Chapter Eight: Cell Body

The Nervous System - contains a single nucleus

- the nucleus of the neuron is the source of information for
Major Functions Of The Nervous System gene expression
1. Receiving sensory input - extensive rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER), a
- sensory receptors monitor numerous Golgi apparatus, and mitochondria surround the nucleus
external and internal stimuli - large numbers of neurofilaments (intermediate filaments)
2. Integrating information and microtubules organize the cytoplasm into distinct
- the brain and spinal cord are the major
areas.
organs for processing sensory input and Dendrites
initiating responses. The input may produce an -are short, often highly branching cytoplasmic
immediate response, be stored as memory, or extensions that are tapered from their bases at the
be ignored neuron cell body to their tips
3. Controlling muscles and glands - usually receive information from other neurons or
- skeletal muscles normally contract only from sensory receptors and transmit the information
when stimulated by the nervous system toward the neuron cell body
4. Maintaining homeostasis
- this function depends on the nervous Axon
system’s ability to detect, interpret, and respond - a single long cell process extending from the neuron cell
to changes in internal and external conditions
body
5. Establishing and maintaining mental activity
- axons of sensory neurons conduct action potentials
- the brain is the center of mental
activity, including consciousness, towards the CNS, and axons of motor neurons conduct
memory, and thinking action potentials away from the CNS.
- also conduct action potentials from one part of the
brain or spinal cord to another part
Two Major Divisions of the Nervous System: - can be surrounded by a highly specialized insulating
1. Central Nervous System (CNS) layer of cells called the myelin sheath
- consists of the brain and spinal cord
2. Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) Axon Hillock
- consists of all the nervous tissue outside the CNS - the area where the axon leaves the neuron cell body
(nerves and ganglia)
- functions to link the CNS with the various parts of Collateral Axons
the body - an axon may remain unbranched or may branch to form
-carries information about the different tissues of the collateral axons
body to the CNS and carries commands from the CNS
that alter body activities
Three Categories Of Neurons Based On The
Arrangement Of Their Processes
FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE PERIPHERAL 1 - Multipolar Neurons
NERVOUS SYSTEM
- have many dendrites and a single axon
1 Sensory Division- or afferent (toward) division, of the - most of the neurons within the CNS and nearly all
motor neurons are multipolar
PNS conducts action potentials from sensory receptors 2 - Bipolar Neurons
to the CN - have two processes: one dendrite and one axon
- located in some sensory organs, such as in the
2 Motor Division retina of the eye and in the nasal cavity
- or efferent (away) division, of the PNS conducts action 3 - Pseudounipolar Neurons
potentials from the CNS to effector organs, such as - have a single process extending from the cell body
muscles and glands
- can be further subdivided based on the type of effector
Glial cells or neuroglia
being innervated - are the primarily supportive cells of the CNS and PNS,
A.) Somatic Nervous System meaning these cells do not conduct action potentials
- transmits action potentials from the CNS to - carry out different functions that enhance neuron
skeletal muscles function and maintain normal conditions within nervous
B.) Autonomic Nervous System (ANS) tissue.
- transmits action potentials from the CNS to
cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands Five Types of Glial Cells
1.) Astrocytes
Motor Neurons- neurons that transmit action potentials - serve as the major supporting cells in the CNS
from the CNS toward the periphery - can stimulate or inhibit the signaling activity
of nearby neuron
2.) Ependymal cells
Sensory Neurons- neurons that transmit action potentials - line the fluid-filled cavities (ventricles and
from the periphery to the CNS canals) within the CNS
- produce cerebrospinal fluid.
Enteric Nervous System (ENS) 3.) Microglia
- is a unique subdivision of the peripheral nervous system - act as immune cells of the CNS
- has both sensory and motor neurons contained wholly - help protect the brain by removing
within the digestive tract bacteria and cell debris.
- can function without input from the CNS or other parts 4 .) Schwann Cells
of the PNS, although it is normally integrated with the - in the PNS, provide an insulating material
CNS by sensory neurons and ANS motor neurons that surrounds axons
5 .) Oligodendrocytes
Two Types Of Cells That Make Up The Nervous System: - provide an insulating material that surrounds axons.
1- Neurons
2 -Glial cells Blood-brain Barrier
- a permeability barrier formed by astrocytes that
Neurons participate with the blood vessel endothelium
- or nerve cells, receive stimuli, conduct action
potentials, and transmit signals to other neurons or Myelin Sheaths
effector organs - are specialized layers that wrap around the axons of
- there are three parts to a neuron: some neurons
a cell body and two types of processes, called - are formed by the cell processes of
oligodendrocytes in the CNS and Schwann cells in
dendrites and axons the PNS

