Unit 1

Section 1 Acoustics
Sound: Sound is a pressure wave.
Which propagates in a medium by
compression (sanghanan) and
rarefaction (vighanan). It is an adiabatic
(samoshmi) process where heat transfer
will be zero. It requires medium for
propagation figure 1.
Period (τ) = the time between successive
waveform peaks
Frequency (in cycles/sec or Hertz) =
Figure 1 1/period, f = 1/τ
Acoustics is the study of sound which deals with,
 Origin Properties
 Propagation (by contraction and rarefaction)
 Action on an obstacle [absorption , reflection ,transmission
Architectural Acoustics: It is a science of producing good quality sound by
developing aspects of any architectural building
 Classification of sound on the basis of frequency:
1) Infrasonic (subsonic) f<20 Hz
2) Audio 20Hz<f<20 kHz
3) Ultrasonic(supersonic) f>20 kHz
Characteristics Of Sound:
1) Pitch (Related to frequency): It is a subjective sensation perceived
when a tone of given frequency is sounded. It enables to classify a music note
as high or low and to distinguish between shrill sound and flat sound of the
same intensity sounded on the same musical instrument. Pitch is directly
proportional to frequency. As frequency increases, pitch increases and vice-
versa. Frequency is physical quantity so can be measured accurately while
pitch is physiological quantity which is merely a sensation experienced by a
listener so varies from person to person.
2) Loudness (Related to intensity): Loudness signifies how far and to
what extent sound is audible. It is a subjective quantity so varies from person
to person.
Weber-Fechner law: Perceived loudness/brightness is proportional to log of
actual intensity measured with an accurate nonhuman instrument.
L=klog10I, where k is proportionality constant depends on sensitivity of ear and
quality of sound. Let be the initial intensity which produces loudness then,
(1)
If the intensity is doubled, becomes 2 . So the loudness can be given by,
(2)

(3)
Equation (3) implies that loudness increases by the same amount whenever
intensity is doubled, irrespective of the initial intensity.
3) Timbre (Related to quality): Timber is a subjective quantity which can
be used to distinguish between the same note played on different instruments
or sung by different singers. If two instruments have the same fundamental
frequency but different overtones, they are said to have two different timbre.
Note: Higher frequencies are interpreted as a higher pitch. For example,
when you sing in a high-pitched voice you are forcing your vocal chords
to vibrate quickly.
Audible sound can be further classified according to their frequency spectrum
as (1) Musical sound and (2) Noise.
Sr.
Musical sound (Voice) Noise
no
1. They produce pleasing sensation They produce irritating sensation
2. They are periodic vibrations They are non-periodic vibrations.
They have complex spectrum of
3. They have line spectrum of frequency
frequency
Sudden changes in amplitude do not Sudden changes in amplitude do
4.
occur. occur.
Musical instruments like drum, Traffic, firing of crackers, flying of
5.
harmonium, sitar etc. aeroplane etc.
Acoustical property comparisons
Property Air Water Rock
Speed (m/s) 340 1500 2000-5000
Density (g/cm )3 0.001 1 2-3

Intensity of sound in Sound intensity level in dB Sound Pressure in

w/m2 Pa
1 120 (Threshold of feeling) 20
10-2 100 2
10 -4 80 0.2
10 -6 60 0.02
10 -8 40 0.002
10 -10 20 0.0002
 10-12 (Threshold of hearing 0 0.00002
/Standard Intensity)
Standard Intensity: The minimum sound which can be heard by human ears.
Threshold of feeling: The sound which offers painful effect by human ears.
Physical significance of a decibel: The smallest change in intensity level that
the human ear can detect is 1 dB.

It means that change in intensity by 26% increases the intensity by 1 dB.

That means when two sounds differ by 20dB, the louder of them is 100 times
more intense.
Reverberation: The persistence or prolongation of a sound in a hall even the
source of sound is cut off is called reverberation.
Reverberation time: It is the time required for the sound intensity to fall below
one millionth of its original intensity once the source of sound is cut off.
Sabine’s formula for reverberation time: Wallance C. Sabine(1868-1919),
professor in physics, Harward University U.S.A. was assigned to improve the
acoustics of Art Museum hall of the university. For this work he studied
different factors like loudness, echelon effect, reverberation time etc. He found
that reverberation time is one of the most important factor for the architectural
acoustics.

where k= proportionality constant and its

value determined by experiments was 0.167

∑
Where are
their surface areas.
Absorption coefficient a: It is the ratio of sound energy absorbed by it to the
total energy incident on it. An area of 1m2 open window is standard unit of
absorption as all the energy falling on it passes through it.
Or It is the reciprocal of the area of sound absorbing material which absorbs
the same amount of sound energy as that of 1m2 of an open window. eg. if
sound absorbing material of 5m2 absorbs the same amount of sound energy
as absorbed by 1m2 of an open window. Absorption coefficient of the material is
given by 1/5 =0.20sabine.
Measurement of Absorption Coefficient a: Let T1 be the reverberation time of
an empty hall of volume V, absorption coefficient a and area s.
(1)
Let T2 be the reverberation time of the hall after inserting the sound absorbing
material of absorption coefficient a1 and surface area s1.
(2)
Taking reciprocal of equations (1) and (2),
(3)

(4)
Taking the difference of equation (3) and (4)
(5)

a1 = * + (6)
The absorption coefficient of the hall can be calculated by knowing the values
of reverberation times T1, T2 and surface area s1 and volume of the given hall.
Factors affecting Acoustics of Building: Seven factors can affect the
acoustics of a building. They are
1) Reverberation Time: It is the
time required for the sound intensity
to fall below one millionth of its
original intensity once the source of
sound is cut off (figure 2). It has to be
maintained at optimum value. For a
hall of 10,000 m3, reverberation period
Figure 2
is between 1.0 to 1.5 seconds and 1.5
to 2.0 second for music.
It can be optimized by providing adequate windows and doors, Walls being
coated by absorbent materials.
2) Loudness: Large grounding boards behind the speakers and facing the
audience, by using public address system like loud speakers.
3) Focusing due to walls and ceilings and interference Effects: Curved
surfaces should be avoided. If curved surfaces are present, they should be
covered by suitable sound absorbing materials
4) Echo: Echo is a reflected sound wave coming from the same source with
time interval of 1/T second as shown in figure
3. If the time interval between the direct and the
reflected sound is less than 1/15th of a second,
the reflected sound is helpful in increasing the
loudness but those sounds arriving later than
this cause confusion.
The wall should be covered with absorbent
materials to avoid this.
Figure 3 5) Echelon Effect: It refers to the
generation sound due to multiple
echoes as shown in figure 4. A set of railings or
railings or any regular reflecting surface
surface produces the echelon effect. This
This echelon effect affects the quality of the
of the original sound.The remedy to avoid
avoid echelon effect is to cover such surfaces
surfaces with sound absorbing materials.
6) Resonance: Resonance occurs due to the matching of frequency. In case,
if the window panels and sections of wooden portions have not been tightly
fitted they may start vibrating creating sound in
Figure 4
addition to the sound produced in the hall or the
room.
Remedy: The resonance may be avoided by fixing the window properly. Any
other vibrating object which may produce resonance can be placed over a
suitable sound absorbing material.
7) Focusing and interference Effect: The presence of any curved surface
(figure 5) in the hall makes the sound
concentrated at the focus point and due to this
the loudness decreases at other regions. This
region is known as dead region.
8) Noise: The hall or room should be
properly insulated from external and internal
noises. In general, there are three types of
noises.
 Air borne noise: Extraneous noises which
Figure 5
are coming from outside through open windows,
doors and ventilators are known as air borne noise. The air borne noise can be
avoided by following the below remedies.
Remedies: The hall or room can be made air conditioned. By using doors and
windows with separate frames having proper sound insulating material
between them.
 Structure borne noise: The noise which is conveyed through the
structure of the building is called structure borne noise. The structural
vibration may occur due to street traffic, operation of heavy machines etc.
Remedies: This noise can be eliminated by using double walls with air space
between them. By using antivibration mounts this type of noise can be
reduced. By covering the floor and walls with proper sound absorbing material
this noise can be eliminated.
 Inside noise: The noises which are produced inside the hall or room is
called inside noise. The inside noise may be produced due to machineries like
air conditioners, refrigerators, generators, fans, typewriters etc.
Remedies: The sound producing machineries can be placed over sound
absorbing materials like carpet, pads, wood, felt etc. By using curtains of
sound absorbing materials. By covering the floor, wall and ceiling with sound
absorbing materials. Sound absorbing material helps in obtaining optimum
reverberation time of a hall or a theatre.
Properties of sound absorbing materials:
1) They should be highly porous.
2) They should be cheap and easily available.
3) They should be easy to fix and good looking.
4) They should be light in weight and durable.
5) They should be water proof and fire proof.
6) They should be efficient over a wide range of frequencies.
Classification of sound absorbing materials:
1) Porous absorbent: When sound waves strike a porous material, a small
part of the wave gets reflected, while the major part of sound enters into the
porous material and gets converted into heat energy hence it becomes
inaudible and do not create interference.
e. g. fiber board, soft plastic, rock wood, wool wood, glass silk etc.
2) Cavity resonator: A chamber with a small opening is known as a cavity
resonator. The sound waves which enter the cavity gets multiple reflections
become inaudible. These materials are used in air condition plants.
3) Resonant absorbent / Panel absorbent: When sound energy is incident
on these materials, it gets converted into heat due to flexural vibration of the
panel.e. g. Gypsum board, hard board panels, wood board, suspended plasters,
rigid plastic board panels. Composite type absorbent
4) Composite type absorbent: When the functions of all the three types
described above are combined in a single unit, it is known as Composite type
absorbent. When the sound energy strikes the panel, it passes through it and
is damped by resonance of air in the cavity. e.g. Empty jars and bottles,
perforated cardboard boards etc.
Noise Pollution: The unwanted sound waves which are dumped into the
atmosphere are known as noise pollution. These sound waves produce
unpleasant effect and create adverse effects to human health. Noise pollution is
of mainly two types: industrial noise which is produced by movement of
vehicles, explosions etc and non-industrial noise is produced by loud speakers,
radio, construction work etc.
Noise control in machines:
1) Insulating the source with sound reducing houses
2) Providing a dynamic balance to vibrating machine
3) Using large work area consisting of good sound absorbing materials
4) Reducing structure born noise using double doors or walls with air spaces
between them.
5) Providing sound reducing ear muffs and plugs to all the workers.
6) Isolating machine area from offices, show rooms etc.
Solved examples:
1. If the intensity of the sound wave is increased to 40 times its value,
by how many decibel the intensity level increase?
Given:
10x1.6020=16.20 dB
1. Calculate the intensity level of plane just leaving the runway having
sound intensity of about 10,000 .
Given: I=10,000 ,
We know that

2. Calculate the intensity level in dB at distance of 10m from the

source which radiates energy at the rate of 4W. The reference intensity is
100 .
Given: =100 , , r=10m, , I=?

