biomass
supply to demand ratio from 8-9 to 2. This Maize residues: Maize is one of the prominent crops in
necessitates sustainable management approaches the district with a share of 3.68% of net sown area.
with augmentation of forest resources. Maize cobs are major residues from the crop which
constitute about 30% of maize gain (Zea mays). Cobs
are used to feed cattle or as fuel.
a. Oil seed: Ground nut as the most important
and widely grown oil seed crop in the district
followed by cotton is grown in 2,949 ha (2.61%)
where the total oil seed growing area is 3,177
ha (2.81%). Sun flower is the other oil seed crop
which is grown in the district (228 ha). About
1,878 ha (1.66% of net sown area) of area is
under cotton which produces oil seeds. About
30% of the ground nut pod consists of shell
which is used as residue having an average
higher calorific value of about 4,532.15 kcal/kg
and the lower calorific value of about 4,248.5 8
kcal/kg.
FIG. VI gives the annual energy available from
FIG. V FUEL WOOD RESOURCE STATUS agricultural residues in the district, which ranges from
(SUPPLY TO DEMAND RATIO)
250 GWh to 90,000 GWh per year. In majority of the
Bio-energy from Agricultural Residues villages (895 villages) of Yellapur, Supa, Siddapur,
Sirsi and Kumta taluks energy availability from
Agricultural crops grown in the district include rice, agricultural residues is less than 250 GWh per year.
ragi, jowar, bajra, maize and wheat. Paddy is the major Some villages in Ankola, Sirsi, Siddapur and Haliyal
crop in the district followed by jowar and maize. Net taluks get the annual energy from agricultural
sown area in the district is about 1,12,946 ha which residues about 250 to 500 GWh. Similarly, several
includes cereals, commercial crops and oilseeds. villages in Karwar, Ankola and Haliyal taluks have
a. Paddy residues: Paddy (Oryza sativa) is the widely annual energy from agriculture residues of 500 to
grown crop in the district (78,073 ha, 69.12%). 2,000 GWh. In very few villages in the district
Rice husk and stalk are major constituents of (Mundgod taluk), energy from agricultural residues is

7
DTU RESEARCH

more than 10,000 GWh per year and the maximum leaves can be obtained from each areca tree per
availability is about 90,000 GWh per annum. year, which is used to prepare manure, to cover
edges of cannels agricultural land, as fuel
biomass and to feed cattle. Use and throw
(single use) plates and cups, hats and other
decorative items manufactured from sheaths
are getting attention in the district and state
wide. Areca leaves are used as thatching
materials and to cover areca gardens. These are
the good source of manure and also
combustible biomass. Other residues such as
inflorescence and trunk of the tree are used as
fuel. Trunk is mainly used for construction and
also as fuel (after the lifespan).
b. Coconut residues: Coconut residues are mainly
used for combustion (fuel biomass) which
consists of leaves, inflorescence, shells, husk
and leaf sheath. Coconut husk is widely used
FIG. VI ENERGY FROM AGRICULTURAL RESIDUES for making coir, mats, rope and also used to
cover coconut plantations. It is dried and used
Bio Energy from Horticulture Residues
as main fuel for water heating during rainy
Plantation crops (cash crops) such as areca (Areca season in the district. Shells are mainly used as
catechu), coconut (Cocos nucifera), cashew fuel which has higher combustion value.
(Anacardium occidentale), banana (Musa accuminata), Coconut shell charcoal production gains
cardamom (Elletaria cardamomum), cocoa (Theobroma importance due to the market demand. Leaves
cacao), pepper and spices are the major crops (32,953 of coconut palms are used to cover houses and
ha, 29%) next to paddy in the district. There is an other plantation fields; as well to produce
increasing trend in growing these crops in the district groom sticks which can trade in the market.
due to their commercial value. Coastal belt takes the c. Other residues: Other residues generated from
major share in growing coconut crop and areca is horticulture crops are due to cashew cocoa and
grown in almost all the taluks. Area under areca crop banana plantation. Cashew is one of widely
has increased with a higher rate in recent years, which grown cash crop in Uttara Kannada. Cashew
has become the crop of major income in Kumta, shell husk is the major residue from the crop
Honnavar, Ankola, Sirsi, Siddapur and part of followed by the fuel wood from tree branches.
Yellapur taluks. Cashew is a seasonal bearing plant Cocoa tree is sparsely grown in the district
which is normally grown in hilly or in waste land in from which fuel wood and leaves are extracted
the district. Cardamom, cocoa tree and spices are as residues. Main residue of banana plantation
grown with areca and coconut plantations (1,675 ha) in is leaves which are used instead of plates for
the district which have higher trade value in the serving the food and in cooking; also leaves are
market. Horticulture crops are also the important used to cover the plantation. However, the
source of residues which mainly contains combustible banana tree will not produce any combustible
biomass. residues.
a. Areca residues: Areca is the most growing crop FIG. VII gives the annual bioenergy availability from
after paddy in the district. Fuel biomass horticultural residues in the district. In many taluks of
extracted from areca is leaves, inflorescence, the district, namely, Sirsi, Siddapur, Yellapur, Haliyal,
and husk and leaf sheath. Areca husk is the Mundgod and Supa, the annual availability of energy
outer cover of areca fruit which accounts for from horticultural residues is less than 250 million
60-80% of the total volume (fresh weight kWh per annum. Few villages (126) in the eastern part
consideration). It is normally used to cover the of Ankola taluk have the potential to produce 250 to
field or as mulch rather than used as fuel. It can 500 GWh bio-energy from horticulture residues. In
be used in the manufacture of card boards, some villages of Honnavar and Karwar taluks, annual
paper boards etc and properly composted husk energy availability from horticultural residues ranges
can be good organic manure. On average, 5-6

