SEMESTER 5

ELECTRONIC AND ELECTRONIC

SYSTEMS
 Electricity is one among the various
sources of energy.
Definition: Electricity is the movement
of electrons. Electrons create charge,
which we can harness to do work.
Flow of electrons in any conductor.
 Conductor is any material that
allows the flow of current through it.
Good Conductors
 All metals except few
Bad Conductors
 Aluminium, Gold, Silver etc.
Voltage : is the difference in charge between two points.
Current : is the rate at which charge is flowing.
Resistance : is a material‖s tendency to resist the flow of charge
(current).
In this analogy, charge is represented by
the water amount, voltage is represented
by the water pressure, and current is
represented by the water flow. So for this
analogy, remember:

Water = Charge
Pressure = Voltage
Flow = Current
Ohm‖s Law
Statement:
The current through a conductor between two points
is directly proportional to the potential difference
across the two points.
Introducing the constant of proportionality, resistance,
we arrive at the mathematical equation:

where I is the current through the conductor in units of

amperes, V is the potential difference measured across the
conductor in units of volts, and R is the resistance of the
conductor in units of ohms.
Kirchhoff‖s Laws
Kirchhoff‖s Current Law, KCL:
 At any node/junction in an
electrical circuit, the sum of
currents flowing into that
node is equal to the sum of
currents flowing out of that
node/junction.
 The algebraic sum of
currents in a network of The current entering any
conductors meeting at a junction is equal to the
point is zero. current leaving that
junction.
i2 + i3 = i1 + i4
Kirchhoff‖s Laws
Kirchhoff‖s Voltage Law, KVL:

 The directed sum of the

electrical potential differences
(voltage) around any closed
network is zero.
 The sum of the emfs in any The sum of all the voltages
closed loop is equivalent to the around the loop is equal to zero.
sum of the potential drops in v 1 + v 2 + v3 - v 4 = 0
the loop.
Direct Current
Alternating Current
 In D.C the voltage remains
constant with respect to time  In A.C the voltage
throughout the cycle. changes at regular
 The flow of current is from intervals of time
positive to negative terminal. throughout the cycle.
 Sources of D.C supply are  The flow of current is
batteries and generators. from phase(P) to the
load(L) and then to the
neutral(N).
 Source of A.C supply is
A.C generator.
Service Connection
 The insulated cable that
supplies electric power
from the supply pole to
consumer‖s terminal.
Single Phase System
 May be an overhead or
an underground cable.
 Generally for residential
buildings.
 Service connection has 3
wires- Phase, Neutral
and Earth.
Three Phase System
 May be an
overhead or an
underground
cable.
 Generally for
feeding industrial
loads.
 Service
connection has 5
wires- 3Phase
wires, Neutral
and Earth.
There are two types of circuits used to maintain equal load across the
three hot wires in a 3-phase system—Delta and Wye.

The Delta configuration has the three phases connected like a

triangle, whereas the Wye (or “star”) configuration has all three loads
connected at a single neutral point.
Delta systems have four wires—three hot and one ground.
Wye systems have five wires—three hot, one neutral and one ground.
While both Delta and Wye systems measure 208VAC between any two hot wires, Wye
systems also measure 120VAC between any hot wire and neutral. In other words, it‖s
the neutral wire of the Wye system that allows for providing two different voltages
and powering both 3-phase and single-phase devices in the data center.
we mainly see Delta used for any large motors or heaters that don‖t need a neutral.
In an electrical installation or an electricity supply
system an earthing system or grounding
system connects specific parts of that installation with
the Earth's conductive surface for safety and functional
purposes.

The point of reference is the Earth's conductive surface,

or on ships, the surface of the sea.
 Earthing is a connection system
between the metallic parts of an
electrical wiring system and the general
mass of the earth.

This will provide an easy path with low

resistance to earth to enable the
protection system to work effectively.

 Connecting the electrical appliances to

the ground so that any unforeseen
current such as leakages, faults etc. is
immediately discharged to the earth.
Purpose of earthing
 Safety for Human Life/ Buildings/ Equipment.
 To ensure all parts of the system other than live parts are at earth
potential at all times.
 Need to limit over voltages/ Voltage Stabilization.
 Need to provide a path for electrical discharge.
 Legal requirements
System Earthing : In this a part of
substation is directly connected
to grounding grid. Like:- LV
neutral of star connected
transformer, Earth switch, Surge
Arrester connection to ground
etc.
a. To isolate the system under fault
conditions
b. To limit the potential difference
between two conductors which
are not insulated in an area.
c. To limit the occurrence of over
voltages under various
conditions.
Equipment Earthing: Structure/Equipment/Safety
Earthing : In this metallic body of
Equipments/devices is connected to grounding
grid to prevent electric shocks to any personnel
touching that equipment or device. Like :-
Transformer tank body earthing, Circuit breaker
body earthing, Panel‖s outer body earthing etc.

a. Undertaken to protect human beings/ consumers.

b. If a live source comes to contact with the
equipment body, electric energy will flow to the
earth, without flowing through the human being/
consumer‖s body.
c. This is because of the fact that the human body
has a greater resistance compared with the
resistance of the earth.
Parts of electrical equipments to be
connected to the earth
a. Metal frame of generators, motors and
all metallic parts of the equipments
b. Earth terminal of the three pin lighting
and power plug socket
c. All metallic casing parts of portable
equipments like heater, electric iron
box, refrigerator, hair dryer etc.
d. Metal parts of electrical installations
such as metal conduits, light fittings,
iron clad main switches and
distributors, cable sheaths etc.
Parts of electrical equipments to be
connected to the earth
Usually copper is used for earthing
purpose though galvanized iron wire
can also be used.
 Earth wire is provided in sufficient
thickness to prevent accidental breakage
of the wire.
 Clamps and saddles are used to fix earth
wires.
 Whenever there is a lightning conductor
system installed in a building, its earthing
should not be bonded to the earthing of
the electrical installation.
 Method of Earthing Type of Soil