( )

Note: Intensity level can have negative value.

3. A source of sound has frequency of 512 Hz and an amplitude of
0.2m. Calculate the flow of energy across 1m2 per second if the velocity of
sound in air is 340 and density of air is 1.30
Given: f=512 Hz,a=0.2m, A=1m2,v=340 , 1.30
( ) ( )
4. A hall of volume 1,000m3 has sound absorbing surface of 400m2. If
the average absorption coefficient of the hall is 0.1 sabine, what is the
reverberation time of the hall?
Given: V=1,000m3, S=400m2,a=0.1 sabine, T=?
=
5. The volume of hall is 1,000m3. The wall area of the room is 200 m2.
The floor area is 100 m2 and the ceiling area is 100 m2.The average sound
absorbing coefficient of the wall is 0.2 sabine, for the ceiling is 0. 2 sabine
and for the floor is 0.01 sabine. Calculate the average absorbent
coefficient and reverberation time.
Given: V=1,000m3, S1=200m2,S2=100m2 , S3=100m2,a1=0.2 sabine,a2= 0.2
sabine a3=0.01sabine, ̅ ,T=?
̅

=
6. A hall has a volume of 12,500 m3 and reverberation time of 1.5 sec.
If 200 cushioned chairs are additionally placed in the hall, what will be
the new reverberation time of the hall? The absorption of each chair is
1.0 O.W.U.
Given, V = 12,500 m3; T1 = 1.5 s, a2s2 = 200 sabine-m2; ∑a1s1 = ?; T2 = ?
Let be the reverberation time before placing cushioned chairs.

So
∑a1s1 = 1391.66 sabine-m2.
Let the reverberation time after placing the cushioned chairs be
= = 1.3115 s
Therefore, the new reverberation time after placing the cushioned chairs will be
reduced to 1.3115 sec.

7. What is the resultant sound level in bel, when a 9 bel sound is added
to a 90 dB sound?
Given: = 9bel = 90dB; = 9bel= 90dB
90= 10 log
9 = log10 (I1/I0)
=
= I0

90= 10 log

9 = log10

=
=

= (109 + 109)
= 2×109

10 ×log10 ( / ) = 10 × log10(2 × 109)

=93.010dB
Therefore, the resultant intensity is 9.3010 bel
8. The reverberation time is found to be 1.5 sec for an empty hall and
it is found to be 1.0 sec when a curtain cloth of 20 m2 is suspended at the
centre of the hall. If the dimension of the hall are 10*8*6 m3. Calculate
the coefficient of absorption of curtain cloth.
Given T1= 1.5 sec, T2= 1.0 sec, S= 20 m2,V=10*8*6m3, a1=?
a1 = * +
=0.167*480(1.5-1) / 20*1*1.5
=1.336 O.W.U.
9. An auditorium has a volume of 80,000m3.It has reverberation time
of 1.5 second. What is the average absorbing power of the surface if the
absorbing surface is 10000m2?
Given V=80,000m3, S=10000m2, T=1.5, ̅

∑
∑
∑
̅ ∑
Assignment questions:
I. Multiple Choice Question
1) Audible sound has the frequency range of
a. 0 Hz to 100 kHz
b. 20 Hz to 20 kHz
c. 20 kHz to 200 kHz
d. 0 Hz to 20 Hz
2) The velocity of sound
a. does not depend on the temperature of the medium
b. does not depend on the nature of the medium
c. depends on nature and temperature of the medium
d. depends on hardness of the medium
3) Which one of the following sound waves have the frequencies less than
those of audible waves?
a. supersonic
b. ultrasonic
c. infrasonic
d. infrared
4) Which of the following sound waves have the frequencies greater than
that of audible waves?
a. ultrasonic
b. infrasonic
c. ultraviolet
d. infrared
5) The velocity of sound in air
a. decreases with increase in temperature
b. decreases with decrease in temperature
c. increases with decrease in temperature
d. does not depend on temperature
6) The intensity level of threshold hearing is
a. 0 dB
b. 1 dB
c. 60 dB
d. 0.1 dB
7) Reverberation of sound in a hall is
a. a desirable effect
b. not a desirable effect
c. not possible
d. always zero
8) Reverberation time is
a. inversely proportional to volume
b. not related to volume
c. directly proportional to volume
d. directly proportional to total area
9) Sabine’s formula for reverberation gives T equal to
a.
b.
c.
d. Ʃas
10) Reverberation time of a room is decreased when
a. absorbing materials are added
b. the windows are all closed
c. absorbing materials are all removed
d. doors are closed
II. Answer the following questions.
1. Classify sound waves with respect to the basis of frequency.
2. What is the difference between musical sound and noise?
3. State the frequency range of infrasonic waves?
4. What are the characteristics of musical sounds?
5. Define noise.
6. Give the units of measurement of loudness and intensity.
7. What is meant by reverberation? Is it desirable to have it in a building?
8. What is the physical significance of acoustics?
9. List the factors affecting acoustics of building with their remedies.
10. Give the classifications of sound absorbing materials.
11. List the properties of good sound absorbing material.

III. PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE

1. If the amplitude of the sound is tripled; by how many dB will the
intensity level increase? [Ans. 9.54dB]
2. Calculate the relative intensity of a fighter plane just leaving the runway
having sound intensity of about 2500Wm-2. [Ans. 153.98dB]
3. The intensity of sound in a street during heavy traffic is 10 Wm-2.
Calculate the intensity in bell and dB. [Ans. 130dB]
4. Calculate the intensity level in dB at a distance of 10 m from the source
of sound which emits energy at the rate of 4W. The reference intensity is
200Wm-2. [Ans. -47.98 dB]
5. Obtain the resultant sound intensity when 8 bell sound is added to 80dB
sound. [Ans. 83.01dB]
6. A source of sound has a frequency of 500Hz and amplitude of 0.05cm.
Calculate the flow of energy across 1 square meter per second if the velocity of
the sound in air is 342m/s and the density of air is 1.29kg/m3. [Ans.
543.73Wm-2]
7. A hall has volume of 1000m3 and sound absorbing surface area of
200m2. If the average absorption coefficient of the hall is 0.4, what is the
reverberation time of the hall? [Ans. 2.09 s]
8. The volume of a theater is 20000m3. Its reverberation time is 1.5 second.
If the average absorption coefficient of the interior surface is 0.8 sabine, find
the area of the interior surface. [Ans. 2783.3 m2]
9. An auditorium has a volume of 8000m3. What should be the total
absorption in the hall if the reverberation time of 1.5 is to be maintained? [Ans.
890.6 sabine m-2]
10. A hall has a volume of 10,000 m3 and reverberation time of 1.5 second. If
100 cushioned chairs are additionally placed in the hall what will be the new
reverberation time of the hall? The absorption of each chair is 2 sabine. [Ans.
1.27 s]
11. A hall has volume of 50,000m3. It has reverberation time of 1.5 second.
What is the average absorbing power of the surface if the total absorbing
surface is 10,000m2? [Ans. 0.56 sabine]
12. A hall of volume 1000 m3 has total absorption equivalent to 400 m2 of
open window. What will be the new reverberation time if the audience fill the
hall and thereby increase the absorption by another 400 square meter of open
window? [Ans. 0.2088 s]
13. A class room has dimension of 20 x 15 x 5 m3. The reverberation time is
2 second. Calculate the total absorption of the surface of class room. [Ans.
125.25 sabine m2]
Section 2 Ultrasonic

Properties of ultrasonic (Supersonic) sound waves:

1) They have frequency higher than 20 kHz.
2) They are highly energetic.
3) They propagate by compression and rarefaction.
4) They are highly directional so can travel longer distances.
5) They can travel with constant speed in homogeneous medium.
6) The speed of propagation increases with the density and temperature.
7) Due to very short wavelength they have high penetration power.
8) They set up standing wave pattern in liquids and produce an acoustical
grating.
9) They are not easily absorbed by water so can be used for under water
communication.
Generation of ultrasonic sound:
Ultrasonic sound waves can be generated by mainly two methods.
1) Magnetostriction effect and
Magnetostriction oscillator for
production of ultrasonic waves
Magnetostriction effect:
When a ferromagnetic material in the
form of a rod is subjected to alternating
magnetic field parallel to its length as
shown in figure 6, the rod undergoes
alternate contractions and expansions at
a frequency of applied magnetic field it is
Figure 6 called magnetostriction effect.
Magnetostriction oscillator:
Principle: Magnetostriction Effect

Figure 7 Magnetostriction Oscillator

Construction:
 A ferromagnetic rod is fixed by clamps from its center. Two coils L1 and L2
are wound at two ends of rod AB as shown in figure 7.
 A variable capacitor connected in parallel with coil L1 forms a tank circuit or
resonant circuit.
 One end of the tank circuit is connected with the emitter of the transistor
through a battery).
 Second end of the tank circuit is connected with the collector of the
transistor through milliameter.
 Coil L3 is connected between base and emitter of the transistor T forms a
feedback loop.
Working:
 When the battery is switched on, the resonant circuit L1C1 in the collector
circuit of the transformer sets up on alternating current of frequency.
f= (1)
√
 As a result, the rod gets magnetized by the collector current. Any change
in the collector current brings about a change in the magnetization, and
consequently a change in the length of the rod this gives rise to change in flux
in coil L2 in the base circuit , thereby inducing an emf in the thereby
maintaining the oscillations.
 By varying the capacitor C1, the frequency of the tank circuit of oscillator
gets varied. If the frequency of tank matches with the natural frequency of the
material, then due to resonance the rod vibrates vigorously producing
ultrasonic waves the ends of the rod.
 The millimeter reading gives maximum value at the resonance condition.
 The frequency of ultrasonic waves produced by this method depends
upon the length (l), density (ρ) and Modulus of elasticity (E) of the rod.

f= √ (2)

 Thus, by varying length and elastic constant of the rod, ultrasonic waves
can be generated at any desired frequency. Hence the resonance condition.