8
 DTU

from 500 to 2,000 GWh. Very few villages in the availability from agriculture and horticulture residues.
district have availability of energy from horticultural In majority of the villages, annual energy availability
residues more than 10,000 GWh. is less than 250 GWh per annum. There are some
villages in the district where energy availability ranges
from 250 to 500 GWh (155 villages) and 500 to 2,000
GWh (225 villages). In 159 villages of eastern part of
Ankola, Mundgod and Haliyal taluks, energy
available from horticulture and agricultural residues is
in the range of 2,000 to 10,000 GWh. In 9 villages,
available bio-energy is more than 10,000 GWh which
extends up to 90,000 GWh.

Biogas Resource Status

Livestock is a vital component of agrarian ecosystem
provides milk and manure. Other uses of livestock are
wool, meat, transportation and for ploughing (or
sowing). Animal residues from livestock aid in
recharging the essential nutrients of soil. It also boosts
the quality of the organic manure which increases the
FIG. VII ENERGY FROM HORTICULTURAL RESIDUES
soil fertility.
Farmers in Uttara Kannada are heavily dependent on
livestock for their agriculture and horticulture
practices. Animal residue is the main feedstock for the
production of biogas as well as manure. There are
about 3,66,949 cattle, 1,18,669 Buffaloes, 2,702 Sheep,
11,994 Goats in Uttara Kannada. Other members of
livestock are Pigs (900), Dogs (93,403) and Rabbits (277)
which are in a smaller number. Total livestock
population in the district is about 5,94,929 and poultry
population is 3,61,351. Dung available from each cattle
varies from 3-4 kg to 8-10 kg (from coastal to hilly
region). Similarly, average dung produced from a
buffalo is 12-15 kg and from a hybrid one is 15-18 kg.
By considering 3 kg dung production from a cattle in
coastal area and 8 kg in hilly area, total dung
FIG. VIII ANNUAL ENERGY AVAILABILITY FROM production from cattle is about 6,32,058.46 tonnes per
AGRICULTURAL AND HORTICULTURAL RESIDUES
year. Similarly, by considering the dung production
FIG. VIII gives the combined annual energy per buffalo as 12 kg/day, total dung obtained is
TABLE III TALUK WISE DUNG AND BIOGAS PRODUCTION IN UTTARA KANNADA

Cattle Dung Prod./ Dung Prod./yr Buffalo Dung Prod./ Dung Prod./yr Total biogas production
Taluk
population day (kg) (tonnes) population day (kg) (tonnes) (*1000 m3)
Ankola 28570 85710 31284.15 5967 71604 26135.46 2067.11
Bhatkal 24619 73857 26957.81 6094 73128 26691.72 1931.38
Haliyal 41485 124455 45426.08 20820 249840 91191.60 4918.24
Honnavar 47828 143484 52371.66 8849 106188 38758.62 3280.69
Karwar 11218 33654 12283.71 5460 65520 23914.80 1303.15
Kumta 35891 107673 39300.65 5820 69840 25491.60 2332.52
Mundgod 32122 96366 35173.59 8686 104232 38044.68 2635.86
Siddhapur 43881 351048 128132.52 18897 226764 82768.86 7592.45
Sirsi 52230 417840 152511.60 18845 226140 82541.10 8461.90
Supa 19052 57156 20861.94 8224 98688 36021.12 2047.79
Yellapur 30053 240424 87754.76 11007 132084 48210.66 4894.76
Total 366949 1731667 632058.46 118669 1424028 519770.22 41465.83