Wire/ Strip Earthing Rocky Terrain

Rod Earthing Sandy Soil

Pipe Earthing Ordinary Soil

Plate Earthing Ordinary Soil

• Earlier the pipe and plate used for earthing should be covered completely
in layers of charcoal and salt. This is done to decrease the resistance offered
by the earth mass to the current that is coming towards it.
• The practice of using common salt in earthing arrangement is not
recommended nowadays because it corrodes the G.I pipe and also there is a
possibility of earth wire getting cut which results in ceasing of earthing.
Wire/Strip Earthing- A copper wire of enough length is buried in
a horizontal trench.
Rod Earthing- A
galvanized iron rod of
diameter 1.9cm is laid
vertically to a depth of
200-300cm. The
conductor is tied to the
rod with clamps.
The rod seal is made out of
plastic and is fitted when
the earth rod connection is
below water level and
there is possibility of water
entering the inspection pit
from below the ground.
These seals are used along
with the earth pits.
Earth Plate- Solid Copper
Earth plates are made up of
electrolytic grade solid copper sheet.
Solid copper plates provide a long
lasting earthing solution in places
where driving earth rods might be
impractical. They are often installed
together with low- resistance
earthing compound.
Earth Lattice
Earth lattice is made from Copper
Tape of various combination.
Copper tapes are of electrolytic
grade copper. They are often used
on installations such as
telecommunication towers.
.
Inspection Housing Earth Bars
These bars fit into the slots provided in the concrete
inspection housing and are used when multiple
connections to the earth rod are required
Concrete Inspection Pit
Concrete inspection pit is suitable for most types of
earthing and lightning protection installations. It is not
suitable for use in areas where high load, small wheel
vehicles are used. The ;lightweight inspection pit is
recommended in such cases.
Earth Rod Seals
The rod seal is made out of plastic and is fitted when
the earth rod connection is below water level and
there is possibility of water entering the inspection pit
from below the ground. These seals are used along
with the earth pits.
Electrical wiring generally refers to insulated conductor
used to carry current and associated device.
 Factors affecting choice of wiring

1. Durability: Type of wiring selected should conform to standard

specifications, so that it is durable i.e. without being affected by
the weather conditions, fumes etc.
2. Safety: The wiring must provide safety against leakage, shock
and fire hazards for the operating personnel.
3. Appearance: Electrical wiring should give an aesthetic appeal to
the interiors.
4. Cost: It should not be prohibitively expensive.
5. Accessibility: The switches and plug points provided should be
easily accessible. There must be provision for further extension
of the wiring system, if necessary.
6. Maintenance Cost: The maintenance cost should be a minimum.
7. Mechanical safety: The wiring must be protected against any
mechanical damage.
1. Life of installation
2. Future extension or alterations
3. Construction of building
4. Fire hazards or other special conditions
5. Corrosive fumes
6. Dampness
7. Type of wire and material used
8. Nature of load (lighting of power)
9. Safety of the system
10. Cost of wiring system
Mainly 3 types of wiring in accordance with the use:

1. Domestic Wiring
2. Commercial Wiring
3. Industrial Wiring

Types of wiring
1. Cleat Wiring
2. CTS/ TRS Wiring or batten wiring
3. Metal/ Lead sheathed wiring
4. Casing and Capping
5. Conduit Wiring
 Cleat Wiring System

Most economical wiring system when compared

to other types.
• Usually adopted for temporary wiring
purpose other than domestic wiring.
• Initially wooden plugs are driven on the wall
at an interval varying from 0.3m-0.6m.
• This system uses insulated cables sub
protected in porcelain cleats.
• In this type of wiring Vulcanized India
Rubber (V.I.R) or polyvinyl chloride (PVC)
insulated wires are used as conductors.
• Wires are held by the help of porcelain cleat
which are placed 6mm off the walls or
ceilings.
 Cleat Wiring System
2 Groove cleat
Types of cleats:
3 Groove cleat

1 Groove cleat
1 Groove cleat

Field of Application:
1. The wiring of this type is suitable for temporary installations in dry
places.
2. This is also accepted where appearance is not so important and cost is
the main consideration.
 Cleat Wiring System

Advantages
1. Cheapest system of internal wiring
2. Installation and dismantlement is easy and quick
3. Material is recoverable after the dismantlement
4. Inspection, alternations and additions can be easily made
5. Skill required is little

Disadvantages
1. It is not looking good
2. Quit temporary and perishes quickly
3. Wire are exposed to mechanical injury
4. Oil and smoke are injurious to V.I.R insulation
5. Not suitable for domestic premises.
 Wooden Casing & Capping Wiring System

 This is one of the cheapest type of wiring and is commonly used for
house wiring.
 The cable used in this type of wiring is either V.I.R or P.V.C or any
approved insulated cables.
 Casing consist of V-shaped grooves and is covered by rectangular strip
of teak wood known as capping.
 This type of wiring adopted up to 250 V in dry places and in places
where no risk of fire.
 Wooden Casing & Capping Wiring System

Field of application
 This type of wiring is
suitable for low voltage
domestic installations in
dry places and where there
is no risk of fire hazards.
 Wooden Casing & Capping Wiring System

Advantages
1. Better appearance than cleat wiring.
2. Cheap in cost.
3. Easy to install and rewire.
4. Easy to inspect by opening the capping.

Disadvantages
1. Not suitable in damp places.
2. Risk of fire.
3. This type of wiring can only be used on surface and can not be
concealed in plaster.
4. Since it requires better workmanship, labor cost is more.
 C.T.S or T.R.S Wiring System

 This type of wiring is also used for house wiring and is quite
cheap.
 Cab tyre sheathed (C.T.S) wire or tough rubber sheathed (T.R.S)
wire is normally used as conductor for this wiring.