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Myelinated Axons membrane to become positive, a change called
depolarization. This depolarization results in
- axons with these myelin sheaths
a local potential.
Nodes of Ranvier If depolarization is large enough, Na+ enters the cell so
- gaps in the myelin sheath that occur about every that the local potential reaches a threshold value. This
millimeter between the oligodendrocyte segments or threshold depolarization causes voltage-gated Na+
between individual Schwann cells channels to open.
- where ion movement can occur
Depolarization and repolarization constitute an action
Gray Matter potential. At the end of repolarization, the charge on the
cell membrane briefly becomes more negative than the
- consists of groups of neuron cell bodies and their
dendrites, where there is very little myelin resting membrane potential; this condition is called
hyperpolarization.
Cortex Action potentials occur in an all-or-none fashion. That is, if
- gray matter on the surface of the brain in the CNS threshold is reached, an action potential occurs; if the
threshold is not reached, no action potential occurs.
Nuclei
The local currents in the adjacent membrane produce an
- clusters of gray matter located deeper within the brain action potential. By this means, the action potential is
conducted along the entire axon cell membrane. This type
Ganglion of action potential conduction is called continuous
- a cluster of neuron cell bodies in the PNS
conduction.

In myelinated axons, an action potential at one node of

White Matter Ranvier causes a local current to flow through the
- consists of bundles of parallel axons with their myelin surrounding extracellular fluid and through the cytoplasm
sheaths, which are whitish in color of the axon to the next node, stimulating an action
potential at that node of Ranvier. By this means, action
Nerve Tracts potentials “jump” from one node of Ranvier to the next
- or conduction pathways along the length of the axon. This type of action potential
conduction is called saltatory conduction.
- formed by the white matter of the CNS
- propagate action potentials from one area of the CNS to Synapse
- is a junction where the axon of one neuron interacts
another with another neuron or with cells of an effector organ,
such as a muscle or gland
Nerves
- bundles of axons and associated connective tissue in the Presynaptic Terminal
PNS - formed by the end of the axon

The membrane of the dendrite or effector cell is the

RESTING MEMBRANE POTENTIAL postsynaptic membrane, and the space separating
the presynaptic and postsynaptic membranes is the
Polarized synaptic cleft.
- this uneven distribution of charge means the cell
Neurotransmitters
membrane is polarized - chemical substances that are stored in synaptic
vesicles in the presynaptic terminal
Resting Membrane Potential
- in an unstimulated (or resting) cell, the uneven charge If K+ or Cl− channels open, the inside of the
distribution is called the resting membrane potential postsynaptic cell tends to become more negative, or
hyperpolarized, and an action potential is inhibited
The resting membrane potential is generated by three from occurring.
main factors:
(1) a higher concentration of K+ Of the many neurotransmitters or suspected
immediately inside the cell membrane, neurotransmitter substances, the best known are
(2) a higher concentration of Na+ acetylcholine (ACh) and norepinephrine. Other
immediately outside the cell neurotransmitters include serotonin , dopamine, γ-
membrane, and aminobutyric acid (GABA), glycine, and endorphins
(3) greater permeability of the cell membrane
In synapses where acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter,
such as in the neuromuscular junction, an enzyme called
Leak channels are always open. Thus, acetylcholinesterase breaks down the acetylcholine.
as the name suggests, ions can “leak” across the
membrane down their concentration gradient
Reflex
- is an involuntary reaction in response to a stimulus
Gated Channels applied to the periphery and transmitted to the CNS
- are closed until opened by specific signals
- when opened, the gated channels can change the Reflex Arc
membrane potential and are thus responsible for the - is the neuronal pathway by which a reflex occur
action potential - is the basic functional unit of the nervous system
because it is the smallest, simplest pathway capable of
Chemically Gated Channels receiving a stimulus and yielding a response
- are opened by neurotransmitters or other chemicals,
whereas A reflex arc generally has five basic components:
voltage-gated channels are opened by a change in (1) a sensory receptor;
(2) a sensory neuron;
membrane potential.
(3) in some reflexes, interneurons, which are neurons
located between and communicating with two other
Sodium-potassium Pump (Na+–K+ pump) neurons;
- is required to maintain the greater concentration of Na+ (4) a motor neuron; and
outside the cell membrane and K+ inside
(5) an effector organ (muscles or glands)
Muscle and nerve cells are excitable cells, meaning that
the resting membrane potential changes in response to Converging Pathway
stimuli that activate gated ion channels. - two or more neurons synapse with (converge on) the
same neuron
Local Current - allows information transmitted in more than one
- movement of Na+ that causes the inside of the cell neuronal pathway to converge into a single pathway