9
DTU RESEARCH

5,19,770.22 tonnes per year. Assuming gas production and Mundgod taluk have biogas based energy
of 0.036 m3 per kg of dung, total biogas generated will production of 1-12 GWh per annum.
be 41,465 thousand m3 per year. National per capita
FIG. X gives the availability to demand ratio of biogas
natural gas consumption is about 54 m 3 per annum;
resource in the district. In more than 50% of the
then the biogas produced from livestock residue could
villages (625 villages) the availability is less than
meet the 50% of the gas demand in Uttara Kannada
demand, which are called biogas energy deficit
district (100% dung produced is considered to
regions. In 334 villages of Siddapur, Yellapur and
generate biogas). Table III gives the Taluk wise
Supa taluks supply to demand ratio is between 1 and 2.
livestock population with annual dung and biogas
There are 275 villages in Ankola, Mundgod and
production in the district.
eastern Yellapur taluk, availability is more than twice
of biogas demand which are biogas surplus regions.
About 40% of the villages have adequate biogas
production potential to meet the domestic cooking and
heating needs. These villages are to be considered for
dissemination of biogas technology in the district.

Techno-Economic Analysis of Bio-energy Technologies

(BETs)
The major applications of bio-energy in the country
are
i. Domestic use i.e. for cooking, space heating
(during winter), water heating (for bathing and
livestock) and lighting;
ii. In rural industries (or home industries), for
agricultural and horticultural crops processing,
FIG. IX ANNUAL BIOGAS PRODUCTION FROM LIVESTOCK
bricks and tiles manufacturing;
RESIDUES IN UTTARA KANNADA
iii. Biogas production; and
iv. Electricity production (stand alone community
level, micro grids and decentralized generation
at few locations)

Forest biomass, agricultural and horticultural residues

are the main sources of bio-energy applications in the
country followed by biogas, since most of the bio-
energy based application requires combustion and
heat transfer. Normally, the fresh biomass containing
about 20-60% of moisture (which cannot be burnt
effectively), needs to be dried so that they are suitable
for combustion. In Uttara Kannada, solar drying is
adopted to remove moisture content in the biomass.
However, the energy obtained from biomass depends
on the content of the fuel as well as the efficiency of
FIG. X: BIOGAS RESOURCE STATUS the stoves or combustion method used, analysis of fuel
(SUPPLY TO DEMAND RATIO)
efficient BET would contribute to the improvement of
FIG. IX gives the annual biogas production from the technologies.
livestock residues in Uttara Kannada. It is evident that
1) Improved Cook Stoves (ICs)
in majority of the villages in the district, annual biogas
energy generated from biogas ranges from 0.1 to 0.5 The most commonly used stoves in the rural
million kWh. In 340 villages of Mundgod, Haliyal, households are either made from mud or from
Karwar and Siddapur taluks biogas energy generation stones (or both). These traditional stoves (TCs) are
is 0.5 to 1 GWh. Few villages in Bhatkal, Honnavar constructed by local people and have efficiency of