 The wires are run on the teak wooden battens which are fixed
on the wall or the ceiling by means of screws and wooden plugs.
 C.T.S OR T.R.S cables used are not much affected by chemicals ,
water, and steam.
 C.T.S or T.R.S Wiring System

Advantages
1. It is easy to install and repair.
2. It gives better appearance and lasts longer.
3. It is fire proof up to a certain limit.
4. It is cheaper than other types of wiring except cleat wiring.
5. Conductors have strong insulations.
6. Chemicals do not affect the conductor insulation.
Disadvantages
1. The conductors are open and liable to mechanical injury thus
this type of wiring cannot be used in workshops etc.
2. Its used in places open to sun and rain is restricted.
3. Good workmanship is suitable where acids and alkalis to be
present.
 Metal Sheathed Wiring System

 This type of wiring is adopted for low voltage installation.

 This system is similar to C.T.S wiring except that the cable used is
different in this wiring system.
 In this type of system conductors are insulated with V.I.R and then
covered with an outer sheath of lead aluminium alloy containing 95%
lead and 5% aluminium.
 Metal Sheathed Wiring System
 The metal sheath is
provided over the
insulated conductor
in order to protect
system from
mechanical injury ,
dampness, and
atmospheric action.

 Same as C.T.S
wiring system
cables are run on
wooden batten and
are fixed with the
help of tinned link
clips.
 Metal Sheathed Wiring System

Advantages
1. Conductors are protected against mechanical injury.
2. It is suitable employed under damp situations.
3. It gives better appearance.
4. It has longer life.
5. Conductors are protected against chemicals.
6. It can be installed in open space .
Disadvantages
1. Cables are costlier than C.T.S OR T.R.S wires.
2. In case of leakage ,there is risk of shock.
3. Skilled labour and proper supervision is required.
4. It is not suitable for places where chemical corrosion may
occur.
 Metal Sheathed Wiring System

Field of Application
 This wiring system is suitable for low voltage (up to 250V)
installations.
 It may be used in places exposed to sun and rain provided no
joint is exposed.
 It may be used in damp placed with a suitable protective
covering.
 This type of wiring is very common in use these days except for
some small installations and distribution boards etc.
 Conduit Wiring System

 Conduit wiring system is best for

domestic and commercial
installations.
 It provide proper protection to the
installation against fire hazards,
shock, mechanical damage and
dampness.
 The cable used in this system is
either V.I.R or P.V.C insulated and is
run in mild steel or P.V.C pipes
called conduits.
 Conduits carrying the insulated
wires can be installed on the surface
of the walls or concealed in the
walls and the ceiling.
Conduit Wiring System

Modern practice is to
conceal the conduit
in the plaster of the
wall , so that the
appearance of the
house remains
unaffected.
 Conduit Wiring System

Field of application
1. Places where considerable dust of
puff is present such as textile mills,
saw mills, flour mills etc.
2. Damp situations.
3. In workshops for lighting and motor
wiring.
4. Places where there is possibility of
fire hazards such as in oil mills,
varnish factories, etc.
5. Placed where important documents
are kept such as record room.
6. Residential and public buildings
where the appearance is of prime
importance
 Conduit Wiring System

Advantages
1. Conduit provides protection against mechanical injury and fire
& is shock proof.
2. Conduit provides protection against chemicals.
3. The whole system is water proof.
4. Conductors are safety secured from moisture.
5. This wiring has far better look.
6. It has a longer life.
Disadvantages
1. It is costly system of wiring and need time for erection.
2. It requires highly skilled labour.
3. Internal condensation of moisture may cause damage to the
insulation unless the system outlets are drained and ventilated.
 Why protective devices?

All electrical circuits must be protected against over current

therefore a protective device has to be installed in order to isolate the
fault from the supply so as to protect the equipment and appliances
from being damaged .
TYPE OF REASON FOR FAULT
FAULT
Short Circuit Two or more live conductors
touching each other
Overload Adding loads greater than that of
the rated value
Earth fault A phase conductor touching the
protective conductor by means of
direct or indirect contact
 Switch

A switch is a device either used to establish a closed circuit or to

withdraw it.
 When the circuit is established then the switch is said to be in ―ON‖
position.
 when circuit is withdrawn it is said to be in ―OFF‖ position.
 Domestic purpose it is 5A and 15A.
1. Surface Switch
2. Flush Switch
3. Pull Switch or Ceiling Switch
4. Rotary Snap Switch
5. Push Button Switch
6. Iron Clad Water tight Switches
 Switches

Surface Switch
Flush Switch Pull Switch/ Ceiling
Switch

Push Button Switch Rotary Snap Switch Iron Clad Switch

Lamp Holder

Used to hold the lamp at desirable positions and locations.

1. Batten Holder- Fixed on switch board itself. The lamp‖s
fixed into this holder by pressing it with slight rotation.
2. Pendant Holder- Used to hold lamp suspended from
ceiling
3. Angle Holder- Fixed on switch board at an angle.
4. Bracket Holder- Holder used for table lamps

Lamp Holder Adapter

Used for small portable
electric appliances to tap
the power temporarily.
 Lamp Holders & Adaptor

Lamp Holder Adaptor Bracket Holder

Pendant Holder

Batten Holder Angle Holder

 Ceiling Rose

 Device usually fixed in the ceiling/ walls closer to

ceiling.
 Used to tap current for fluorescent lamp, ceiling
fans etc. using a flexible wire.
 Usually of low voltage(250V).
 Made of 2 parts- A base and a cover made of
porcelain.
 Terminals are provided on the cover to take a
flexible wire through it to the electric appliances.
 Plug

Used to tap power from socket

outlets.
Flexible wires from electrical
appliances are usually connected
with this.
2 types – 2pin plug and 3 pin
plug
2 pin plug- Consists of 2 brass
pins of same size in which one is
phase and the other neutral.
3 pin plug- Consists of 3 brass
pins of which the 3rd pin is bigger
in size and connects the appliances
to the earth.
Normally 5A & 15A.
Socket Outlets

 Normally fixed on
the switch board with
or without the control
of a switch.
Has a base with two/
three terminal sleeves.
The 2 thin sleeves
are used to connect
with the phase and
neutral.
A third sleeve which
is slightly larger in
cross section connects
to the earth.
Mounting Blocks

Made of wood, pvc (insulating

material) etc
Used as an insulated base on ceilings
and walls, for fitting electrical devices
such as ceiling rose, batten lamp
holders, surface switches etc.
 Main Switch