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 Dermatome
NEURONAL PATHWAYS - is the area of skin supplied with sensory innervation
by a pair of spinal nerves
Diverging Pathway Most of the spinal nerves are organized into three
- the axon from one neuron divides (diverges) and major plexuses where neurons of several spinal nerves
synapses with more than one other neuron come together and intermingle.
The three major plexuses are the cervical plexus, the
Summation brachial plexus, and the lumbosacral plexus.
- many presynaptic action potentials are needed
- summation of signals in neuronal pathways allows Coccygeal Plexus
integration of multiple sub-threshold local potentials - supplies motor innervation to the muscles of the
- summation of the local potentials can bring the pelvic floor and sensory cutaneous innervation to the
membrane potential to threshold and trigger an skin over the coccyx
action potential
Cervical Plexus
Spatial Summation - originates from spinal nerves C1 to C4
- occurs when the local potentials originate from
different locations on the postsynaptic neuron— for Phrenic Nerve
example, from converging pathways
- one of the most important branches of the
cervical plexus which innervates the diaphragm
Temporal summation
- occurs when local potentials overlap in time Brachial Plexus
- can occur from a single input that fires rapidly, which
allows the resulting local potentials to overlap briefly - originates from spinal nerves C5 to T1

Spinal Cord Axillary Nerve

- extends from the foramen magnum at the base of the - innervates two shoulder muscles and the skin over part of
skull to the second lumbar vertebra the shoulder

Cauda Equina Radial Nerve

- The inferior end of the spinal cord and the spinal - innervates all the muscles in the posterior arm and
nerves exiting there resemble a horse’s tail forearm as well as the skin over the posterior surface of
The white matter in each half of the spinal cord is the arm, forearm, and hand
organized into three columns, called the dorsal (posterior),
ventral (anterior), and lateral columns. Each column of the Musculocutaneous Nerve
spinal cord contains ascending and descending tracts, or - innervates the anterior muscles of the arm and the
pathways. skin over the radial surface of the forearm

Ascending Tracts Ulnar Nerve

- consist of axons that conduct action potentials toward - innervates two anterior forearm muscles and most
of the intrinsic hand muscles
the brain
- also innervates the skin over the ulnar side of the hand
Descending Tracts
Median Nerve
- consist of axons that conduct action potentials away from - innervates most of the anterior forearm muscles and
the brain some of the intrinsic hand muscles
- it also innervates the skin over the radial side of the hand
The gray matter of the spinal cord is shaped like the letter
H, with posterior horns and anterior horns.
Lumbosacral Plexus
Lateral Horns - originates from spinal nerves L1 to S4
- small; exist in levels of the cord associated with the
autonomic nervous system Obturator Nerve
- innervates the muscles of the medial thigh and the
Central Canal skin over the same region
- is a fluid-filled space in the center of the cord Femoral nerve
-innervates the anterior thigh muscles and the skin
The ventral rootlets combine to form a ventral root on over the anterior thigh and medial side of the leg.
the ventral (anterior) side of the spinal cord, and the
dorsal rootlets combine to form a dorsal root on the Tibial Nerve
dorsal (posterior) side of the cord at each segment. The - innervates the posterior thigh muscles, the
ventral and dorsal roots unite just lateral to the spinal anterior and posterior leg muscles, and most of the
cord to form a spinal nerve. The dorsal root contains a intrinsic foot muscles
ganglion, called the dorsal root ganglion. - also innervates the skin over the sole of the foot
SPINAL CORD REFLEXES
Common Fibular
- nerve innervates the muscles of the lateral thigh and
Stretch Reflex leg and some intrinsic foot muscles
- the simplest reflex - also innervates the skin over the anterior and lateral
- in which muscles contract in response to a stretching
leg and the dorsal surface (top) of the foot
force applied to them The tibial and common fibular nerves are bound together
within a connective tissue sheath and together are called
Knee-jerk Reflex the sciatic nerve.
- or patellar reflex is a classic example of the stretch reflex
BRAIN
Withdrawal Reflex
- or flexor reflex is to remove a limb or another body Brainstem
part from a painful stimulus - connects the spinal cord to the remainder of the brain
- consists of the medulla oblongata, the pons, and the
midbrain
Spinal Nerves - contains several nuclei involved in vital body functions,
- arise along the spinal cord from the union of the dorsal such as the control of heart rate, blood pressure, and
roots and ventral roots breathing
- All the spinal nerves contain axons of both sensory
and somatic motor neurons and thus are called
mixed nerves Medulla Oblongata
- is the most inferior portion of the brainstem and is