10
 DTU

about 10% or less. Moreover, in traditional stoves, systems have found application in many industries
oxygen supply is inadequate leading to poor such as paper and pulp, sugar, steel and plywood
combustion with the release of CO (carbon industries. In many applications, steam of high
monoxide), etc. It is estimated that 826 million pressure and temperature generated from biomass
Indians depend on TCs that burn fuel wood or coal combustion is used to run the turbine which is
which causes pollution and the maximum coupled with alternator. Steam of low pressure and
temperature obtained is limited to lower values. In temperature is collected from the outlets of turbine
order to overcome these barriers, CST (formerly and used for other applications such as heating,
ASTRA) of IISc has designed an Improved drying or primary heating of water. Co-firing of
Cookstove (ICs) to give maximum heat transfer biomass in modern large scale coal power plants is
with improved efficiency (20-35%) which allows efficient and cost effective. Efficiency of co-fired
the complete combustion of fuel. There are many plants is more (35-45%) compared to the biomass
ICs available in market which give better efficiency dedicated plants. Using low cost biomass from
than TCs and give complete combustion of fuel solid waste, crop residues etc., payback period of
without CO gas emission. National Biomass the plant is lesser ranging from 3 to 5 years with
Cookstoves Initiatives (NBCI) launched by MNRE higher return on investment (ROI)
(Ministry of New and Renewable Energy) on 2nd
3) Biogas Technology
December 2009, has the primary aim to enhance the
use of biomass ICs. MNRE perused the standards The district has significant livestock population
set by BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards) on solid which is the main source of dung production.
biomass cookstoves– portable that was brought out Cattle dung offers a very high potential of biogas
by BIS in 1991 to examine the applicability of the production which can meet the ever increasing
standard and test protocols in view of the newer domestic cooking fuel demand. The slurry
designs of cookstoves. This standard has been generated in the biogas production is good manure
revised and draft was forwarded to BIS in which can be used to prepare compost or directly
November 2011 for further action. The ministry has fed to agricultural or horticultural plantations.
suggested some standard performance factors for Biogas mainly comprises of methane (60-65%) and
the cook stoves which are given in Table IV. Life carbon dioxide (35-40%) having a small fraction
span of traditional stoves built in rural areas is Hydrogen sulphide and water vapor. Biogas is
limited due to the usage of mud and stones. But about 20% lighter than air which cannot be
ICs are constructed applying scientific technology converted into liquid unlike LPG (Liquefied
and which gives longer lifetime. Due to thermal Petroleum Gas) under normal temperature and
stress, cracks develop in the walls of a mud stove pressure (NTP). Biogas generation from dung or
whereas ICs can withstand higher temperature. ICs agricultural and horticultural residues is
are recommended due to higher efficiency, dependent on temperature, carbon: nitrogen ratio
durability, high temperature applications and less (C:N), pH and retention period. Temperature is the
GHG (Green House Gas) emission over traditional most prominent factor that affects the biogas
stoves (TCs). generation; generation stops below the temperature
TABLE IV PERFORMANCE PARAMETERS FOR IMPROVED COOK STOVES
of 10°C. The optimum conditions for biogas
generation are: temperature 30-35°C, pH 6.8-7.5,
Type of Standard performance parameters
carbon: nitrogen ratio (C:N) 20-30, solid contents 7-
biomass Thermal CO Total Particulate Matter
cookstove efficiency (%) (g/MJd) (TPM)(mg/MJd)
9%, retention time 20-40 days. The retention period
Natural draft determines the rate of digestion, and the longer the
>25 ≤5 ≤ 350
type retention time is; the more the gas generated for a
Forced draft given amount of waste is. There are many
>35 ≤5 ≤ 150
type
technologies available for biogas generation
2) Biomass Fueled Steam Generation depending upon the availability of resources. The
most widely used technologies are:
Steam is generated through direct combustion of
biomass which is a viable energy carrier in many  Fixed Dome model (40 and 55 days
applications. Biomass fired power systems produce retention period)
both heat as well as electrical energy mainly used o Deenabandhu brick masonry
in CHP (Combined Heat and Power) plants. These o Deenabandhu ferro-cement in-situ