 This allows you to turn on and off the electric supply to your unit as this
is the main operating switch to control electric supply. It is switched off
while working on main board.
Found next to energy meter which controls the complete electrical system
of the building.
Also called as iron clad switch and is available in 3 types:
 Double pole iron clad switch(DPIC)- Controls single phase connection
 Triple pole iron clad switch(TPIC)- Controls 3 phase 3 wire system
 Triple pole iron clad switch with neutral link- Controls 3 phase 4 wire
system
Main Switch

Triple pole iron

clad switch(TPIC)

Triple pole iron clad

Double pole switch with neutral link
iron clad
switch(DPIC)
 Fuse

 Provided at many places in electrical installations, especially along with

main switch and at distribution fuse board.
 It is a thin piece of wire with low melting point fixed at its ends in a fuse
plug. The function of a fuse is to protect the electrical appliances from
heavy current.
 Hence whenever a high voltage is passed through a fuse wire it
automatically melts and breaks the circuit.
 Fuse is always provided in the live wire and not on the neutral and
earth.
Cheapest type of protection for any electric circuit.
 Copper, Zinc, Lead, Tin, Aluminium and alloys of lead and Tin are
normally used as fuse wires.
 Fuse

The fuse plug is always made of non-conducting porcelain

material.
Non- Conducting
Porcelain Material

Fuse wire
melts and
breaks the
circuit

Conducting Material
- Fuse Carrier Contact
 Fuse

There are 3 general types of fuses.

1. Re-wirable (semi-enclosed) fuse
2. Cartridge fuse
3. High-rupturing capacity (HRC) fuse – a development of
the cartridge fuse
Fuse
 Fuse- Rewirable Fuse

 Semi-enclosed (re-wirable) fuse is a simple device. It consists of a short

length of wire, generally of tinned copper. The current at which the
wire melts depends on the length of the wire and its cross sectional
area. Although the re-wirable fuse is cheap, involving only the fuse
element, it has a number of disadvantages and limitations as listed
below.

Disadvantages
 Deterioration with time due to oxidation
 Very easy for an inexperienced person to replace a blown fuse-element
with a wire of incorrect size or type
 The time taken for the fuse to blow may be as long as several seconds
during which time considerable electrical and physical damage may
result to the circuit conductors and the equipment being protected.
 Fuse- Cartridge Fuse
 Fully enclosed (cartridge) fuse was
developed to overcome the disadvantages of
the re-wirable type of fuse.
 In its simplest form, the fuse wire is
enclosed in an evacuated glass tube with
metal end caps. Non-deterioration of the
fuse element is one of the most reliable
features and is usually more accurate.
However, cartridge fuses are more
expensive to replace.
 Both re-wirable and cartridge type fuses are
usually of low rupturing capacity (product
of maximum current which the fuse will
interrupt, and the supply voltage). They are
used in general house-hold, commercial
and small scale industrial applications.
Fuse- Cartridge Fuse

Advantages:
 Fuse element does not deteriorate after many years
 Small in size
 Easy and quick to replace
 Needs no maintenance

Disadvantages:
 Does not suit high fault current
 Spare cartridge fuse must be available
 Fuse- High Rupturing Fuse

 The HRC fuse is usually a high-

grade ceramic barrel containing
the fuse element.
 The barrel is usually filled with
sand, which helps to quench the
resultant arc produced when the
element melts.
 With a specific current, the
temperature rises and the bridge
melts producing a break in the
circuit.
 The metal vapour diffuses with
silica powder and the product is of
high resistance.
 The HRC fuses are expensive to
replace once blown.
 Distribution Fuse Board

A distribution board (also known as panel board or breaker panel) is a

component of an electricity supply system which divides an electrical
power feed into subsidiary circuits, while providing a protective fuse or
circuit breaker for each circuit in a common enclosure.
 Electrical equipment includes any machine powered by
electricity.
 Usually consists of an enclosure, a variety of electrical
components and often a power switch.
 They usually refer to components of the electrical distribution
system
Electrical Equipments include:
 Electric Switch Boards
 Distribution Boards
 Circuit Breakers
 Electricity Meters
 Transformers
 It‖s a device that directs electricity from one or more sources of supply
to several smaller regions of usage.
 It is an assembly of one or more panels, each of which contains
switches that allow electricity to redirected.

Statement:
A large single panel, frame or assembly of panels on which are mounted,
on the face, back or both, switches, over-current and other protective
devices, buses and usually instruments.

 The role of switch board is to allow division of the current supplied to

the switch board into smaller currents for further distribution and to
provide switching, current protection and possibly metering for
various currents.
• There will be one or more bus bars.
Busbars:
• These are flat strips of copper or aluminium, to
which the switchgear is connected. They carry
large currents through switch board and are
supported by insulators. Bare busbars are common
but now they come in insulating cover on the bars,
leaving only connection points exposed.
• Electrocution is avoided by safety switches and
fuses.
•There are also controls for the supply of current to
switch board so that amount of power entering and
leaving switch board will be the same.
• They are metal enclosed dead front construction,
no energized parts are
accessible when the covers and panels are closed.
•Open switchboards were made with switches and
other devices were mounted on panels made of slate,
granite etc.
•The metal enclosure is bonded to earth ground.
•Large switchboards may be free standing floor
mounted enclosures with incoming connections
from the top or bottom.
•Switchboard has incoming bus bars or ducts for
source connections and for feeding large
connections.
•It also includes a metering compartment separated
from the power distribution conductors.
Switch Boards distribute power to the following devices:

Panel Boards

Control
Transformers Equipment

System
Loads
•Also known as panel board
or breaker panel is a
component of an electric
supply system which divides
an electric power feed into
subsidiary circuits, while
providing a protective fuse
or circuit breaker for each
circuit in a common
enclosure.
•Normally a main switch
and one or more over
residual current devices are
also incorporated.
•Itis an automatically operated electrical switch designed to protect an
electrical circuit from damage caused by overload or short circuit.
•Basic function is to detect a fault condition and interrupt current flow.
•Unlike a fuse which operates once and must be replaced, a circuit breaker
can be reset to resume normal operation.
Miniature circuit breaker (MCB)
You can find the miniature circuit breaker (MCB) in
consumer units (CU) .