√ (3)
√
Merits:
1) The design of the oscillator is very simple.
2) The production cost of the oscillator is very low.
3) Large output power is possible without damaging the oscillatory circuit.
4) It can generate frequency as high as 3MHz.
Demerits:
1) It is not possible to generate ultrasonic waves having frequency above
3MHz.
2) The frequency of the oscillator depends on greatly on temperature.
3) Eddy current losses and hysteresis loses makes it less efficient.
2) Piezoelectric Effect: If pressure or stress is applied to one pair of
opposite faces of the crystal, equal and opposite charges are
generated on the remaining opposite faces of the crystal. This
phenomenon is known as piezoelectric effect.
Piezoelectric oscillator /Electrostriction oscillator
 If an alternating voltage is applied to one pair of
opposite faces of the crystal, alternatively mechanical
contractions and expansions are produced in the crystal and
the crystal starts vibrating. This phenomenon is known as
inverse piezoelectric effect or electrostriction effect.
Figure 8  If the frequency of the applied alternating voltage is
equal to the vibrating frequency of the crystal, then the
crystal will be thrown into resonant vibration producing ultrasonic waves as
shown in figure 8
Piezoelectric Oscillator/ Electrostriction oscillator:
Principle: Inverse Piezoelectric Effect
Construction:

Figure 9 Piezoelectic Oscillator

 The circuit diagram is shown in figure .The quartz crystal Q is placed
between two metal plates A and B. The plates A and B are connected to the
coil L3. The coil L1,L2 and L3 are inductively coupled to the oscillatory circuit of
a transistor.
 Coil L1 with a variable capacitor C1 forming the tank circuit is connected
between the base and the emitter. While the coil L2 is connected to the
collector circuit, the battery is connected between free end of L2 and the
emitter of transistor.
Working:
 When the battery is switched on, the oscillator produces high frequency
alternating voltage given by
(1)
√
 The frequency of oscillator can be controlled by the variable capacitor c1.
 Due to the transformer action an emf is induced in the secondary coil
L3. This emf is impressed on plates A and B and thus excites the quartz crystal
into vibrations.
 By adjusting the variable capacitor C1, the crystal is set into one of the
modes of resonant conditions. Thus; the vibrating crystal produces longitudinal
ultrasonic waves in the surrounding air. The frequency of vibration of the
crystal is

√ρ (2)

Where, E is the Modulus of elasticity (Young’s modulus), ρ is the density of the

material and p=1,2,3,…for fundamental frequency first overtone ,second
overtone………respectively.
 At resonance condition,
Frequency of the oscillatory circuit = Frequency of the vibrating circuit

√ (3)
√
Merits:
1) It is more efficient than magnetostriction oscillator.
2) Ultrasonic frequency as high as 5X108 Hz can be obtained with this
arrangement.
3) The output of this oscillator is very high.
4) It is not affected by temperature and humidity.
Demerits:
1) The cost of piezoelectric quartz is very high.
2) Cutting and shaping of the quartz crystal are very complex.
Detection of Ultrasonic waves and velocity measurement:
There are mainly four methods for detection
of ultrasonic waves;
1) Sensitive flame method: Ultrasonic
waves are detected by moving a sensitive
flame in the medium. This is a qualitative
method. According to figure 10, the periodic
Figure 10
steady flame (at antinodes A) and flickering
flame (at nodes N) will give idea about the exact location of nodes and
antinodes.
2) Quartz crystal method: When the pair of faces of quartz crystal is
exposed to ultrasonic waves, equal and opposite charges are generated on the
other pair of opposite faces. These charges are amplified and detected using
electronic circuits.
3) Thermal detection method: In this method a Callender Griffiths bridge
is used for detection of ultrasonic waves as
shown in figure 10. Out of its four arms three
are connected with resistance and the fourth
arm is connected with temperature sensitive
Platinum-wire. If the ultrasonic waves are
present in the chamber the resistance
remains constant at the antinodes and varies
periodically at nodes as a result there will be
periodic fluctuates in the galvanometer
Figure 10 4) Kundt’s tube method: Kundt’s tube
apparatus consists of a long glass tube of
length nearly 1 m and diameter 5cm. One
end of the tube is fixed with an adjustable
piston rod which is connected with a cork
and at the other end a quartz crystal Q is
placed between two metallic plates as shown
in figure 11. The glass tube is thoroughly
dried and lycopodium powder is evenly
Figure 11 spread along the entire length of the tube. If
ultrasonic waves are presents in the tube,
the lycopodium powder will be blown off and forms heaps at nodal points. The
distance between two consecutive nodal points is equal to half of the
wavelength of the ultrasonic waves 𝜆u.
(1)
(2)
Acoustical grating method: Ultrasonic waves propagate through medium by
compression and rarefaction so they produce different density and refractive
index. According to figure 12, when a Na-lamp is switched on, parallel beam of
monochromatic light passes through this medium, it behaves like a grating.
This grating is known as acoustical grating. In liquid column quartz crystal Q
placed between two metallic plates produces ultrasonic waves when connected
with an oscillatory circuit. These waves travel in the upward direction and get
reflected back by the reflector. As a result superposition occurs and a
stationary wave pattern can be observed through the telescope. The distance
between two maxima or minima can be measured with the spectrometer. This
distance d is known as gradient element. Using Bragg’s law for diffraction
pattern we have,
𝜆 (1)
Here n is the order of maxima or minima and is angle of diffraction.
For the first maxima, n= 1 and = 90˚, therefore ultrasonic wavelength 𝜆 can
be given by,
𝜆 (2)
From eq (1) and (2) we can write,
𝜆 𝜆 (3)
𝜆 (4)
But we know that,
𝜆 (5)
We can calculate velocity of ultrasonic sound by equation (5).
Applications of ultrasonic sound:
Industrial applications:
Ultrasonic sound waves are used for Cutting, welding, drilling and cleaning
1) Welding: Both the work pieces are first cleaned and kept besides each

Figure 12

other. Ultrasonic beam is made to focus on the contact

 area of the two materials. Due to high temperature both the materials get
melt and make a bond together and will get joined (figure 13)
Advantages: Less deformation takes place in materials. It is very accurate
method so structure will not get disturbed.
Figure 13
2) Drilling: Ultrasonic waves produce vibratory
mechanical energy due to compression and rarefaction. This energy is used for
drilling the surface of metals, plastics, rubber sheets, stones etc.
3) Cleaning: Cavitation effect: Formation and blasting
of minute vacuum bubbles is known as cavitation which is
shown in figure 14. When ultrasonic waves are passed
through the ultrasonic tank, high pressure and thrust is
generated on the substance to be cleaned which is dipped
into the cleaning solution. Ultrasonic waves are used for
cleaning of jewelry, watches, lenses, electronic components
Figure 14
and surgical instruments etc.
4) SONAR (Sound Navigation and Ranging):
Certain properties of ultrasonic sound enable its use
for navigation in water and object identifier. They are
highly directional so can cover longer distance. They
are not easily absorbed by water. They get reflected
whenever medium gets changed. Velocity can be
measured by taking the ratio of distance traveled by
time taken for the same as shown in figure 15.
(1)
Figure 15
(2)
(3)
(4)
Thus with the help of equation (4), we can find the depth of sea or distance of
iceberg or rocks or shoal of fish.
Note: The distance of moving object can be obtained by an instrument
echometer or fathometer which works on the principle of Doppler Effect.
Medical Applications:
1) In neurosurgery ultrasonic beams are used as they are highly focused.
2) Ultrasonic Doppler Testing: In the study of heart pulses and blood flow
measurement ultrasonic waves are used.
3) For investigation of human organ this method is used.
4) Therapeutic applications: They are used to produce heat for muscle
settlement after dislocation and are also used for healing of the damaged
tissues.
5) They are used to detect tumors in human body.
6) Ultrasonography: They are used to study the fetus growth in womb.
Ultrasonic Non Destructive Testing (NDT): It is a method to inspect any
object without damage.
Ultrasonic flaw detector (Through transmission System):
 The transmitted ultrasonic waves get reflected when they encounter a
crack or cavity in the test pieceThe reflected pulse received by the transducer is
converted into electrical signal and then amplified by the signal amplifier as
shown in figure.
 The transmitted ultrasonic waves get reflected when they encounter a
crack or cavity in the test piece.
 The reflected pulse received by the transducer is converted into electrical
signal and then amplified by the signal amplifier.
 The amplified signal is sent to the Y-axis of the cathode ray oscilloscope
(CRO).
 The time taken for transmission and reflection can be noted from the x-
axis of the CRO.
 If the velocity v of the ultrasonic waves in the test piece is known then
the position of the crack or cavity (can be calculated by the given equation.