11
DTU RESEARCH

construction decentralized generation can meet the energy

demand without dependence on the conventional
 Floating Dome model (30,40 and 55 days
grid. The standalone generating mechanism leads
retention period)
to sustainable development by ensuring the
o KVIC (Kadhi and Village Industries reliable and pollution free power generation. Up-
Commission) floating metal drum gradation to smart grid infrastructure is possible
o KVIC reinforced cement concrete (RCC) through integration of communication and
digester automatic control networks.
 Prefabricated Model for limited field trial MNRE has initiated “Biogas based Distributed/
(40 days retention period) Grid Power Generation Programme” (4th January
o Sintex-HDPE prefabricated Deenbandhu 2006) to promote biogas based power generation
especially in rural areas in a decentralized way. It
 Optimized design developed by Applica-
also helps in utilizing the waste generated in that
tion of Science and Technology to Rural
region, while producing produces valuable manure
Areas (ASTRA) of IISc [34].
as a byproduct. There are about 98 installed plants
 Fixed dome type designed by University of with cumulative capacity of 793.25 kW in the
Agricultural Sciences-Bhagyalaxmi design. country (as of March 2011). There are 250 plants
Raitabandu Biogas Plant-designed by a farmer that are under installation adding 5824 kW in
from Sagar Taluk, Shimoga district to suit the future. Karnataka has 5 installed plants with total
needs of the Malnad region. capacity of 66 kW and 36 plants installed (695 kW).
The ministry also provides financial aid for biogas
4) Applications of Biogas
based power generation plants depending upon
Biogas is mainly used for cooking as it can be the ratings, maximum up to 40% of the plant cost.
directly burned which is more efficient and Cost of the biogas plant depends upon the size gas
produces negligible fumes. Biogas can substitute storage area and retention duration. For a fixed
fuel wood and LPG for cooking and water heating. dome Deenabandhu model with retention period
Biogas produced in the district can meet 50% of the of 40 days, cost ranges from INR 12,000 to INR
total gas demand (Table IV). The other applications 24,000 (depending on the size: 1 m3 to 4 m3).
of biogas are for lighting and electricity generation. Similarly, if retention period is 55 days, then cost
Biogas has better illumination ability; and can be ranges from INR 16,000 to 31,000. For a KVIC
used for lighting instead of kerosene lamps. masonry digester and steel gas holder which has
retention period of 30 days, plant cost varies from
Electrical energy generation is an important INR 19,000 to 28,000 (1 m3 to 4 m3). If retention
application of biogas used to produce steam or period is increased to 40 days, the cost also
used with diesel in co-generation units. Biogas has increases, i.e. INR 24,000 for 1 m3 and INR 39,000
higher calorific value (4,700 kcal) which can be for 4 m3 plant. The average payback period of
effectively utilized for electricity generation. Biogas biogas plant decreases with increase in size of the
is used with conventional fuels such as diesel or plant which ranges from 4.07 years (1 m3) to 2.45
coal in CHP (Combined Heat and Power) years (4 m3). The cost of electrical energy produced
generation which improves the efficiency of the from biogas is about INR 5.5 per kWh and the
plant. The system capacity ranges from 3 to 250 kW capital cost ranges from INR 1,50,000 to 2,00,000
for a decentralized power generation. This can depending upon the capacity of the plant (CHP
meet the rural domestic electricity demand and plant). In case of direct combustion of fuel wood,
enables hybridization with other renewable energy operating cost is about INR 2.5 per kWh and capital
based generating systems on micro/smart grid cost varies from INR 60,000 to 1,00,000.
platform. A community level plant which is fueled
by biogas and diesel can supply the irrigation 5) Biomass Gasification
pump sets during day time and lighting load Fuel wood can be converted into gas using thermo-
during night. In the same manner, if it is chemical processes with only 2 - 4% of ash.
hybridized with solar, wind or pico hydro plants Gasification is carried out in oxygen starved
(depending on the potential), then such environment so as to generate Carbon monoxide

12
www.afl-journal.org Advances in Forestry Letters (AFL) Volume 3 Issu e 1, March 2014

FIG. XI PROCESS OF GASIFICATION

and Hydrogen which are combustible. The team high pressure steam is obtained at very high
reactions are carried out at elevated temperature of temperature. Steam is used to run turbines which
500-1,400°C and pressure of 33 bar (480 psi). The are mechanically coupled with alternators.
main difference between biomass gasification and Alternators generate electrical power depending on
biogas generation is that wet organic feed stocks the capacity which may be fed to consumers or
such as animal dung and sewage waste are used in supplied to grid. The combustible gas may be
biogas production. Mostly fuel wood, forest directly fed to external combustion engines which
residues, agricultural and horticultural residues are are connected to alternators. However, the output
the main sources for gasification. Air based of the alternator is same but the efficiency in latter
gasifiers normally produce a gas with high method is marginally higher. Normally, the
nitrogen content, whose calorific value varies producer gas is used in dual fueled generating
between 4 and 6 MJ/Nm3 (100-1200 kilocalories/ stations in order to reduce the stress on fossil fuel
Nm3). Oxygen and steam based gasifiers produce a demand.
gas with relatively high calorific value of 10 to 20
MJ/Nm3. Gas generated from biomass is also called Economic Analysis
as Producer gas which is highly combustible.
Bioenergy is renewable energy source, freely available
Pyrolysis is the primary step of converting biomass in most of the regions in India (or very inexpensive).
into gas in which the biomass decomposition takes BETs mainly use the residues (byproducts) of forest,
place, producing volatile materials (75-90%) in the agriculture, horticulture etc and animal waste which
form of gas and liquid, and char which is non- are abundantly available in rural areas. Municipal
volatile. In the later steps (gasification), volatile Solid Waste (MSW) is the source for bioenergy (biogas)
hydrocarbons and char are converted to combusti- in urban area with massive productivity. Hence the
ble gas. FIG. XI shows the biomass gasification availability of resource for bioenergy generation is
process and byproducts generated in the process. plenty and has negligible cost compared to fossil fuels.
Many types of biomass gasifiers [Table V] have Table VI shows the comparison of different power
been developed depending upon the flow of fuel plants under capital cost requirements. Biomass based
and oxidants and means of supporting structures. power generation system requires less capital cost
compared to other technologies since land,
TABLE V TYPES OF GASIFIERS
infrastructure and technology requirements are less
Flow direction Type of expensive. Table VII gives the comparison of
Gasifies type
Fuel Oxidant support
overnight capital cost and O&M costs of different
Updraft fixed bed Down Up Grate
Downdraft fixed bed Down Down Grate power plants.
Bubbling fluidized bed Up Up None TABLE VI CAPITAL COST OF POWER PLANTS
Circulating fluidized bed Up Up None
Type of technology Capital cost (million rupees/MW)
(Source: NREL) Solar photovoltaic 300-400
6) Electricity Generation from Biomass Gasification Micro-hydel 40-60
Wind 40-50
End product in gasification process is combustible Biomass 20-40
gas (Producer gas) which may be used either for (Source: Biomass gasifier-based power generation system back to
cooking or electricity generation (steam and basics, with a difference, The Energy and Resource Institute.
<http://www.teriin.org/index.php?option=com_content&task=view
directly feeding to generator). Gas is burnt and
&id=59>)