Advantages
• Shorter tripping time
• Can be reused
• Easy to reset
•Has a switch that can isolate the equipment

Disadvantages
• The most expensive protection device for home use
• Slow tripping time due to aging
• Surrounding temperature may affect the MCB
•It is a device that
measure the amount of
electric energy
consumed by a
residence, business or
an electrically powered
device.
•Electric utilities use
electric meters installed
at customers premises
to measure energy
delivered for billing
purposes.
 Lightning Conductor- Purpose
 A lightning protection system is designed to
protect a structure from damage due
to lightning strikes, by intercepting such
strikes and safely passing their extremely
high currents to ground.
 It includes a network of air terminals,
bonding conductors, and ground electrodes
designed to provide a low impedance path to
ground for potential strikes.
 They are used to prevent or lessen lightning
strike damage to structures.
 Lightning protection systems mitigate the fire
hazard which lightning strikes pose to
structures.
 No protection system can guarantee absolute
safety from lightning.
 Lightning Conductor

 A lightning conductor is a metal

rod or metallic object mounted on
top of an elevated structure, such as
building, a ship, or even a tree,
electrically bonded using a wire or
electrical conductor to interface
with ground or earth through an
electrode, engineered to protect the
structure in the event of lightning.
 If lightning hits the structure, it will
preferentially strike the rod and be
conducted to ground through the
wire instead of passing through the
structure, where it could damage it
causing an electrocution.
Lightning Conductor

 In a lightning protection
system, a lightning rod is a
single component of the system.
The lightning rod requires a
connection to earth to perform
its protective function.
 It may come in different forms,
including hollow, solid,
pointed, rounded, flat strips or
even bristle brush-like. The
main attribute common to all
lightning rods is that they are
all made of conductive
materials, such as copper and
aluminium.
 Lightning Conductor- Purpose

 The parts of a lightning protection system are air terminals (lightning

rods or strike termination devices), bonding conductors, ground terminals
(ground or "earthing" rods, plates, or mesh), and all of the connectors and
supports to complete the system.
 Connections to the earth electrodes must have low resistance.
 No lightning protection system can be relied upon to "contain" or "control"
lightning completely (nor thus far, to prevent lightning strikes entirely),
but they do seem to help immensely on most occasions of lightning
strikes.
 Steel framed structures can bond the structural members to earth to
provide lightning protection. A metal flagpole with its foundation in the
earth is its own extremely simple lightning protection system. However,
the flag(s) flying from the pole during a lightning strike may be
completely incinerated.
 Lightning Conductor- Purpose

 The majority of lightning protection

systems in use today are of the
traditional Franklin design. The
fundamental principle used in Franklin-
type lightning protections systems is to
provide a sufficiently low impedance path
for the lightning to travel through to
reach ground without damaging the
building.
 This is accomplished by surrounding the
building in a kind of Faraday cage. A
system of lightning protection conductors
and lightning rods are installed on the
roof of the building to intercept any
lightning before it strikes the building.
 Communications

Communications
 Transfer of information from one
place to another.
 Should be efficient, reliable and
secured.
 A communication system is a
process of conveying information
from a source to a destination
Communication system
 Components/subsystems act
together to accomplish information
transfer/exchange
 An electronic communication
system is transferring information
using an electrical field as a mean
of signal
 Communication Systems

 It is a collection of individual communication networks.

 Transmission system
 Stations
 Data terminal equipment
 NOISE- Degrades or interferes with transmitted information

 The above networks are all capable of : interconnection.

Eg: Sports Broadcasting, Mass Media, Journalism
 Types of Communication Systems
By Media- Optical Communication System
 Uses light as medium
 Tranmitter- encodes message into an optical signal
 Channel- which carries signal to destination
 Receiver- reproduces the message from the received optical signal.
 Fibre Optic communication systems transmit information by passing light
through the optical fibre.
 The light forms an electromagnetic carrier wave that is modulated to carry
information.
 Types of Communication Systems
By Media- Radio Communication System
 Uses free space as medium
 Transmitting Conductor- Electric
Oscillations or currents are produced
which is propagated through the medium
 Receiving Conductor- Adapted to be
exited by the oscillations from the
transmitting conductor.
By Media- Power Line Communication
System
 Operates by a modulated carrier signal
on power lines.
 Different power lines use different
frequency bands depending on signal
transmission of the power line being
used.
 Types of Communication Systems

By Technology- Simplex
Communication System
 Sends signals only in
one direction
Eg: Intercom

By Media- Duplex
Communication System
 Two devices that can
communicate with one
another in both
directions
Eg: Defense
Communication System
Telecommunication
Pathways
 The physical path and
supporting structures
through which inter-
building and intra-building
communications cabling is
routed.
 Pathway components may
include cable trays,
conduits, raceways, “J-
hooks”, manholes, duct
banks, and other facilities
installed for the protection,
concealment, and support
of communications cabling.
 Telecommunication Pathways

Telecommunication Rooms
An enclosed area housing
telecommunications cabling, patch
panels, and interconnections, sometimes
referred to as a “telecommunications
closet.”
 Generally, one or more
telecommunications rooms on each floor
of a building serve as distribution points
for communications cabling installed to
locations on that floor. These
intermediate rooms also serve as a
demarcation point between the
horizontal cabling for end-users and the
building‖s backbone cabling system
 Telecommunication Cabling System

A term for wire or optical fiber cables intended to be used in the

transmission of voice, video, or data signals
There are 6 prominent components of the cabling systems:
1. Building Entrance Facility
2. Equipment Room
3. Backbone Pathways
4. Telecommunications Room
5. Horizontal Pathways
6. Work Area
 Telecommunication Cabling System
Entrance Facility
Any location where telecommunication
services enters into a building and where
backbone pathways linking to other buildings
in a campus environment is located.
The entrance facility may contain public
network interface devices as well as
telecommunications equipment.
Equipment Room
Any space where telecommunications
equipment common to the occupants of a
building resides.
Inter-Building Pathways
It is used to connect separate buildings. It can
be underground, buried, aerial and tunnel as
the main pathway used.
 Telecommunication Cabling System

