Nucleic Acids + Protein Synthesis

NUCLEIC ACIDS
DNA (DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID)
Features stores information for controlling the behaviour of cells;

able to copy itself accurately, no information is lost
STRUCTURE OF DNA & RNA

Found in Nucleus, Nucleic Acids
Macromolecules Giant Molecules, Polymers made up of many similar, smaller
molecules (monomers) joined together to form a long chain.
Nucleotides Molecule consisting of a Nitrogen-containing base, pentose

sugar, and phosphate group
- Nitrogen-containing base:
- 4 Types: Adenine, Guanine, Thymine, Cytosine
(In RNA, Thymine = Uracil)
- Pyrimidine: 1 ring (T,C,U) & Purine: 2 rings (A,G)
- Pentose Sugar:
- sugars with 5 carbon atoms (pentoses)
- Deoxyribose for DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid), and
Ribose for RNA (ribonucleic acid)
- Deoxyribose has 1 fewer oxygen atoms in its
molecule than ribose
- Phosphate Group:
- gives nucleic acids their acid nature
ATP Adenosine Triphosphate

- components: Adenine, Ribose, Phosphate
- Adenosine = Adenine + Ribose
- AMP (adenosine monophosphate), ADP (adenosine
diphosphate (ADP), or adenosine triphosphate (ATP)
depends on the number of phosphate group
Polynucleotides A chain of nucleotides joined together by phosphodiester bonds
Dinucleotides 2 nucleotides joined together by a phosphodiester bond
Phosphodiester Bond that joins 2 nucleotides together; there are 2 ester bonds, 1
Bond from the shared phosphate group to each of the sugars either
side of it
STRUCTURE OF DNA
Double Polynucleotide Strand
Features - 2 polynucleotide chains that coil around each other into a
helical shape (forming a double helix)
- Each chain is a RIGHT-handed helix, has a
sugar-phosphate backbone with bases projecting at right
angles
- Antiparallel, runs in opposite direction
- Hydrogen bonding in between bases, holding the chains
together
- Complementary base pairing occurs;
the hydrogen bonding of A&T/U, C&G in nucleic acids
- AT : 2 hydrogen bonds, GC: 3 hydrogen bonds
- Purine pairs with Pyrimidines
- 1 Full turn: 10 base pairs
STRUCTURE OF RNA
Single Polynucleotide Strand
mRNA Transcribed from DNA & contains the genetic
blueprint/information to the ribosomes to make Proteins
- the coding sequence of the mRNA determines the amino
acid sequence in the protein produced
tRNA Translates mRNA into protein (Translation)

- Transfers specific amino acids that correspond to the
mRNA sequence into the growing polypeptide chain at the
ribosomes.
rRNA The catalytic component of ribosomes that forms Ribosomes

along with protein, essential in protein synthesis
(rRNA + Protein = Ribosomes)
- occurs in the cytoplasm
Ribosome 1. Site of Protein Synthesis

2. Decodes the message of the mRNA sequence
3. Formation of peptide bonds, and assembly of amino acids
creating long chains that fold to form proteins
Composition: contains a large and small ribosomal subunit
(furtherly explained in translation)
DNA REPLICATION
1. Unwinding of DNA helix by the enzyme DNA Helicase
- hydrogen bonds are broken down in this
process
2. Single-strand binding protein attaches to keep the 2
DNA strands separated & untwisted
3. Topoisomerase: keeps the DNA from supercoiling
4. DNA Primase: makes RNA primers on both strands,

marking the start
- needed for the DNA polymerase to bind as
they only recognize RNA primer
DNA Polymerase: enzyme that copies DNA; runs along the
separated DNA strands lining up 1 COMPLEMENTARY
nucleotide.
DNA polymerase are only able to copy in the 5’ to 3’

direction causing:
Leading Strand: runs in the 3’ to 5’ direction
Lagging Strand: runs in the 5’ to 3’ direction
5. DNA polymerase builds the new strand

6. Leading strand only needs 1 RNA primer, while the
lagging needs the RNA to keep on being placed
7. Okazaki Fragments are formed