12
Advances in Forestry Letters (AFL) Volume 3 Issue 1, March 2014 www.afl-journal.org

TABLE VII OVERNIGHT CAPITAL COST AND O&M COSTS dwindling in the district evident from the reduced
Power plant Overnight Capital Cost ($/kW) bioresource supply to demand ratio from 8-9 to 2 from
Coal 2844-5348 2000 to 2013. This necessitates sustainable
Natural gas 665-2060 management approaches with augmentation of forest
Nuclear 5339
resources.
Fuel cell 6835
Geothermal 4141 In coastal regions (Kumta, Honnavar, Ankola, Bhatkal,
Hydropower 3078
Karwar), availability of agro-horticultural residues is
Wind 2438
Wind offshore 5975 more than the current demand which has the potential
Solar thermal 4692 to meet the rural household energy demand. Similarly
Solar PV 4755 in Sirsi, Siddapur and Yellapur taluks, forest biomass
Biomass 3860
potential could meet the domestic energy demand. In
MSW-Landfill gas 8232
Mundgod, Haliyal and in coastal villages, availability
(Source: EIA, <http://www.eia.gov/oiaf/beck_plantcosts/>)
of animal residues provides the scope for biogas
TABLE VIII ELECTRICAL ENERGY GENERATION COST COMPARISON production. About 40% of the villages have adequate
OF DIFFERENT POWER PLANTS
biogas potential to meet the domestic needs. These
Rs/MWh (at 5% Rs/MWh (at 10% villages are to be considered for dissemination of
Type of Power Plant
Discount rate) Discount rate) biogas technology in the district. Biogas can also be
Nuclear 2440.8 4217.24
used for electricity generation and the byproduct, i.e.
Coal 3400.2 4643.17
Gas 3877.65 4339.85 slurry is used for organic manure production which is
Hydro – Small hydro 4743 8501.27 a very good fertilizer. Advanced BETs will encourage
Large hydro 4557.15 8841.65 the bioenergy use and make the application simpler
Wind – Onshore 4887 8346.17
and efficient. Improved cook stoves, biomass
Offshore 6276.15 8999.03
Geothermal 4438.35 7244.28
gasification and other new bioenergy technologies are
Solar – PV 12600.45 19058.99 yet to be available in rural areas which could change
PV (rooftop)1 15854 23273.48 the older energy conversion pattern with higher
Solar thermal2 9503.1 14809.73 efficiency. BETs are technically feasible, economically
Biomass3 Rs. 4.55 to 6.75
viable and environment friendly apart from ensuring
(Source: International Energy Agency (IEA) Nuclear Energy Agency the sustenance of natural resources.
(NEA), Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development,
2010) The sustainable energy option requires the
1
Solar PV (rooftop) system in Germany,
government support for the identification, exploitation
2
Solar thermal systems in United States
3
MNRE, Case Studies of Selected Biomass Power Projects in India and use of renewable sources of energy, which should
be at least as high as for conventional sources. This
The generation cost of electricity from bioenergy is
study shows that the renewable energy experiences all
marginally high compared to conventional methods.
barriers that affect most economic development
Nevertheless cost/kWh is less in case of direct biomass
projects. Lack of capital, skilled labour and service
combustion since fuel wood is freely available. Table
backups are serious impediments to the progress of
VII gives the cost/MWh energy generation from
alternate devices such as fuel efficient stoves, biogas,
different technologies.
wood gasifiers, etc. Even more serious concern is the
lack of coordinated effort among various bureaucratic
Conclusions
setup and ministries. These are the main hurdles to the
Bioenergy has the potential to meet the household successful implementation of biomass cultivation
energy demand through decentralized electricity projects and development of bioenergy. Policies
generation and adoption of improved BETs in Uttara formulated to remove the constraints at local/regional
Kannada district. The supply/demand ratio of level must engender the communication between the
bioresources in the district ranges from less than 0.5 different institutions and government sectors involved
(Bioresource deficit) to more than 2. The coastal and with the establishment of a significant and sustainable
the extreme eastern part of the district (coastal villages bioenergy programme that is the agricultural, forestry,
of Karwar, Ankola, Kumta, Honnavar and Bhatkal land planning and energy sectors. Hence, the prudent
with eastern part of Mundgod and Haliyal) are fuel management practices of biomass production offers
wood deficit places. The bioresource supply is the opportunity to address multiple environmental
concerns such as land degradation, bio diversity, acid
rain pollutants, local and regional health problems.