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 continuous with the spinal cord Cerebrum
- is the largest part of the brain
On the anterior surface, two prominent enlargements
- divided into left and right hemispheres by a longitudinal
called pyramids
fissure
extend the length of the medulla oblongata
Gyri
A large tumor or hematoma, a mass of blood that
occurs as the result of bleeding into the tissues, can - numerous folds that are the most conspicuous features
cause increased pressure within the skull. on the surface of each hemisphere
- greatly increase the surface area of the cortex, and
intervening grooves called sulci
Immediately superior to the medulla oblongata is the
pons. Frontal Lobe
Midbrain - important in the control of voluntary motor
- just superior to the pons functions, motivation, aggression, mood, and
olfactory (smell) reception
- is the smallest region of the brainstem
Parietal Lobe
Colliculi - is the principal center for receiving and consciously
- the dorsal part of the midbrain consists of four mounds perceiving most sensory information, such as touch, pain,
temperature, and balance
Substantia Nigra
- black nuclear mass which is part of the basal nuclei Central Sulcus
and is involved in regulating general body - separates the frontal and parietal lobes
movements

Scattered throughout the brainstem is a group of Occipital Lobe

nuclei collectively called the reticular formation. - functions in receiving and perceiving visual input and
is not distinctly separate from the other lobes
The reticular formation is a major component of the
reticular activating system, which plays an important Temporal Lobe
role in arousing and maintaining consciousness and in - is involved in olfactory (smell) and auditory (hearing)
regulating the sleep-wake cycle. sensations and plays an important role in memory

Cerebellum Its anterior and inferior portions, called the “psychic

- is attached to the brainstem by several large connections cortex,” are associated with functions such as abstract
thought and judgment.
called
cerebellar peduncles Most of the temporal lobe is separated from the rest of
the cerebrum by the lateral fissure, and deep within the
Diencephalon fissure is the insula often referred to as the fifth lobe.
- is the part of the brain between the brainstem and the
Perception
cerebrum.
- the conscious awareness of stimuli
- Its main components are the thalamus, the epithalamus,
and the hypothalamus
ASCENDING TRACTS
Thalamus The spinal cord and brainstem contain a number of
- is by far the largest part of the diencephalon ascending (sensory) tracts, or pathways, that transmit
- consists of a cluster of nuclei and is shaped somewhat
information via action potentials from the periphery to
like a yo-yo, with two large, lateral parts connected in various parts of the brain.
the center by a small interthalamic adhesion
Spinothalamic Tract
- transmits action potentials dealing with pain and
Epithalamus temperature to the thalamus and on to the cerebral
- is a small area superior and posterior to the thalamus cortex, is an example of an ascending tract
- consists of a few small nuclei, which are involved in
the emotional and visceral response to odors, and Dorsal Column
the pineal gland - transmits action potentials dealing with touch,
position, and pressure, is another example
Pineal Gland
- is an endocrine gland that may influence the onset of The anterior and posterior spinocerebellar tracts, for
puberty and may play a role in controlling some long- example, transmit information about body position to
term cycles that are influenced by the the cerebellum
light-dark cycle SENSORY AREAS OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX
-In animals, the pineal gland is known to influence
annual behaviors, such as migration in birds, as well as
changes in the color and density of fur in some Primary Sensory Areas
mammals - ascending tracts project to specific regions of the
cerebral cortex where sensations are perceived
Hypothalamus
- is the most inferior part of the diencephalon
Primary Somatic Sensory Cortex
- it contains several small nuclei that are very - or general sensory area, is located in the parietal
important in maintaining homeostasis lobe posterior to the central sulcus
- plays a major role in controlling the secretion of Association Areas
hormones from the pituitary gland - cortical areas immediately adjacent to the primary
- plays a central role in the control of body temperature, sensory areas that are involved in the process of
hunger, and thirst recognition
Involuntary Movements
Infundibulum - reflexes mediated through the spinal cord and
- a funnel-shaped stalk that extends from the floor of brainstem are responsible for some body movements
the hypothalamus to the pituitary gland
- occur without conscious thought
Mammillary Bodies Voluntary Movements
- form externally visible swellings on the posterior
- are consciously activated to achieve a specific goal,
portion of the hypothalamus and are involved in such as walking or typing
emotional responses to odors and in memory