Intra-Building Pathway
Used to place backbone cables between
equipment room and the entrance facility,
the entrance facility and the
telecommunications room or the
equipment room and the
telecommunication rooms.
 Vertical Backbone Pathway- Made up of
vertically aligned telecommunication
rooms- Rooms located on separate floors.
 Horizontal Backbone Pathway- used in
cases where rooms cannot be vertically
aligned one above the other or if rooms
cannot be vertically aligned with entrance
facility.
 Telecommunication Cabling System
Telecommunication Room
A space that acts as the common
acccess point between backbone
and Horizontal pathway.
Horizontal Pathways
Used in the installation of
horizontal cabling from the work
area outlet to the
telecommunications room.
Work Area
Locations where building
occupants interact with
telecommunications devices.
Work areas should have sufficient
room for the occupant and
required equipment.
Rate of information transfer
 The rate of information transfer is
defined as the amount of
information that must be
communicated from source to
destination.
 It will determined the physical form
and technique used to transmit and
receive information and therefore
determines the way system is
designed and constructed

Purity of signal received

 The received signal must be the
same as the transmitted signal
Simplicity of the system
 Any communication
system must be convenient
in order to be effective and
efficient and easy to use

Reliability
 Users must be able to
depend on a
communication system. It
must work when needed
and transmit and receive
information without errors
or with an acceptable
error.
Input
Message Input
Transducer Transmitter

noise Channel

Output Transmission
Message medium
Output
Transducer Receiver
 Input Transducer
To convert the message to a form suitable for the particular type of
communication system.
Eg: Speech waves are converted to voltage variation by a microphone.
Transmitter
Processes the input signal  to produce a transmitted signal that suited
the characteristic of transmission channel.
Eg: modulation, coding
Other functions performed:
Amplification, filtering
Channel (Transmission medium)
A medium that bridges the distance from source to destination.
Eg: Atmosphere (free space), coaxial cable, fiber optic, waveguide, Signal
undergoes degradation from noise, interference and distortion.
The two main categories of channel
commonly used are:

Line (conducted media)

The channel is made up metallic cable
(such as coaxial cable, twisted pair,
parallel wires, and others) or fibre
optic cable.

Free space or radiated media

This is the medium where the
transmission of signal is carried out
by the propagation of electromagnet
wave.
The main applications are in radio
broadcasting, microwaves and
satellites transmission systems.
Receiver
To extract the desired signal from the
output channel and to convert it to a
form suitable for the output
transducer.
Eg: Demodulation, decoding
Other functions performed:
Amplification, filtering.

Output Transducer
Converts the electrical signal at its
input into a form desired by the
system used.
Eg: Loudspeaker, PC and tape-
recorders.
Various unwanted undesirable
effect crop up in transmissions:
Attenuation
Reduces signal strength at the
receiver
Noise
Distortion  Random and unpredictable electrical
Waveform perturbation caused by signals from internal or external to the
imperfect response of the system to system
the desired signal itself  The term SNR (signal to noise ratio) is
Equalizer can be used to reduced used to measure performance (noise)
the effect relative to an information analog
signal.
Interference  The term BER (Bit Error Rate) is used
Contamination by extraneous in digital system to measure the
signals from human sources deterioration of the signal
However, each medium
introduces losses termed as
attenuation, distortion and
adds noise to some degree to
the transmitted signal. The
amount of attenuation,
distortion and noise depends
on the type of transmission
medium used.

There is normally no signal

processing in the transmission
medium, it is just the medium
where the transmitter is
connected to the receiver.
The signal can be analog or
digital message:
 Analog
 Continuous Variation
- Assumes the total range of
frequencies/time
 All information is
transmitted.

 Digital
 Takes samples
- non-continuous stream of
on/off pulses
 Translates to 1s and 0s
Digital CS Analog CS
Advantages: Disadvantages:
 Inexpensive  Expensive
 Privacy preserved (Data  No privacy preserved
encrypt.)  Cannot merge different data
 Can merge different data  No error correction
 Error correction capability

Disadvantages: Advantages:
 Larger bandwidth  Smaller bandwidth
 Synchronization problem is  Synchronization problem is
relatively difficult. relatively easier.
 Baseband Signal
 Base band signal is the modulating
signal/original information signal
either in a digital or analog form
(intelligent/message) in
communication system
 Transmission of original
information whether analog or
digital, directly into transmission
medium is called baseband
transmission.
Modulated Signal
Modulated signal is baseband signal
which its original frequency is
shifted to higher frequency to
facilitate transmission purposes
 Modulation

Block Diagram of Modulation Process
Process of changing
baseband signals to
facilitate the
transmission medium
 Process of modulation
 Frequency
translation such as
AM, FM, PM etc
 Sampling and
coding such as
PAM, PCM etc
 Keying such as Baseband MODULATION Modulated
ASK, FSK etc PROCESS
signal signal

Carrier
The need of baseband transmission:
 The concepts and parameter of
baseband transmission are used in
modulated transmission
 Performance of baseband transmission is
used as the standard for comparing
modulation techniques

Baseband signal is not suitable for long

distance communication because:
 Hardware limitation (eg: requires very
long antenna)
 Interference with other waves
 Types of modulation :
 Analog modulations are
frequency translation
method caused by
changing the
appropriate quantity in
a carrier signal
 Digital modulation is the
result of changing
analog signal into binary
ones by sampling and
coding
 Keying modulations are
digital signals
subsequently modulated
by the frequency
modulation by using one
or other analog method
 Reduce noise and interference
 By using proper frequency where noise and interference are at
minimum
 Increasing power is costly and may damage equipment

 Frequency Assignment
 For TV and radio broadcasting, each station has a different assigned
carrier