13
www.afl-journal.org Advances in Forestry Letters (AFL) Volume 3 Issue 1, March 2014

ACKNOWLEDGMENT Outlook (IEA, 2006); REN21 – Global Status Report 2005

We are grateful to the NRDMS division, the Ministry and Update 2006 (www.ren21.net)
of Science and Technology, Government of India, International Energy Agency, IEA Energy Technology
Indian Institute of Science and The Ministry of Essentials (2007). Accessed 20 march 2013.
Environment and Forests, GOI for the sustained
Ioannis Gravalos et al. “A study on calorific energy values of
support to carry out energy research; as well as Kukke
biomass residue pellets for heating purposes”. Forest
Subramanya for the support and anonymous reviewer
for useful suggestions and comments. Engineering: Meeting the Needs of the Society and the
Environment. (2010), 11 –14. Padova, Italy. Accessed 10
REFERENCES March 2013.

Bavappa KVA., Nair MK. and Kumar TP. “The Arecanut Khandelwal KC and Mahdi SS. “Biogas technology: a

palm. Kasargod, Kerala”. India: Central Plantation Crops practical handbook”. Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing

Research Institute, India (1982). Company Limited, New Delhi, India (1986).

Bidappa KG. “Utilization of Arecanut waste”. Arecanut Khandelwal KC. “Country Report on Financing of Domestic

Journal. 8 (1960), 11-106. Accessed 10 April 2013. Record Biogas Plants in India”. International Workshop on

no.: 19610306968. Financing of Domestic Biogas Plants 22nd and 23rd

Chmielewski AG. “Environmental Effects of Fossil Fuel October 2008, Bangkok, Thailand. Accessed 11 April 2013.

Combustion”. Encyclopedia of Life support systems Krishna Raghavan. “Biofuels from coconuts”. FACT

(EOLSS), http://www.eolss.net/sample-chapters/c09/e4- foundation. Accessed 18 February 2013. http://www.fact-

23-02.pdf foundation.com (2010)

CIA world fact book. Accessed 25 February 2013. https:// Lokras SS. “Fuel efficient stoves”. CES Technical Report No.

www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/2013. 65 (1986), 205-208, CES, IISc, Bangalore, India. Accessed

Ciferno Jared P and Marano John J. “Benchmarking Biomass on 12 May 2013.

Gasification Technologies for Fuels, Chemicals and Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, Govt. of India.

Hydrogen Production”. National Energy Technology Accessed 18 February 2013. http://www.mnre.gov.in/

Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy (2002) schemes/decentralized-systems/national-biomass-

Frauke Urban and Tom Mitchell. “Climate change, disasters cookstoves-initiative/ 2013.

and electricity generation”. Strengthening Climate Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, Govt. of India.

Resilience Discussion Paper 8, Institute of Development Accessed 20 February 2013. http://www.mnre.gov.in/

Studies (2011). Accessed 5 February 2013. related-links/offgrid/biogas-2/ 2013.