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 Upper Motor Neurons Electrodes placed on a person’s scalp and attached to a
recording device can record the brain’s electrical activity,
- have cell bodies in the cerebral cortex producing an electroencephalogram (EEG)
- axons form descending tracts that connect to lower
motor neurons At other times, however, EEG patterns can be detected as
wavelike patterns known as brain waves.
Lower Motor Neurons
- have cell bodies in the anterior horn of the spinal cord
Alpha Waves
gray matter or in cranial nerve nuclei - are observed in a normal person who is awake but in a
quiet, resting state with the eyes closed
MOTOR AREAS OF THE CEREBRAL CORTEX
Beta Waves
Primary Motor Cortex - have a higher frequency than alpha waves and occur
during intense mental activity
- is located in the posterior portion of the frontal lobe,
directly anterior to the central sulcus
Delta Waves
Primary Motor Cortex - occur during deep sleep, in infants,
- is located in the posterior portion of the frontal lobe, and in patients with severe brain disorders
directly anterior to the central sulcus
Theta Waves
Prefrontal Area - are usually observed in children, but they can also occur
- the motivation and foresight to plan and initiate in adults who are experiencing frustration or who have
movements occur in the anterior portion of the frontal certain brain disorders
lobes
Working Memory
DESCENDING TRACTS
The corticospinal tracts are considered direct because they - task-associated memory
extend directly from upper motor neurons in the cerebral - the brain briefly stores information required for the
cortex to lower motor neurons in the spinal cord (a similar immediate performance of a task
direct tract extends to lower motor neurons in the Short-term Memory
brainstem). Other tracts are named after the part of the
brainstem from which they originate. Although they - lasts longer than working memory and can be retained
originate in the brainstem, these tracts are indirectly for a few minutes to a few days
controlled by the cerebral cortex, basal nuclei, and
cerebellum. These tracts are called indirect because no Short-term memory is transferred to long-term
direct connection exists between the cortical and spinal memory, where it may be stored for only a few
neurons. minutes or become permanent, by consolidation, a
gradual process involving the formation of new and
stronger synaptic connections.
Lateral Corticospinal
- tracts are especially important in controlling the speed Declarative Memory
and precision of skilled movements of the hands
- or explicit memory, involves the retention of facts,
such as names, dates, and places, as well as related
Basal Nuclei emotional undertones
- are a group of functionally related nuclei
Procedural Memory
Two primary nuclei are the corpus striatum located deep - or reflexive memory, involves the development of
within the cerebrum, and the substantia nigra, a group of motor skills, such as riding a bicycle
darkly pigmented cells in the midbrain.
Memory Engrams
Cerebellum - or memory traces, whole series of neurons that are
- is attached by cerebellar peduncles to the brainstem probably involved in the long-term retention of a given
piece of information, a thought, or an idea
- major function of the cerebellum is that of a comparator
The olfactory cortex and certain deep cortical regions
Comparator and nuclei of the cerebrum and the diencephalon are
- is a sensing device that compares the data from two grouped together under the title limbic system.
sources—in this case, the motor cortex and peripheral
structures
MENINGES, VENTRICLES, AND CEREBROSPINAL FLUID
Proprioceptive Neurons
- innervate joints, tendons, and muscles and provide Meninges
information about the position of body parts - three connective tissue membranes that surround
and protect the brain and spinal cord
Sensory information received by one hemisphere is
shared with the other through connections between Dura Mater
the two hemispheres called commissures.
- the most superficial and thickest of the meninges
- consists of two layers, which function as a single layer
Corpus Callosum but are physically separated into several regions to form
- largest of the commissures dural folds and dural venous sinuses
- a broad band of nerve tracts at the base of the
longitudinal fissure Epidural Space
- within the vertebral canal between the dura mater and
the vertebrae
Sensory Speech - is clinically important as the injection site for epidural
- area (Wernicke area), located in the parietal anesthesia of the spinal nerves, which is often given to
lobe, functions in understanding and women during childbirth
formulating coherent speech
Arachnoid
Motor Speech - second meningeal membrane
- area (Broca area), located in the frontal lobe, - very thin, wispy
controls the movement necessary for speech
Subdural Space
Damage to these parts of the brain or to associated brain
regions may result in aphasia, absent or defective speech - space between the dura mater and the arachnoid
or language comprehension. The most common cause is a mater which is normally only a potential space
stroke. It is estimated that 25–40% of stroke survivors containing a very small amount of serous fluid
exhibit aphasia.
Health professionals use such a needle to inject anesthetic