Advantages:
1) It is more accurate than radiography.
2) It is cheap.
3) It has high speed of operation.
4) Large specimen can be detected in a very short time duration.
5) Deep seated defects can also be detected.
6) Location, nature and size of the defect can be accurately determined.
7) It can be used for metals, non-metals like rubber, plastic etc.
Disadvantages:
1) No permanent record of the flaw can be obtained.
2) Only skilled technicians can operate the instruments.
3) It is difficult to inspect rough and irregular shaped specimen.
Solved examples:
1. A piezoelectric X-cut crystal plate has a thickness of 2 mm. If the
velocity of propagation of sound waves along the X-direction is 5600m/s,
calculate the fundamental frequency of crystal.
Given: Thickness=2mm=2x 10-3 m, velocity=5600 m/s
In the lowest mode of vibration, the distance between the two faces of the
crystal of thickness t will be,

4x10-3 m

2. Calculate the capacitance to produce ultrasonic waves of 106/π Hz with

an inductance of 1 henry.
Given: Frequency =106/ π Hz, L=1 henry
we know that,

0.25 pF
( )

3. Calculate the frequency to which piezoelectric oscillator circuit should

be tuned so that a piezoelectric crystal of thickness 0.5 cm vibrates in its
fundamental mode generating ultrasonic waves. Given that Y=800 GPa
and density = 2000kg/m3.

Given: t=0.5 cm=0.5x10-2 m, Y=800GP=800x1010 Pa, ρ= 2000 kg/m3

Frequency of vibration √ =
=1/2x0.5x10-2 √80x1010 /2000
f =2x106 Hz
1. Find the frequency of the first and second mode of vibration for
quartz crystal. The velocity of longitudinal waves in quartz crystal is 5
km/second. The thickness of quartz crystal is 50 cm.
Given: v=5 km/s =5x103 m, t=50cm=50x10-2 m
We know that =2t
=2x50x10-2 = 1 m
frequency of first mode => f1 = v/ = 5x103 /1 =5 kHz
frequency of second mode => f2 =2 f1
f2 = 2x5
f2 =10 kHz
2. The pulse arrival times from the steel bar of 30 cm thickness during
the detection of possible defects using pulse echo method are 30 μs and
60 μs. Find out the distance of defect in a steel bar from the entrance end
of ultrasonic wave.
Given t1=30µs=30 10-6s;t2=60 10-6,d2=40cm=40 10-2m;d1=?
T=2d/v
3 10-6=2 d1/v …(1)
6 10-6=2 30 10-2/v …(2)
Dividing (2)/(1),we get
=

2=
d1=15 m
Assignment questions:
I. Multiple choice questions
1) Ultrasonic waves have frequencies
a. above 20 kHz
b. below 20 kHz
c. below 20 Hz
d. from 20 Hz to 20 kHz
2) Ultrasonic waves are produced by using
a. electromagnetic waves
b. tuning forks
c. piezoelectric effect
d. inverse piezoelectric effect
3) Ultrasonic waves are
a. electromagnetic waves
b. mechanical waves
c. matter waves
d. gravitational waves
4) Ultrasonic waves travel in air with a velocity
a. equal to the velocity of sound waves
b. equal to the velocity of electromagnetic waves
c. less than the velocity of sound waves
d. more than the velocity of sound waves
5) The velocity of ultrasonic waves is
a. greater in solids than in air
b. lower in solids than in air
c. equal in solids and air
d. greatest in vacuum.
6) The wavelength of ultrasonic waves in air is of the order
a. 1Å
b. 1μ
c. 1 nm
d. 1 cm
7) The frequency f of ultrasonic waves produced by an oscillator is given by

a. √

b. √

c. √

d. √
8) Velocity of ultrasonic waves in water is about __________ m/s at
Temperature T= 25˚C
a. 340
b. 1500
c. 3400
d. 5400
9) Piezoelectric effect is observed in
a. Nickel
b. Copper
c. Iron
d. Quartz
10) Ultrasonic waves can travel long distances in sea water due to its
a. high intensity
b. larger wavelength
c. high frequency
d. low frequency
II. Answer the following questions
1. What are ultrasonic wave?
2. Why ultrasonic waves are used for detection of objects submerged in sea?
3. Which crystal is used more generally in the production of ultrasonic waves?
4. Define the natural frequency of a crystal.
5. What is meant by nondestructive testing?
6. What is sonar?
7. How ultrasonic cleaners are used to clean mechanical conductors and
semiconductor chips, lens etc.?
8. Explain the direct and inverse piezoelectric effects?
9. Give the principle of piezoelectric Oscillator.
10. Describe different methods of detection of ultrasonic waves.
11. State the properties of ultrasonic waves?
12. What is an acoustic grating? How is it used in determining velocity of
ultrasound?
13. Discuss at least three applications of ultrasonic in engineering.
14. Explain the principle of sonar.
15. What is Magnetostriction effect? Draw the diagram of Magnetostriction
oscillator and explain its working.
III. Problems For Practice
1. Calculate the frequency to which piezoelectric oscillator circuit should be
tuned so that a piezoelectric crystal of thickness 0.12 cm vibrates in its
fundamental mode generating ultrasonic waves. Given that Y=80GPa and
density= 2654 kg/m3. [Ans. 2.29 × 106 Hz]
2. Find the frequency of the first and second mode of vibrations for quartz
crystal. The velocity of longitudinal waves in quartz crystal is 5km/second. The
thickness of quartz crystal is 55cm. [Ans. 4.54 kHz, 9.09 kHz]
3. An ultrasonic source of 90 kHz sends down a pulse towards the seabed
which returns after 0.5 second. The velocity of sound in water is 1500m/s.
Calculate the depth of the sea and wavelength of pulse. [Ans. 375 m, 0.016 m]
4. An ultrasonic source of 70 kHz sends down a pulse towards the seabed
which returns after 0.65 second. The velocity of the ultrasonic sound in the sea
is 1700m/s. Calculate the depth of the sea and the wavelength of the
ultrasonic sound. [Ans. 552.5 m, 0.0243 m]
5. Calculate the natural frequency of the iron rod of 0.03m length. The
density of iron is 23230 kg/m3 and Young’s modulus is 11.6x1010 N/m2. [Ans.
37.24 kHz]
6. A quartz crystal of thickness 0.001 m is vibrating at resonance. Calculate
its fundamental frequency if Young’s modulus of quartz is 7.9x1010 N/m2and
the density is 2650 kg/m3. [ Ans. 2.73 MHz]
7. A Piezo- electric quartz plate (x-cut) has thickness of 1 mm. If the velocity
of propagation of ultrasonic waves in the crystal along X-direction be 5760m/s,
calculate the fundamental frequency of the crystal.[ Ans. 2.88 MHz]
8. A wrought iron rod of length 6 cm is used in the oscillator. Obtain the
frequency of the produced ultrasonic waves if modulus of elasticity = 20x1010
N/m2and the density is 7850 kg/m3. [Ans. 13.3 kHz]
9. Find the frequency of the first and second mode of vibration for a quartz
crystal of Piezoelectric oscillator. The velocity of the longitudinal waves in
quartz crystal is 5500 m/s. Thickness of quartz crystal is 0.05 m. [Ans. 55
kHz, 110 kHz]
 Unit 3 Superconductivity
Metals are good conductors of electricity as they contain large number of free
electrons. The low resistance offered by them to the flow of electric current is
due to scattering of free electrons by vibrating ions of the lattice. When the
temperature increases, the amplitude of vibrations also increases which will
cause more scattering of electrons causing more resistance. On the other hand
if the temperature is decreased, the resistance can be decreased up to a certain
limit.
In 1911, H.K.Onnes verified the behavior of metals
at low temperature and he discovered that the
electrical resistivity of highly purified mercury
dropped abruptly to zero at temperature of 4.2 K
(figure 1). Upon heating mercury above its
transition temperature, it regained its resistivity.
This was a reversible transition. Onnes named this
Figure 1
phenomena as superconductivity.
After 1980, ceramic materials were found to exhibit superconductivity at higher
temperatures of about 120 K.
Superconductivity: It is a phenomenon in which metals, alloys and ceramics
conduct electricity without resistance when it is cooled below a certain
temperature. This temperature is known as critical temperature and these
materials are known as superconductors.eg: Hg, Zn, Pb, Sn, CuS etc.
Properties of superconductors:
1) Electrical resistivity ρ: The electrical resistivity of a superconducting
material is very low and is of the order of
2) Effect of impurities: When impurities are added to superconducting
elements, the superconducting property is not lost, but the value is lowered.
3) Effect of pressure and stress: certain materials are found to exhibit the
superconductivity of phenomena on increasing the pressure over them. For
example cesium is found to exhibit the superconductivity phenomena at =
1.5 K on applying a pressure of 110 kbar. (Increase in stress results in
increase of the value.)
4) Isotope effect: The critical temperature value of Superconductor is
found to vary with its isotope. This variation in with
its isotope mass is called the isotope effect.
√
where M is isotope mass.
5) Magnetic field effect: If a sufficiently strong
magnetic field is applied to a superconductor at any

Figure 2
temperature below its critical temperature superconductor is found to
undergo a transition from the superconducting state to the normal effect as
shown in figure 2. As the temperature increases the critical field decreases and
becomes zero at T= .