Gadgil M. Eco development of selected micro catchments in Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, Govt. of India.

the Bedthi - Aghnashini river basins of the Uttara Accessed on 25 February 2013. http://www.mnre.gov.in/

Kannada District. In: An operational research pro- file-

gramme for integrated development of micro catchments manager/offgrid-biomass-gas-schemes/biomassgasifier-
report (1990). 2010-11.pdf 2013.
Garg P. “Energy Scenario and Vision 2020 in India”. Journal Ministry of New and Renewable Energy, Govt. of India.
of Sustainable Energy & Environment 3 (2012), 7-17. Biogass bottling in India - A case study. Accessed 25
Accessed on 2 February 13. February 2013. http://www.mnre.gov.in/related-links/
IEA Energy statistics 2011. Accessed 31 January 2013. casestudy_biogas_bottling_in_India_mlbamboria.pdf 2013.
http://www.iea.org/stats/index.asp (2013). Ministry of Power. Power sector at a glance: All India.
Indiasolar.com. Accessed 4 February 2013. http://www. Accessed 5 February 2013. http://powermin.nic.in/JSP_
indiasolar.com/cal-value.htm. SERVLETS/internal.jsp 2007.
International Bio-Energy Partnership (www.fao.org); Energy NSSO: Energy sources for Indian households for cooking
Technology Perspectives (IEA, 2006); World Energy and lighting 2004–05, NSS 61st round. National Sample
Survey Organization, Ministry of Statistics and

14
Advances in Forestry Letters (AFL) Volume 3 Issue 1, March 2014 www.afl-journal.org

Programme Implementation, Government of India, (2007) TERI: Bio energy in India, Prepared for International
Patra SK and Datta PP. “Insights into Biomass Gasification Institute for Environment and Development (IIED), The
Technology”. Technical Digest. 6 (2006). Accessed 2 April Energy Research Institute, New Delhi, India (2010).
2013. The World Bank Data. Accessed 1 February 2013. http://
Perry JH and Chilton CH. “Chemical Engineers’ Handbook”. data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.IMP.CONS.ZS/countri
McGraw-Hill Kogakusha Limited, Tokyo, Japan (1973). es 2013.
Prasad SB. “Biomass- fired steam power cogeneration The World Bank Data. Accessed 1 February 2013. http://
system: a theoretical study”, Energy Conversion and data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.USE.COMM.KT.OE/co
Management 36 (1995), 65-77. Accessed 4 May 2013. doi: untries 2013.
0196-8904(94)00030-1 Uttara Kannada official website. Accessed 1 February 2013.
Raghavarao KSMS, Raghavendra SN and Rastogi NK. http://uttarakannada.nic.in/districtprofile.htm.
“Potential of coconut dietary fiber”. Department of Food Vinoth Kumar K and Kasturi Bai R. “Plastic biodigesters – a
Engineering, Central Food Technological Research systematic study”. Energy for Sustainable Development
Institute, Mysore, India, (2008) 9 (2005), 40-49. Accessed 17 January 2013.
Ramachandra TV and Kamakshi G. “Bio resource Potential Worldwatch Institute, Washington, DC 20036 (202) 745-8092.
of Karnataka [Taluk wise Inventory with Management Accessed 1 March 2013. http://www.worldwatch.org/
Options]”. CES Technical Report No.: 109, Indian node/6328 2013.
Institute of Science, Bangalore, India (2005).
Ramachandra TV, Joshi NV and Subramanian DK. “Present METTARY RAJENDRA VIVEK
and prospective role of bioenergy in regional energy B.Tech ,production and industrial engireeing,
system”. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. 4 environmental development and sustainability
(2000), 375-430. Accessed 3 March 2013. doi: 10.1016/ Done under SIR. KESARI ,DEPARTMENT OF
S1364-0321(00)00002-2 MECHANICAL ENERGY.

Ramachandra TV, Rishabh Jain and Gautham Krishnadas.

“Hotspots of solar potential in India”. Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews 15 (2011), 3178–3186.
Accessed 8 January 2013. doi: 10.1016/j.rser.2011.04.007
Ramachandra TV. “Energy Alternatives: Renewable energy
and energy conservation technologies”. Center for
Ecological Sciences, IISc Bangalore http://wgbis.ces.iisc.
ernet.in/energy/paper/alternative/energyalternative.html
2013. Accessed on 22 May 2013.
Ramachandra TV., Vamsee Krishna S. and Shruthi BV.
“Decision Support System for Regional Domestic Energy
Planning”. Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research 64
(2005), 163-174. Accessed 5 January 2013. doi: 10.1081/
GE-200038704
Ravindranath NH and Ramachandra TV. “Renewable
energy options for decentralized electricity generation”.
Ecology 11 (1996), 23-32. Accessed on 20 April 2013.
Subramanian DK. “Energy utilization in Karnataka. In: CJ
Saldanha ed.”. State of environment report Karnataka,
Karnataka, India (1984).

15