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 into the area as a by preganglionic neurons of the vagus nerve extending
from the brainstem. The vagus nerve branches to provide
spinal block or to take a sample of cerebrospinal fluid in a parasympathetic innervation to the heart, the lungs, the
spinal tap. liver, and the stomach and other digestive organs.

Pia Mater Biofeedback

- third meningeal membrane - is a technique that uses electronic instruments or other
methods to monitor subconscious activities, many of
- is very tightly bound to the surface of the brain and which are regulated by the autonomic nervous system
spinal cord
Meditation
Subarachnoid Space - is another technique that influences autonomic
functions.
- between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater
- is filled with cerebrospinal fluid and contains blood All preganglionic neurons of both the sympathetic and
vessels the parasympathetic divisions and all the postganglionic
neurons of the parasympathetic division secrete the
Ventricles neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Most postganglionic
neurons of the sympathetic division secrete
- fluid-filled cavities which are quite small in some areas norepinephrine.
and large in others
The sympathetic division is sometimes referred to as the
Each cerebral hemisphere contains a relatively large cavity fight-or-flight system because it prepares the person
called the lateral ventricle. either to stand and face a threat or to leave the situation
as quickly as possible.
Third Ventricle
- is a smaller, midline cavity located in the center of the The parasympathetic division (rest-and-digest) of the
diencephalon between the two halves of the thalamus autonomic nervous system is generally consistent with
and connected by foramina (holes) to the lateral resting conditions
ventricles Enteric Nervous System (ENS)
- consists of plexuses within the wall of the digestive
Fourth Ventricle tract
- is located at the base of the cerebellum and The plexuses include
connected to the third ventricle by a narrow canal, called (1) sensory neurons that connect the digestive tract to
the cerebral aqueduct the CNS;
(2) sympathetic and parasympathetic neurons that
The fourth ventricle is continuous with the central canal connect the CNS to the digestive tract; and
of the spinal cord. The fourth ventricle also opens into (3) enteric neurons, located entirely within the enteric
the subarachnoid space through foramina in its walls and plexuses.
roof.

Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF)

- bathes the brain and spinal cord, providing a
protective cushion around the CNS

Choroid Plexuses
- specialized structures made of ependymal cells, which
are located in the ventricle

Arachnoid Granulations
- masses of arachnoid tissue that penetrate the superior
sagittal sinus, a dural venous sinus in the longitudinal
fissure, and CSF passes from the subarachnoid space into
the blood through these granulations

Hydrocephalus
- condition where the blockage of the openings in the
fourth ventricle or the cerebral aqueduct can cause CSF
to accumulate in the ventricles

In the autonomic nervous system, two neurons in series

extend from the CNS to the effector organs. The first is
called the preganglionic neuron; the second is the
postganglionic neuron. The neurons are so named
because preganglionic neurons synapse with
postganglionic neurons in autonomic ganglia outside
the CNS.
The autonomic nervous system is composed of the
sympathetic division and the parasympathetic division.

Sympathetic Chain Ganglia

- connected to one another and are so named because
they form a chain along both sides of the spinal cord

Splanchnic Nerve
- the axons of those preganglionic fibers that do not
synapse in the sympathetic chain ganglia that extend to
collateral ganglia

Collateral Ganglia
- are located nearer target organs and consist of the
celiac, superior mesenteric, and inferior mesenteric
ganglia

Axons of the preganglionic neurons extend through

spinal nerves or cranial nerves to terminal ganglia either
located near effector organs in the head or embedded in
the walls of effector organs in the thorax, abdomen, and
pelvis.

Most of the thoracic and abdominal organs are supplied

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