[ ( ) ]

6) Critical current Ic and Critical current density Jc: For a thin long
superconducting wire of radius r and cross-sectional area A, the relation
between critical current Ic and critical magnetic field can be given by,
&
Critical current density Jc is the maximum current density that can be passed
through a superconductor without destroying its superconductivity.
7) Persistent current: The steady flow of current in superconductor
without any significant loss is known as persistent current.
8) Meissner effect (Diamagnetic property): The complete expulsion or
rejection of magnetic field lines is observed when T<
and H< . This is known as Meissner effect which is
shown in figure 3.
This process occurs due to surface current which results
in development of magnetization M within the super
conducting material which is equal and opposite to
applied field. So the resultant field within the substance
Figure 3 becomes zero. The magnetic induction inside the
specimen is given by,
( ) ( ) where H= Externally applied magnetic field
M=Magnetization produced within the specimen
When T< H<
As

The specimen is therefore diamagnetic and the state in which the

magnetization cancels the external magnetic field completely is termed as
perfectly diamagnetism.
9) Entropy: Entropy is a measure of disorder of a system. Generaly entropy
decreases with decreasing temperature. In superconductor, entropy decreases
linearly upto critical temperature and more
remarkably below the critical temperature. It
indicates that superconducting state is more
ordered than normal state.
10) Relationship between : All these three parameters are
dependent on each other. On and within this phase diagram (figure 4)the
material behaves like superconductor but outside it,
Figure 4 material becomes normal. Since the critical current
falls with temperature, the critical magnetic field
will also decrease as the transition temperature is approached. The variation of
critical current density and critical magnetic field with temperature is
shown in the figure.
Difference between Type-I and Type-II Superconductor:

Sr. Type I Superconductors Type II superconductors

no.
1)

2) These superconductors are called These superconductors are called

soft superconductors. hard superconductors.
3) They have only one critical field They have two critical fields HC1 and
HC2.
4) The critical field value is very low The critical field value is very high
(0.1 T). (30 T).
5) They exhibit complete Meissner They do not exhibit complete
effect Meissner effect
6) These materials have limited These materials have wider
technical applications because of technological applications because
very low field strength value. very high field strength value.
7) Ex:Pb,Zn,Hg Ex:Nb3Ge,NB3Si, YBCO
On the basis of their critical temperatures, superconductors are classified
mainly into two types.
1) Low Temperature superconductor (LTS): In LTS, the superconductors
are having Tc below 24 K and cooling is generally obtained with liquid helium.
While in HTS, are having Tc above 24 K and cooling is generally obtained with
liquid nitrogen.
2) High Temperature superconductor (HTS): In 1986, oxides of
lanthanum barium copper (La1Ba2Cu3O7) was found which had Tc value of
about 30 K. After one year, Chu and his co-workers replaced lanthanum by
yittrium and prepared Y1Ba2Cu3O7 with Tc value about 95 K. These
superconductors are also known as 123 compounds and belong to type II
super conductors have very high critical magnetic field value (150 to 200T).
These oxides also contains deficiency of oxygen with the chemical formula
Y1Ba2Cu3O7- The absence of Oxygen plays an important role in
superconductors. Y1Ba2Cu3O7 and Y1Ba2Cu3O6 are shown in the figure 5.
Continuous search is going on to discover materials that can exhibit
superconducting state around room temperature.

Y1Ba2Cu3O7 Y1Ba2Cu3O6
Figure 5

Applications of Superconductors:
Maglev:
 Maglev is a process in which object is suspended above another without
any physical contact.
 Phenomenon of maglev is based on
Meissner’s effect.
 Maglev is brought by enormous amount of
repulsion between two highly powerful magnetic
fields.
 If a small magnet is brought near a superconductor, it repels (figure 6).
Repulsion takes
Figure 6 place due to
induce current in
superconductor which is being generated by
magnetic field of the magnet. Because of zero
resistance property the current persists and
thus the field induced due to this induced current repels the field due to
magnet. As a result the magnet floats above the superconductor.
 Superconducting magnets are built into the base of its carriages as
shown in figure 7. An aluminium guideway is laid on the ground and carries
electric current. The repulsion between two powerful magnetic fields levitate
the train about 10 to 15 cm above the guideways.
 We know that a diamagnetic substance repels
magnetic field. Thus the perfect diamagnetic properties Figure 7
of superconductors make them suitable for achieving
motion in motor and bearing. When the train is
to be halted, the wheels are drawn out similar
to the wheels of an airplane and the train
descends slowly on to the guideways and runs
forward till it stops (figure 8).
 There are mainly two types of
suspensions in maglev train. Electromagnetic
suspension (EMS) and Electro dynamic
suspension (EDS).
 Maglev trains use magnets to levitate and
propel the trains. The trains are virtually
impossible to derail and collisions between trains are unlikely because
computers are controlling the trains movements. Since there is no friction
these trains can reach high speeds (500km/hr).
Figure 8
Cryotron: It is a relay or
switch consists of two superconducting materials A of
bar shape and B of coil shape. Superconductor B is
wound over A as shown in figure 9
 The critical magnetic fields of superconductor A
and B are and respectively. The selection of
superconducting materials should be such that
< .
 If current I is passed through superconductor B, the
Figure 9
current will induce a magnetic field H. When this field H exceeds it destroys
the superconductivity of A and converts it into normal material. As a result
material A will start offering resistance to the flow of electric current flowing
through it. When resistivity increases, the contact is broken and the switch
behaves like open switch.
 Here current in A is controlled by the current in B and hence the system
can be operated as a switch or relay. In addition, these switches consume very
less current.
Josephson’s Effect: There are two types of Josephson Effects:
1) DC Josephson effect: Two superconductors A and B are separated by a
thin insulating layer of 10 nm thickness (figure 10). When the thickness of the
insulating material is only 1 nm thick, they
become a system of coupled conductors. The
cooper pair of electrons will tunnel through the
barrier and behave like a wave function. The
effect of an insulating material is to introduce a
phase difference between the wave function of
cooper pairs on one side of insulating barrier
Figure 10
and the other side. Because of this phase
difference, supper current will appear across the junction even though the
applied voltage is zero.
Here the supercurrent can be given by where
and at zero
voltage condition.
2) AC Josephson Effect: If we apply a dc voltage across the Josephson
junction, it introduces an additional phase on Cooper pairs during tunneling
(figure 11). As a result new
phenomenon will be observed. The dc voltage
generates an ac current I given by,
( ) (1)
If voltage V is applied across the barrier, the
energy of the Cooper pairs on both the sides of the
barrier differ by 2eV.

Figure 11 ( ) (2)
* ( )+ (3)
From equation (3), the frequency of the current can be obtained,
(4)
At V=1μV ac current of frequency 483.6MHz is produced.
 SQUID (SuperConducting Quantum
Interference Device): It is a basically
sensitive magnetometer which can
measure very low magnetic fields and
voltages with high accuracy. There are
mainly two types of SQUID. (1) DC Squid
and (2) AC Squid (RF Squid).
Construction: It is fabricated from Lead
Figure 12 or pure Niobium. The device is cooled
using liquid helium. The schematic
diagram of DC SQUID is shown in the figure 12. It consists of two Josephson
Junctions arranged in parallel so that the electrons tunneling through the
junction demonstrates quantum interference.
Working: A dc supercurrent is applied to SQUID. This current enters the
device trough arm A and gets divided into two paths as I1 and I2 again merge
and leaves through arm B.
When magnetic field passes through the loop, the supercurrent will interfere
with each other. The phase difference between reunited current is directly
proportional to the magnetic flux φ passing through the ring (loop). The flux φ
is related to the magnetic field B and area A of the loop through the relation, Φ
= BA
Applications:
1) SQUID is used to measure very small magnetic fields 10-15T.
2) Geologists use them to measure rock magnetism and continental drift.
3) In medicine it is used to study muscular or neural activity. It can measure
the small current, voltages and magnetic fields developed in human brains
and hearts.
4) It is used in NDT (Non Destructive Testing) for testing corrosion and defects
developed in the wings of air craft.
Other applications of superconductors:
 Superconductors are used in power transmission.
 They are used in high efficient (99%) generators.
 In medical science for diagnostic areas and research.
 They can be used in electronic switches and can allow researchers to
build 4-bit computers microchip to operate computer speed 500 times more
than the current one.
Solved examples:
1. Calculate the critical current for a superconducting wire of lead
having a diameter of 1 mm at 4.2 K. Critical temperature for lead is 7.18
K and Hc (0) = 6.5 X 104 A/m.
Given: H0 = 6.5 X 104 A/m;Tc = 7.18 K; r = 0.5 X 10-3 m; T = 4.2 K; Tc = ?; Hc =
?
[ ( ) ]
( )
⌊ ( )
⌋ ( – )

2. For mercury of mass number 202, the value is 5 and is 4.2 K .

Find the transition temperature for the isotope of the mercury of mass
number 200.
Given:Mass no. M1= 202, = 0.5, = 4.2 K, Mass no. M2 = 200, =?
We know that, = constant

3. A critical temperature of Nb is 9 K . At 0 k the critical field is 0.2 T.

Calculate the critical field at 6 K.
Given: = 9 K, T = 6K, T, =?