 Multiplexing
 Combining several signals for simultaneous transmission on one
channel by placing each signal on different carrier frequency
There are two categories of limitations:
 Technological constraint
 Equipment ability
 Economy and cost factor
 National and international law and agreement as well as
standardization (such as ITU etc)
 Interaction with existing system
 Physical constraint
 Bandwidth- The difference between the upper frequency and lower
frequency of the signal or the equipment operation range
 Noise- Any unwanted electrical energy present in the usable passband
of a communication circuit
1. Surveillance cameras,
2. Fire alarm systems,
3. Intruder/Burglar alarms,
4. Electronic article surveillance,
5. Electronic lock, are some of the
Electronic security devices
which have been invented and
developed these days.
 Surveillance cameras are video cameras also called as Closed Circuit
Television (CCTV) camera used for the purpose of observing an area.
They are often connected to a recording device or IP network, and may
be watched by a security guard or law enforcement officer.
 Surveillance Cameras

 The amount of footage

is also drastically
reduced by motion
sensors which only
record when motion is
detected. With
cheaper production
techniques,
surveillance cameras
are simple and
inexpensive enough to
be used in home
security systems, and
for everyday
surveillance.
 Fire Alarm Systems

 An automatic fire alarm system is

designed to detect the unwanted presence
of fire by monitoring environmental
changes associated with combustion.
 In general, a fire alarm system is classified
as either automatically actuated, manually
actuated, or both.
 Automatic fire alarm systems are intended
to notify the building occupants to
evacuate in the event of a fire or other
emergency, report the event to an off-
premises location in order to summon
emergency services, and to prepare the
structure and associated systems to
control the spread of fire and smoke.
Fire Alarm Systems
 Burglar Alarm Systems

 A burglar alarm is a system designed to detect intrusion –unauthorized

entry– into a building or area. They are also called security
alarms, security systems, alarm systems, intrusion detection
systems, perimeter detection systems, and similar terms.
 Burglar alarms are used in residential, commercial, industrial, and
military properties for protection against burglary (theft) or property
damage, as well as personal protection against intruders.
 Car alarms likewise protect vehicles and their contents.
 Prisons also use security systems for control of inmates.
 Some alarm systems serve a single purpose of burglary protection;
combination systems provide both fire and intrusion protection.
 Intrusion alarm systems may also be combined with closed-circuit
television surveillance systems to automatically record the activities of
intruders, and may interface to access control systems for electrically
locked doors.
Burglar Alarm Systems

 Systems
range from
small, self-
contained
noisemake
rs, to
complicate
d, multi-
area
systems
with
computer
monitoring
and
control.
 Electronic article surveillance
(EAS) is a technological method
for
preventing shoplifting from retail
stores or pilferage of books from
libraries. Special tags are fixed
to merchandise or books.
 These tags are removed or
deactivated by the clerks when
the item is properly bought or
checked out.
 At the exits of the store, a
detection system sounds
an alarm or otherwise alerts the
staff when it senses active tags.
 Some stores also have detection systems at the entrance to the bathrooms
that sound an alarm if someone tries to take unpaid merchandise with
them into the bathroom.
 Electronic Lock

 An electronic lock (or electric lock) is

a locking device which operates by means
of electric current. Electric locks are
sometimes stand-alone with an electronic
control assembly mounted directly to the
lock.
 More often electric locks are connected to
an access control system.
 The advantages of an electric lock
connected to an access control system
include: key control, where keys can be
added and removed without re-keying the
lock cylinder; fine access control, where
time and place are factors; and transaction
logging, where activity is recorded.
 Authentication Method of Electronic Lock

 Numerical codes, passwords and passphrases

Perhaps the most prevalent form of electronic lock is that using a numerical
code for authentication; the correct code must be entered in order for the
lock to deactivate. Such locks typically provide a keypad, and some feature
an audible response to each press. Combination lengths are usually between
4 and 6 digits long.
A variation on this design involves the user entering the correct password
or passphrase.

 Security tokens
Another means of authenticating users is to require them to scan or "swipe"
a security token such as a smart card or similar, or to interact a token with
the lock. For example, some locks can access stored credentials on a personal
digital assistant (PDA) using infrared data transfer methods.
 Authentication Method of Electronic Lock

 Biometrics
 As biometrics become more and more prominent as a recognized means
of positive identification, their use in security systems increases.
 Some new electronic locks take advantage of technologies such
as fingerprint scanning, retinal scanning and iris scanning,
and voiceprint identification to authenticate users.
 Authentication Method of Electronic Lock

 RFID
 Radio-frequency
identification (RFID) is the
use of an object (typically
referred to as an RFID tag)
applied to or incorporated
into a product, animal, or
person for the purpose of
identification and tracking
using radio waves.
 Some tags can be read from
several meters away and
beyond the line of sight of the
reader.
 This technology is also used
in modern electronic locks.
 Computer Labs

 Computer lab is a place which provides computer services.

 Computer labs can be found in libraries, schools, government buildings,
science labs, community center, companies with IT departments that
requires such a place for their employees to do their jobs, and research
centers. Printers, scanners, and other peripherals may augment the lab
setup.
 An Internet Cafe differs from a computer lab in that usage of a computer
lab is generally free for those with access, while Internet cafés charge for
computer use
 Server Rooms

 A server room is a room, usually air-

conditioned, devoted to the continuous
operation of computer servers. An entire
building or station devoted to this purpose
is a data center.
 Climate is one of the factors that affects the
energy consumption and environmental
impact of a server room. In areas where
climate favors cooling and an abundance
of renewable electricity, the environmental
effects will be more moderate.
 Thus countries with favorable conditions,
such as: Canada, Finland, Sweden, and
Switzerland are trying to attract more
companies to site their server rooms there.
Transformer is not an energy conversion device, but it is device that changes
AC electrical power at one voltage level into AC electrical power at another
voltage level through the action of magnetic field but with a proportional
increase or decrease in the current ratings., without a change in frequency.