- a series of short fragments of copied DNA
8. Exonuclease removes all the 9. DNA Polymerase fills in the gaps with
RNA primers from both of the COMPLEMENTARY BASE PAIRS.
strands
10. DNA Ligase (enzyme) seals up the fragments of DNA in both strands to form a continuous
double strand.
TRANSCRIPTION
Copying genetic information in a molecule of DNA into a complementary strand of mRNA

- Occurs in the Nucleus, RNA polymerase is responsible
- Genes: a continuous string of nucleotides containing a region that codes for an
RNA molecule
- Promoter region: Recognition site, Terminator region: End
#1 INITIATION 1. RNA Polymerase binds to the promoter region of the

gene to be copied
2. The binding causes the double helix to unwind &
open, breaking of the hydrogen bond
#2 ELONGATION 3. RNA Polymerase slides along the template DNA

strand & brings free activated RNA nucleotides
4. Complementary nucleotides pair up & forms hydrogen
bonds between them. As they pair up, the RNA
polymerase links nucleotides to the 3’ end of the
growing RNA molecule. (U replaces T)
5. Sugar-phosphate backbone is sealed by
phosphodiester bond by RNA Polymerase
#3 TERMINATION 6. Transcription ends when the RNA Polymerase reaches

the terminal region of the gene
7. mRNA is produced (product)
8. DNA Strand, RNA Polymerase, and mRNA dissociates
Intron Splicing: For the mRNA to be used in Translation, the

non-coded INTRONS has to be removed.
- 5’ cap and 3’ poly-A-tail are added
Spliceosome: removes the intron segments & joins the
adjacent exons
A mature mRNA is then produced & ready to be used in

Translation.
TRANSLATION
A sequence of nucleotides in a molecule of mRNA is converted/translated into a

corresponding sequence of amino acids in a polypeptide chain.
- Occurs in the RIBOSOMES
- Start Codon: eugi (AUG) & Stop Codon: UGA, UAG, UAA
#1 INITATION 1. mRNA binds with the small ribosomal subunit at the

start codon.
2. An amino acid together with a specific tRNA
(determined by the anticodon) binds to the start of the
codon
Anticodon: sequence of 3 unpaired bases on a tRNA
molecule that binds with a codon on mRNA
3. Complementary base pairing occurs
4. Large ribosomal subunit binds and forms a translation
complex.
#2 ELONGATION 5. Another charged complementary tRNA with a different

amino acid binds to the A site.
6. Peptide bonds forms between the 2 amino acids
(binds at the P site)
7. Translation complex moves along reading the next
codon.
8. Uncharged tRNA exits from the E site
9. Continues until a stop codon is reached.
#3 TERMINATION 10. Release factor protein binds to stop codon

11. Polypeptide is released from the ribosome
12. Ribosome & Translation Complex Disassembles

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NUCLEIC ACIDS

DNA (DEOXYRIBONUCLEIC ACID)

Features stores information for controlling the behaviour of cells;

STRUCTURE OF DNA & RNA

Nucleotides Molecule consisting of a Nitrogen-containing base, pentose

ATP Adenosine Triphosphate

Polynucleotides A chain of nucleotides joined together by phosphodiester bonds

Dinucleotides 2 nucleotides joined together by a phosphodiester bond

tRNA Translates mRNA into protein (Translation)

rRNA The catalytic component of ribosomes that forms Ribosomes

Ribosome 1. Site of Protein Synthesis

4. DNA Primase: makes RNA primers on both strands,

DNA polymerase are only able to copy in the 5’ to 3’

5. DNA polymerase builds the new strand

7. Okazaki Fragments are formed

Copying genetic information in a molecule of DNA into a complementary strand of mRNA

#1 INITIATION 1. RNA Polymerase binds to the promoter region of the

#2 ELONGATION 3. RNA Polymerase slides along the template DNA

#3 TERMINATION 6. Transcription ends when the RNA Polymerase reaches

Intron Splicing: For the mRNA to be used in Translation, the

A mature mRNA is then produced & ready to be used in

A sequence of nucleotides in a molecule of mRNA is converted/translated into a

#1 INITATION 1. mRNA binds with the small ribosomal subunit at the

#2 ELONGATION 5. Another charged complementary tRNA with a different

#3 TERMINATION 10. Release factor protein binds to stop codon

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