[ ( ) ]

[ ( ) ]

4. Calculate the critical current through a long thin superconducting

wire of radius 0.5 mm. The critical magnetic field is 7 kA / m.
Given: =7x A/m, r = 0.5 x m
=2
= 2 x (22/7) x 0.5 x x7x
5. Calculate the critical current for a superconducting wire of lead
having a diameter of 1 mm at 4.2 K . Critical temperature for lead is 8.4
K. is 7 x A/m.
Given: A/m, = 8.4 K,r = 0.5 * m,T = 4.2 K, = ?, =?
[ ( ) ]

[ ( ) ]

=2
= 2 x (22/7) x 0.5 x x 5.25 x
6. The critical temperature TC for Hg with isotopic mass 199.5 is 4.185
K. Calculate the critical temperature for its isotopic mass 204.5.
Given: Mass number M1= 199.5, M2 = 204.5, Tc1 = 4.185K,Tc2 = ?, = 0.5

7. A voltage of 6.62 is applied across Josephson junction. What is

the frequency of radiation emitted by the junction.
Given: V = 6.62 * V, f = ?
f =

=
Assignment questions:
I. Multiple Choice Question
1) The electrical conductivity of a superconductor is
a. zero
b. finite
c. infinite
d. negative
2) Superconductors are
a. diamagnetic
b. paramagnetic
c. ferromagnetic
d. antiferromagnetic
3) The transition temperature of mercury to superconductor state is
a. 4.2ºC
b. 4.2 K
c. 7.1 K
d. 4.2ºF
4) The relation between critical current and critical magnetic field is
a. HC =
b. HC =
c. HC =
d. HC =
5) The critical magnetic field HC (T) of a superconductor is given by
a. HC (0) [1 - ]

b. HC (0) [1 - ]

c. HC (0) [1 - ]

d. HC (0) [1 - ]
6) In a superconducting state
a. entropy alone changes
b. electronic specific heat alone changes
c. both change
d. entropy remains constant
7) Type-1 superconductors are known as
a. semiconductors
b. soft conductors
c. hard conductors
d. insulators
8) Type-2 superconductors are known as
a. semiconductors
b. soft conductors
c. hard conductors
d. insulators
9) In type-2 superconductors the magnetic flux
a. passes through the entire material
b. does not pass through the entire material
c. flux decreases exponentially
d. is constant
10) The quantum of magnetic flux is given by
a. h/2e
b. h/2π e
c. 2h/e
d. 2πh/e
11) The magnetic susceptibility of a superconductor is
a. -1
b. +1
c. 0
d. infinite
12) In a particular superconductor, if transition from superconducting
phase to normal phase takes place gradually, it belongs to
a. Type-I
b. Type-II
c. Type- I and Type –II both
d. insulator
13) Hard superconductors observe
a. break down of Silsbee’s rule
b. complete Meissner effect
c. low critical field
d. low transition temperature
II. Answer the following questions:
1. The resistance of a superconductor is practically zero. True or False?
2. What is the importance of isotope effect in superconductivity?
3. What are cooper pairs?
4. What is the effect of impurities on critical temperature of super
conductor?
5. What is the effect of stress on superconductors?
6. What is an isotopic effect?
7. Define critical current density.
8. Define critical magnetic field.
9. What is persistent current?
10. What is Meissner effect?
11. Give the applications of Meissner effect.
12. What are Josephson effects? Explain in detail.
13. Give the difference between Type -1 and Type -2 superconductors.
14. What is SQUID? Give its applications.
15. How cryotron works? Explain in detail.
16. How does the Maglev vehicle works? Explain in detail.
17. List the applications of superconducting materials.
III. Problems for Practice
1. A superconducting tin has a critical temperature Tc of 3.7K at zero
magnetic field and critical field of 0.0306 T at 0K. Find out the critical field at
3K. [ Ans. 0.01 T]
2. The critical temperature (Tc) for mercury with isotopic mass 199.5 is
4.185 K. Calculate the value of Tc when its mass changes to 203.4. [Ans. 4.144
K]
3. The superconducting material has Tc = 4.8K at zero magnetic field and
critical magnetic field Ho = 0.0708 Tesla at 0K. Find out the critical field at 4K.
[Ans. 0.0216 T]
4. Find out value of critical current for superconducting wire with diameter
of 3 mm at 2.3K. Given that critical temperature = 3.7 K and H0 =0.0305 T.
[Ans. 0.176 mA]
5. Calculate critical current density for a superconducting wire of Lead
having diameter of 1.5 mm at 5.3K. The value of critical temperature of Lead is
7.8 K and critical magnetic field at 0 K is 6.5 x 104 A/m. [Ans. 93.6 × 106 Am-2]
6. The critical temperature of mercury is 4.152 K for its one isotope of mass
200.59 amu. Calculate the critical temperature of mercury for its one isotope of
mass 204 amu.[ Ans. 4.118 K]
 Unit 4 Non Linear Optics:
Section 1 Laser
Laser technology is one of the most rapidly developing areas in modern
technology. Laser was invented in 1960 and then used in different areas of
medicine, communication, military and industries etc.
In Indian mythology light is considered as knowledge (gyan) and truly said that
“Tamaso ma Jyotir gamay” means take us to light from the darkness. So, let us
throw light on light and enjoy the powerful light of Laser in this chapter.
LASER: Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation
Characteristics of LASER:
1) Highly monochromatic:

Figure 1

As shown in figure 1 an ordinary white light is polychromatic (Saptarangi

Prakash) i.e. combination of many different wavelengths (vibgyor colours).In
contrast, Laser light is a monochromatic light having only one colour that can
be shown by a spectral line of wavelength λ0.
2) Highly directional:

Figure 2

Ordinary light, such as coming from the sun, a light

bulb, or a candle, is emitted in all directions away
from the source while Laser light is emitted as a
relatively narrow beam in a specific direction (figure
2). So it can travel longer distance without significant
Figure 3
spreading (only 1mm/m).
3) Highly coherence: Light is an electromagnetic
wave so it can be described in wave theory as the superposition of sine waves
as a function of time. Coherent waves are travelling with same phase or their
phase difference is constant as shown in figure 3.
4) High Intensity:
Due to coherent nature of laser, it can focus over a very small area 10-6 cm2 so
extremely high concentration of its energy over a small area.
Types of LASER:
1) Solid state lasers have lasing material distributed in a solid matrix, e.g.,
the ruby and neodymium-yttrium aluminum garnet (Nd- YAG) lasers. The Nd-
YAG laser emits infrared light at 1.064 micrometers.
2) Gas lasers (helium-neon, HeNe) have a primary output of a visible red
light. CO2 lasers emit energy in the far-infrared, 10.6 micrometers, and are
used for cutting hard materials.
3) Dye lasers use complex organic dyes like rhodamine 6G in liquid
solution or suspension as lasing media. They are tunable over a broad range of
wavelengths.
4) Semiconductor lasers are not solid-state lasers. These electronic devices
are generally very small and use low power. They may be built into larger
arrays, e.g., the writing source in some laser printers or compact disc players.
Einstein’s Theory: In 1916, Einstein showed the existence of equilibrium
between matter and radiation required a new radiation process called the
stimulated radiation. It needs the help of external radiation and generates very
powerful stimulated radiation known as LASER. Different interactions of light
with matter are shown in figure 4.

Absorption Spontaneous Emission Stimulated Emission

R12 1ρ R21(sp) 2 R21(st) 2ρ
R12 = B12N1ρ R21(sp) = A21N2 R21(st) = B21N2ρ

Figure 4

Lasing Action:
Figure shows the active medium which has been enclosed in optical resonator
and being excited by pumping. The steps of the lesing action are shown in
figure 5.
Step :1 Pumping
The atoms in the medium are in the ground state initially. By supplying energy
from the external source they are excited from the ground state to the excited
state.
Step :2 Population Inversion
The life time of the atoms in the exicited state is very small (10-9 S). Therefore
the atoms drop spontaneously from the excited state to the metastable state.
As the life time of the metastable state is relatively longer (10-3 S), the atoms go
on accumulating in the metastable state. As soon as the number of atoms in

metastable state exceeds that of the ground state, the medium goes into the
state of population inversion.
Step :3 Spontaneous emission
Some of the excited atoms at the metastable state may emit photons
spontaneously in various directions and will be lost forever.
Step: 4 Amplification
The majority of photons travelling along the axis cause stimulated emission
and are reflected back by both the mirrors and hence build up their strength
and thus the amplification of light takes place. These mirrors operate as an
oscillator and provide positive feedback of light into the medium.
Step: 5 Oscillations

Figure 5
 At each reflection by front and back
mirror, light is partially transmitted
through it causing loss of energy from the
resonator. When the losses at the mirrors
and within the medium balance the gain,
a steady and strong laser beam will
emerge from the front end mirror.
Nd- YAG (Neodymium Yittrium
Aluminium Garnet) laser:
 It is a four level device in which the
active medium is YAG dopped with Nd+3
ions. And active center is Nd+3 ions.
 The optical pumping is used for population inversion by xenon lamp and
two mirrors M1 and M2.
Construction:
 The schamtic diagram of ND-YAG laser is shown in figure. Nd YAG rod
and a krypton flash lamp are enclosed inside an ellipsoidal reflector.
 In order to make the entire flash radiation to focus on the laser rod, the
Nd-YAG rod is placed at one focal axis and the flash lamp at the other focal
axis of the ellipsoidal reflector.
 The flash lamp is connected with a battery and a capacitor.
Working: As the flash lamp is switched on, the optical pumping excites
atoms from the ground energy state to the higher energy level E3 and E4 by
absorbing radiations of wavelength 0.80µm and 0.73 µm, respectively.
 The excited ions then make a transition from these energy levels.
The state is metastable state.

Figure 6
 Upon continuous excitation, population inversion of ions is
achieved at the metastable state . The
Figure 7 energy level diagram is shown in figure 7.
Applications:
Some of the applications of laser are as follows:
1) In Industry
 For welding and melting.
 For cutting and drilling holes.
 To test the quality of material.
 For heat treatment of metallic materials.
2) In Medical Science
 It is used for cataract surgery.
 It is used in performing micro surgery.
 It used to cure cancer and skin tumors in humans.
3) For Military Purposes
 The laser beam can be used in war as a weapon. It can destroy the big
size objects like aero planes in few seconds. For this reason it can be even call
as death ray.
 Laser beam can be used to determine the exact distance, velocity,
direction as well as size of the object by means of reflected signal. This is
known as LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging.)
4) In Science and Engineering field
 It is used in fiber optic communication.
 It is used in holography.
 It is used in underwater communication between submarines, as they
are not easily absorbed by water.
 It is used to create new chemical compounds by destroying atomic bonds
between molecules.

Difference between Spontaneous and Stimulated Emission

Sr.
Spontaneous Emission Stimulated Emission
no.
1.