Operating Principle
 Mutual Induction Principle
 Acc. to the principle
 Whenever a current carrying conductor is wounded(primary) on one
side of a laminated core (combination of several square metal plates
whose centre part is removed in the shape of Electrical equipment
includes any machine powered by electricity.
 Transformers

 A transformer is a device that changes

AC electric power at one voltage level
to AC electric power at another
voltage level through the action of a
magnetic field.
 Transformers provide much needed
capability of changing the voltage and
current levels easily.
 They are used to step-up generator
voltage to an appropriate voltage
level for power transfer.
 Stepping down the transmission
voltage at various levels for
distribution and power utilization.
 There is no electrical contact between
them
 The desire change in voltage or
current without any change in
frequency
 Structure of Transformers

 The transformer has two inductive coils ,these are electrically separated
but linked through a common magnetic current circuit
 These two coils have a high mutual induction
 One of the two coils is connected of alternating voltage. This coil in which
electrical energy is fed with the help of source is called primary winding.
 The other winding is connected to a load, the electrical energy is
transformed to this winding drawn out to the load. This winding is called
secondary winding.
 The primary and secondary coil wound on a ferromagnetic metal core
 The function of the core is to transfer the changing magnetic flux from the
primary coil to the secondary coil
 The primary has N1 no of turns and the secondary has N2 no of turns the
of turns plays major important role in the function of transformer
Structure of Transformers
 Working Principle

 The transformer works in the principle of mutual induction


“The principle of mutual induction states that when the two coils
are inductively coupled and if the current in coil change uniformly
then the e.m.f. induced in the other coils. This e.m.f can drive a
current when a closed path is provide to it.”

 When the alternating current flows in the primary coils, a changing

magnetic flux is generated around the primary coil.
 The changing magnetic flux is transferred to the secondary coil through
the iron core
 The changing magnetic flux is cut by the secondary coil, hence induces an
e.m.f in the secondary coil
Working Principle
 Working Principle

 Now if load is
connected to a
secondary winding,
this e.m.f drives a
current through it
 The magnitude of the
output voltage can be
controlled by the ratio
of the no. of primary
coil and secondary
coil
The frequency of mutually induced e.m.f A is same
as that of the alternating source which supplies to
the primary winding B
 Construction of Transformer

These are two basic of transformer construction

 Magnetic core
 Windings or coils
Magnetic core
 The core of transformer either square or rectangular type in size
 It is further divided into two parts vertical and horizontal
 The vertical portion on which coils are wounds called limb while
horizontal portion is called yoke. these parts are
 Core is made of laminated core type constructions, eddy current losses get
minimize.
 Generally high grade silicon steel laminations (0.3 to 0.5mm) are used
Construction of Transformer
Construction of Transformer
 Windings

 Conducting material is used in

the winding of the
transformer
 The coils are used are wound
on the limbs and insulated
from each other
 The two different windings
are wounds on two different
limbs
 The leakage flux increases
which affects the performance
and efficiency of transformer
 To reduce the leakage flux it is
necessary that the windings
should be very close to each
other to have high mutual
induction
Classification of Transformer
As per phase As per Core As per Cooling System
Single Phase Core Type Self Cooled
Three Phase Shell Type Air Cooled
Oil Cooled
 Single Phase Transformer

 In this two or more windings are coupled by a common magnetic core.

 Three Phase Transformer

Normally , when three-phase is required, a single enclosure with three

primary and three secondary windings wound on a common core is all that
is required.
However three single-phase transformers with the same rating can be
connected to form a three-phase bank. Since each single-phase transformer
has a primary and a secondary winding, then 3 single-phase transformers
will have the required 3 primary and 3 secondary windings and can be
connected.
 Core Type Transformer

 In this, One magnetic

circuit and cylindrical
coils are used
 Normally L and T shaped
laminations are used
 Commonly primary
winding would on one
limb while secondary on
the other but
performance will be
reduce
 To get high performance
it is necessary that the
two winding should be
very close to each other
Core & Shell Type Transformer
Shell Type Transformer
 Shell Type Transformer

 In this type two magnetic

circuit are used
 The winding is wound on
central limbs
 For the shell type each high
voltage winding lie between
two low voltage portion
sandwiching the high voltage
winding
 Sub division of windings
reduces the leakage flux
 Greater the number of sub
division lesser the reactance
 This type of construction is used
for high voltage
 Types of Transformer

STEP UP TRANSFORMER
• A transformer in which voltage across secondary is greater than primary
voltage is called a step-up transformer (shown in figure)
• In this type of transformer, Number of turns in secondary coil is greater
than that in Primary coil, so this creates greater voltage across secondary
coil to get more output voltage than given through primary coil.
 Types of Transformer

STEP DOWN TRANSFORMER

• A transformer in which voltage across secondary is lesser than primary
voltage is called a step-down transformer (shown in figure)
• In this type of transformer, Number of turns in secondary coil is lesser
than that in Primary coil, so this creates lesser voltage across secondary
coil, so we get low output voltage than given through primary coil.
 Losses in Transformers

Copper losses:
It is due to power wasted in the form of I2Rdue to resistance of primary
and secondary. The magnitude of copper losses depend upon the
current flowing through these coils.

The iron losses depend on the supply voltage while the

copper depend on the current .the losses are not dependent
on the phase angle between current and voltage .hence the
rating of the transformer is expressed as a product o f
voltage and current called VA rating of transformer. It is not
expressed in watts or kilowatts. Most of the timer, is rating is
expressed in KVA.
 Losses in Transformers

Hysteresis loss:
During magnetization and demagnetization ,due to hysteresis effect some
energy losses in the core called hysteresis loss
Eddy current loss:
The leakage magnetic flux generates the E.M.F in the core produces current
is called of eddy current loss.
 Ideal Vs Practical Transformers

A transformer is said to be
ideal if it satisfies the
following properties, but no
transformer is ideal in
practice.
 It has no losses
 Windings resistance are
zero
 There is no flux leakage
 Small current is required
to produce the magnetic
field
While the practical
transformer has windings
resistance, some leakage
flux and has lit bit losses
 Applications & Uses of Transformers

 The transformer used in television and photocopy machines

 The transmission and distribution of alternating power is possible by
transformer
 Simple camera flash uses fly back transformer
 Signal and audio transformer are used couple in amplifier

Today transformer is become an essential part of

electrical engineering