2. It does not take help of an

It takes help of an external agency
external agency (photon)
3. It is a random process It is not a random process
4. It is uncontrollable process It is a controllable process
 5. Photons emitted in the process travel
Photons are emitted in all
only in one direction and hence are
directions.
highly directional.
6. Photons generated do not have Photons generated have same
same frequency and hence the frequency and hence the light is
light is not monochromatic monochromatic
7. The photons generated are not
The photons generated are in the
in same phase so they are
same phase so they are coherent.
incoherent.
8. In this process multiplication of
In this process multiplication of
photons does not take place so
photons takes place so there is
there is no amplification of
amplification of light.
light.
9. Light from the source is
Light from the source is polarized.
unpolarized.
Solved Examples:
1. Find the ratio of population of the two states in a He-Ne laser that
produces light of wavelength 698.3Ǻ at 27˚C.
Given: T=27˚C= 300k, λ=698.3 Ǻ, h=6.625x , k=1.38x ,
C=3x10 m/s
10

( )

2. A 10 mW He-Ne laser has efficiency of 1%. Assume that all input

energy is utilized in pumping the atoms from the ground state to the
excited state, which is 20 eV above the ground state. Find how many
atoms are promoted to the excited state in 1 second.
Given: Efficiency=1%=0.01

Therefore energy input in one second= 1 J

No. of atoms excited in one second=
3. A 10 mW laser has a beam diameter of 1.6mm. What is the intensity
of the light. Assume that it is uniform across the beam.
Given: d=1.6mm, r=0.8x10-3,P=10mW=10x10-3W

( )
Assignment questions:
I. Multiple choice questions
1) If an atom jumps from a lower energy level to higher energy level, the
process is known as
a. induced emission
b. induced absorption
c. spontaneous emission
d. spontaneous absorption
2) Emission of a photon by an excited atom due to interaction of external
energy is called
a. stimulated emission
b. spontaneous emission
c. absorption
d. light amplification
3) The life time of an atom at an excited level is of the order of
a. few seconds
b. a millisecond
c. a nanosecond
d. unlimited
4) Light amplification is possible because of
a. stimulated emission
b. spontaneous emission
c. absorption
d. diffraction
5) The rate of absorption process is proportional to
a. photon density of incident radiation
b. population of the ground level
c. population of the excited level radiation and population of the ground
level
d. photon density of incident sound
6) The rate of spontaneous emission is proportional to
a. population of the ground level
b. population of the excited level
c. photon density of incident radiation
d. electron density around the active center.
7) The rate of stimulated emission is proportional to
a. population of the ground level
b. population of the excited level
c. photon density of incident radiation
d. photon density of incident radiation and population of the excited level
8) Which of the following processes produce coherent light?
a. stimulated absorption
b. spontaneous emission
c. stimulated emission
d. both b and c
9) The population densities of lower and upper energy levels E1 and E2 are
N1 and N2 respectively. Condition for population inversion between levels E1
and E2 is given by
a. N1 >N2
b. N1 =N2
c. N1 <N2
d. N1 N2
10) The optical cavity consists of
a. cylindrical mirrors
b. three sets of plane mirrors
c. a pair of plane mirrors
d. a cylindrical vessel
II. Answer the following questions
1. How does a laser differ from a point source?
2. What are the processes through which interaction of radiation with
matter can take pace?
3. Define spontaneous and stimulated emission of radiation
4. Explain the concept of population inversion in the context of laser.
5. What is metastable state? Why is it required in operation of laser?
6. What does pumping mean?
7. Explain the pumping methods used for lasers.
8. Distinguish between ground state, metastable state and excited state.
9. What is population inversion? How is it achieved by optical pumping?
10. Explain Nd-YAG LASER with level diagram in detail.

III. PROBLEMS FOR PRACTICE

1. Find out the population inversion for two states in laser that produces
light of wavelength 6328 Ǻ at 27˚C. [Ans. 1.1 10-33]
2. A 10 mW laser has a beam diameter of 1.6 mm. What is the intensity of
the light? [Ans. 4.97 kWm-2]
3. Determine the wavelength of the radiation given out by a laser with
energy of 3 eV. h= 6.63 x 10 -34 Js and c= 3 x 108 m/s.[Ans. 4143.8 Ǻ]
 Section 2 Fiber Optics
Optical Fiber System: It is the communication system in which information is
sent in the form of light through a guided fiber cable (glass or plastic) from
source to destination.
List of advantages of using optical fiber cable:
1) Extremely large band width: The information carrying capacity of a
communication system is directly proportional to its bandwidth. The large
bandwidth offers large number of signals (may be audio, video or both
simultaneously) transmission. The light frequencies carried out by the fiber
covers the range of 104 to 4x 1014 Hz.
2) Low losses: Fibers have very low loss of information, only 0.2 dB/km
compared to 20 dB/km in metallic cable.
3) Immunity to electrostatic interference : Not affected by natural
noises like lightning or thundering i.e. noise free transmission
4) Elimination of cross talk: Absence of electromagnetic coupling between
two adjacent wires eliminates the possibility of cross talking.
5) Lighter in weight and smaller in size : Easy transportation for ships,
air crafts and high rise buildings
6) Lower cost: They are made up of SiO2 or silica glass which is easily
available in market and it is the second most available component in the earth.
This cuts down its production cost.
7) Security: If anyone can try to trap your information beeping alarm will
start at user’s end.
8) Greater safety: Dielectric nature of optical fiber eliminates the
possibility of spark hazards
9) Corrosion: Optical fiber made
up of glass and plastic which are
non-corrosive materials.
10) Longer life span and less
maintenance: life span of optical
fiber cable is longer than metallic
cables also its maintenance is very
less compared to metallic cable
communication.
Optical fiber construction:
 The cable include core,
cladding, buffer jacket, Kevlar, black
poly urethane jacket as shown in
figure 8.
  The core is the center of optical
Figure 8 fiber made up having refractive index
n1
 Cladding is second sheath made up of glass with refractive index n2
 Cladding in turn is covered by a buffer jacket (provide protection to fiber
from external mechanical influences)
 Surrounding a buffer jacket there is layer known as Kevlar (a yarn type
material) which increases tensile strength of the cable.
Working Principle of optical fiber:
When the ray of light is incident from
optically denser medium to optically rarer
medium three cases are observed as in
figure 9.
Case :1 When the angle of incedence is
less than critical angle ( )
Ray AOA’ gets refracted when it travels
from the denser medium water to rarer
medium air, it gets refracted and travels
away from the normal with sbsequent loss
of information.
Case :2 When the angle of incedence is
equal to critical angle ( )
Ray BOB’ gets refracted and emerges parallel to the interface between core and
cladding.
Case :3 When the angle of incedence is greater than critical angle ( )
Ray COC’ will have total internal reflection
Figure 9
and information will remain in core,
which is highly desirable.
Principle: When a light signal is directed at one end of the fiber at a suitable
angle, it undergoes repeated total internal reflection along the length of the
fiber and finally comes out at the other end.
Conditions for Total Internal Reflection:
1) Refractive index of the core is greater than that of the cladding then only
total internal reflection of light will occur i.e.n1 > n2
2) (Snell’s law)
( )
Acceptance angle and Numerical aperture: Optical fiber will only propagate
light that enters the fiber within a certain cone, known as acceptance cone of
the fiber according to figure 10. The half-angle of this cone is called the
acceptance angle sinØin(max).
 In order to get total internal
reflection of light, it must strike
the internal core /cladding
interface at an angle that is
greater than the critical angle
 Let us consider a step index
optical fiber into which light is
launched at one end as shown in
fig.
 Let n1 and n2 be the
refractive indices of core and
Figure 10 cladding respectively where n1>n2.
 Let n0 be the refractive
index of the medium from where light is launched into the fiber.
 Assume that the light beam enters the fiber at an angle to the axis of
the fiber. The ray refracts at an angle and strikes the core cladding interface
at an angle Φ. If Φ is greater than ΦC, the ray undergoes total internal
reflection.
Applying Snell’s law to the launching surface of the fiber,
(1)
If is increased beyond limit, Φ will drop below the critical value ΦC and the
ray escapes from the sidewalls of the fiber. The largest value of occurs when
Φ= ΦC.
From , it is seen that,
( ) (2)
Using equations (1) and (2), we get,
(3)
When Φ= ΦC , ( ) (4)
But, and

√ (5)

√
( ) (6)

√( )
( ) (7)
If the incedent ray is launched from air medium,
Designeting ( ) , equation (7) becomes,
√( ) (8)
√( ) (9)
Equation (9) gives the acceptance angle of the fiber. It is the maximum angle
that a light ray can have relative to the axis of the fiber and propagate through
it.
Numerical Aperture
It is the measure of the light gathering capacity of the fiber and is defined as
the sine of the acceptance angle
Relative index Δ: It is the ratio of difference of refractive index of core or
cladding to refractive index of core
(1)
 Prove that refractive index is independent from dimension of the optical
fiber.
We know that,

√( )
Numerical aperture can also be defined as the sine of the acceptance angle.

√ (2)
( ) ( )
( )( ) (3) (From
equation (1))

( )
Taking approximation, then,
Numerical aperture becomes,
√ (4)
Equation (4) indicates that numerical aperture (NA) depends on the refractive
indices of core and cladding and does not depend on dimensions of optical
fiber. Large NA implies that the fiber will collect large amount of light from the
source. That means large amount of information can be transmitted through it.
The value of NA ranges from 0.13 to 0.50. Fibers with different NA are shown in
figure 11.

Figure 11
Classification of Optical fiber cable: optical fiber cables can be classified
based upon several criteria as shown in the diagram in figure 12.

Types of material used for construction of optical fiber:

Optical
Fibre

Based on Based on Based on

RI profile material modes

STEP Glass/gla Single

index ss mode

Plastic
GRIN Multimode
clad silica

Plastic
/plastic
Figure 12

 High content silica glass

Advantage : useful in mass communication
 Multi components & silica glass
Disadvantages: attenuation or dispersion is very high
PCP (Plastic core & Plastic cladding)
Advantages:
 More flexible
 Easy to install
 It can withstand stress
 Less expensive
 Lighter in weight
Disadvantage: Very high attenuation
Application: Short distance computer (information capability 6 mbps)
PCS (Glass core & Plastic cladding)
Advantages:
 law attenuation
 Less affected by radiation
Disadvantage: Costly compared to pcp
Application: military
SCS (Glass core & Glass cladding)
Advantages:
  Attenuation is slightly better than pcs (Least attenuation)
 Best propagation
 e.g.- SiO2 core ,P2O5- SiO2cladding
 P2O5- SiO2 core, SiO2 cladding
Disadvantage: Breakable, more weight
Difference between Single Mode Step Index (SMSI) Fiber amd Multi Mode
Step Index (MMSI) Fiber:
Sr.
No Single Mode(SMSI) Multi Mode (MMSI)
.

1.

It offers only one path for It offers more than one path for
2.
propagation propagation
The core diameter is very
3. The core diameter is very large(100 )
small(10 )
There is no degradation or There is degradation or dispersion of the
4.
dispersion of the signal signal.
Launching information is very
5. Launching information is very easy
difficult
6. Fabrication is not easy . Fabrication is easy.
7. Numerical aperture is very law Numerical aperture is very high
Application: long haul Application : short distance
8.
communication communication(LAN)

Difference between Multi Mode Step Index (MMSI) and Graded Index
(GRIN) Fiber:
Sr.
MMSI Cable GRIN cable
No.
1.

Refractive index of core and cladding is Refractive index of core and

2.
uniform cladding is not uniform
The refractive index is
maximum at the center and
The shape of the profile looks like step. decrease gradually with
3.
So it is called step index distance so it is called graded
index and the shape of the
profile is parabolic
4. Light propagates by reflection Light propagates by refraction
5. Pulse dispersion is more Pulse dispersion is less
The light follow zigzag path and for The light follow helical path will
6.
every reflection will cross the fiber axis not cross the fiber axis
Refractive index of core and cladding is Refractive index of core and
7.
uniform cladding is not uniform
8. It offers low band width It offers high band width
9. Numerical aperture is low Numerical aperture is high

( ) ( )
10.
O O

Note:
 V number: the number of modes separated for propagation is defined by
a parameter V number


 Maximum number of mode in step index fiber Nm=

 Maximum number of mode in graded index fiber Nm=

 For SMSI (V< 0.495) or For MMSI (V >0.495)
Difference between SMSI with air cladding and SMSI with glass cladding
Sr. SMSI Cable SMSI with glass cladding
no.
1.

2.

( ) ( )
To glass core & air cladding To glass core & glass cladding
acceptance angle is high ~ 48˚2’ so acceptance angle is less ~ 13˚3’ so
3.
it is easy to launch the light & it is difficult to launch the light &
couple with output device couple with output device
The fiber is very weak and hence The fiber is physically very strong
4. has a limited application and hence has a large number of
applications
Applications of Optical fiber:
1) In communication: Because of large bandwidth it can transmit about 106
programs at a time. The communication system is classified into two groups.(1)
LAN: Local Area Network which operates over a short distance of about 1 to 2
km and (2) Long Haul Communication. These systems are used for long
distances (10km or more). e.g. telephone cables
2) Medical applications: Optic endoscope is used to inspect internal organs
for diagnosis purpose.
3) Military applications: Ships and aircrafts need tons of copper wire for
communication and control mechanism. In place of copper wires if optical fiber
is used then it can reduce the weight remarkably.
4) Guided missiles are used in recent wars.
Solved Examples:
1. A silica optical fiber has a refractive index of 1.55 and a cladding of
refractive index of 1.47. Determine (a) the critical angle at the core
cladding interface (b) the numerical aperture for the fiber and (c) the
acceptance angle in air for the fiber.
Given, n1 = 1.55; n2 = 1.47; = ?; NA = ?; in(max) = ?

The numerical aperture for the fiber is

NA = √( ) =√
The acceptance angle in air for the fiber is
Øin(max) = sin-1 (NA) = sin-1 (0.4915) = 29 26’.
2. An optical fiber has numerical aperture of 0.2 and cladding
refractive index of 1.59. Determine the acceptance angle for the fiber in
water which has refractive index 1.33.
Given: n2=1.55 , NA=0.20 , n0=1.33, n1=?; NA in water=?, Øin(max)=?
NA = √( )
√ =√
When fiber is in water =1.33
√( )
Therefore, NA=
Hence acceptance angle is
Øin(max) = =8˚37’
3. A refractive index of core for step index fiber is 1.52, diameter is 2.9
μm and a fractional difference of refractive index is 0.0007. It is operated
at a wavelength of 1.3 μm. Find the number of modes the fiber will
support.
Given: d = 2.9 μm, n1 = 1.52, Δ= 0.0007,λ = 1.3 μm
√ √
( )
( )
4. A fiber cable has an acceptance angle of 30˚and the refractive index
of core is 1.4. Calculate the refractive index of the cladding.
Given: n1=1.4, 30˚, n2=?

√( )

( ) ˚
5. Calculate the fractional index change for a given fiber if the
refractive indices of core and cladding are 1.502 and 1.498 respectively.
Given: 1.502 and
=
6. Calculate the refractive indices of core and cladding if numerical
aperture is 0.22 and relative refractive index is 0.012.
Given: NA=0.22 and 0.012
√
√

Assignment questions:
I. Multiple Choice Questions
1) Light propagates through an optical fiber due to
a. reflection
b. refraction
c. interference
d. total internal reflection
2) Total internal reflection occurs when a light ray travels from
a. rarer to denser medium
b. denser to rarer medium
c. denser to denser medium
d. rarer to rarer medium
3) A light ray travels from a medium of refractive index n1 to another
medium of refractive index n2 (n1>n2) and undergoes total internal reflection.
Then Snell’s law reduces to
a. n1n2= sin ic sin r
b. n1 sin ic= n1 sin r
c. sin ic = n2/n1
d. sin ic= n1/n2
4) An optical fiber is made up of
a. metal
b. semiconductor
c. dielectric
d. composite material
5) In an optical fiber light propagates in the
a. core
b. buffer
c. cladding
d. Air
6) The refractive index of the core is
a. higher than that of cladding
b. lower than that of cladding
c. same as that of cladding
d. same as that of buffer
7) The condition for propagation of light through the optical fiber is that
a. the angle of incidence of the light ray at the core-cladding interface must
be smaller than the critical angle
b. the angle of incidence of the light ray at the core-cladding interface must
be greater than the critical angle
c. the refractive index of the cladding should be smaller than that of the
core
d. The refractive index of the cladding should be greater than that of the
cladding and the angle of incidence of the light ray at the core-cladding
interface must be greater than the critical angle.
8) If the angle of incidence of the light ray at the core-cladding interface is
smaller than the critical angle then the ray travels
a. in the core
b. in the buffer
c. in the cladding
d. along the interface
9) The fractional refractive index change Δ is given by,
a.
b.
c.
d.

10) Numerical aperture depends on

a. diameter of the fiber
b. propagation angle
c. acceptance angle
d. critical angle
11) Choose the correct expression for numerical aperture NA
 √
a.
b. sin ƟC
√
c.
d. n2 √
12) Optical fibers are classified on the basis of refractive index variation as
a. single mode fiber and GRIN fiber
b. step-index fiber and GRIN fiber
c. multimode fiber and GRIN fiber
d. glass-glass and glass-plastic fiber
13) Single mode step index fibers are superior to other fiber because of
a. low attenuation of the signals
b. lower numerical aperture
c. lower dispersion
d. lower data transfer rate
14) Distance bandwidth product is maximum in
a. GRIN fiber
b. single mode fiber
c. multimode fiber
d. step index fiber
15) The refractive indices of core and cladding are 1.50 and 1.44 respectively.
Then the acceptance angle is
a. 22º
b. 23 º
c. 24 º 50’
d. 25 º 35’
16) The refractive index of cladding of a fiber with core refractive index of 1.5
and numerical aperture 0.244 is
a. 1.230
b. 1.320
c. 1.480
d. 1.650
II. Answer the following questions
1. What is an optical fiber?
2. Describe the structure of a typical optical fiber.
3. What is necessary for cladding?
4. Explain the basic principle used in optical fiber for transmission of light.
5. What is meant by refractive index profile?
6. What is a step index fiber? How is light propagated in a step index fiber?
7. What is a GRIN fiber? How is light propagated in a GRIN fiber?
8. Explain with diagram, the distribution of different modules in a step
index fiber.
9. The number of modes propagating in an optical fiber increases as the
acceptance angle increases. Why?
10. The information carrying capacity of electromagnetic radiation is very
high in the optical region. Why?
11. What is V-number? Give its significance.
12. Define critical angle.
13. State Snell’s Law.
III. Problems for Practice
1. An optical fiber core and its cladding have refractive indices of 1.54 and
1.40 respectively. Calculate the critical angle ,acceptance ( ) and
numerical aperture. [Ans. 65°22’, 39° 54’, 0.64]
2. The refractive index of the core and cladding materials of an optical fiber
are 1.59 and 1.51 respectively. Calculate the numerical aperture of the optical
fiber.[Ans. 0.497]
3. A silica optical fiber has a core of refrective index 1.55 and a cladding of
refractive index of 1.45. Determine (a) the critical angle at the core cladding
interface (b) the numerical aperture for the fiber and (c) the acceptance angle in
air for the fiber.[Ans. 69°18’, 0.55, 33°12’]
4. Calculate the refractive indices of the core and cladding material of a
fiber. Given, NA = 0.22 and refractive index difference . [Ans.n1= 1.42,
n2 = 1.40]
5. Calculate the NA and acceptance angle of the fiber having n1=1.48 and
n2=1.43. [Ans. 0.38, 22°25’]
6. An optical fiber core and its cladding have refractive indices of 1.545 and
1.495 respectively. Calculate the critical angle, acceptance angle and numerical
aperture.[ Ans.75°23’, 22°56’, 0.3896]