MODULE 1 2. Sweating in a Crowded Room.

The human body

HISTORY OF THERMODYNAMICS obeys the laws of thermodynamics.
- relationship between heat and temperature. 3. Taking a Bath.
- different physical laws that govern heat transfer. 4. Flipping a Light Switch.
- study of changes in energy associated with physical
and chemical reaction. 1.5 Statistical Mechanics
- effect of work, heat and energy on a system. late 19th and early 20th century - discovery of atoms,
thermodynamics was treated in terms of atoms and
What is Thermodynamics? molecules, on a statistical basis, and the subject of
- branch of physics that deals with the relationships statistical mechanics came about.
between heat and other forms of energy.
- describes how thermal energy is converted to and Lesson 2: History of Thermodynamics
from other forms of energy and how it affects matter. - fundamental strand in the history of physics, the
- Energy transformations- mostly involve heat and history of chemistry, and the history of science in
work movements. general.

The fundamental law is the conservation of - Sadi Carnot, the "father of thermodynamics", 1824
energy principle; energy cannot be created or published "Reflections on the Motive Power of Fire",
destroyed, but can only be transformed from one a discourse on heat, power, and engine efficiency.
form to another. (marks) thermodynamics as a modern science.
An example of thermodynamics is the study
of how heat changes between a hot object and a cold - Around 1850 Rudolf Clausius and William Thomson
object. (Kelvin) stated both the First Law - that total energy is
conserved - and the Second Law of Thermodynamics
1.2 Why called Thermodynamics?
part of science which is concerned with the conditions By 1860 - Rudolf Clausius and William Thomson, two
that material systems may assume and the changes established principles of thermodynamics had
in conditions that may occur either spontaneously or evolved --- restated as thermodynamic laws.
as a result of interactions between systems. The
word "thermodynamics" was derived from the Greek 2.1 Founder of Thermodynamics Before 1800
words thermé (heat) and dynamics (Ahamad, 2017). Otto Von Guericke
- His major scientific achievements were the
1.3 Importance of Thermodynamics establishment of the physics vacuums,
- a very important branch of both physics and - electrostatic repulsion, and his advocacy of the
chemistry. reality of “action at a distance” and of “absolute
- deals with the study of energy, the conversion of space”.
energy between different forms and the ability of - Invention: air pump is a device pressure ice that
energy to do work. removes gas from a sealed volume or chamber.

- The Second Law was originally formulated in terms Robert Boyle

of the fact that heat does not spontaneously flow from - Founder of modern chemistry, and one of the
a colder body to a hotter. pioneers of modern experimental method, he is best
known for Boyle’s law,
- development was driven by practical considerations. - describes the inversely proportional relationship
For example, building heat engines and refrigerators. between the absolute pressure and volume of a gas,
The original statements of the second law were if the temperature is kept constant within a closed
different (Ahamad, 2017). system.
- He rejected Aristotelian theories based on ideas like
1.4 These laws are observed regularly every day. the four elements (earth, water, fire, and air)
1. Melting Ice Cube. Every day, ice needs to be
maintained at a temperature below the freezing point Thomas Saveray
of water to remain solid.
- He is famous for his invention of the first Henri Victor Regnault (French chemist and physicist)
commercially used steam powered engine. - best known for his careful measurements of the
- Invention: clock - considered an ingenious piece of thermal properties of gases.
mechanism. - an early thermodynamicist and was mentor to
William Thomson in the late 1840s.
Guillaurne Amantons - never used his first given name, and was known
- He came close to finding absolute zero. Absolute throughout his lifetime as Victor Regnault.
zero is the lower limit of the thermodynamic - Henri added Avogadro's Law to the Combined Gas
temperature scale, a state at which the enthalpy and Law to produce the Ideal Gas Law: PV = n RT.
entropy of a cooled ideal gas reaches its minimum - Regnault designed apparatus for a large number of
value, taken as O. physical measurements.
- Inventions: One of his major projects was the - redetermined the specific heats of many solids,
inventions in 1867 of an improved hygrometer, used liquids, and gases.
measure humidity. - Boyle’s law of the elasticity of a “perfect gas” is only
approximately true for real gases.
2.2 Period from 1800-1847 - air thermometer he determined the absolute
Big Bang theory expansion of mercury. He also devised a hygrometer.
- That explosion of matter and energy is known as
The Big Bang. Sadi Carnot "father of thermodynamics"
- Sous-lieutenant Nicolas Léonard Sadi Carnot
John Leslie (French: June 1796 – 24 August 1832) was a French
observes that, black surface radiates heat more mechanical engineer in the French Army
effectively than a polished surface, suggesting the - 1824, published Reflections on the Motive Power of
importance of black body radiation. Fire.
- Carnot heat engine is a theoretical engine that
Robert Brown (Scottish botanist) operates on the Carnot cycle.
- Brownian motion, the Random motion of particles in - basic model for this engine was developed
a fluid (a liquid or a gas) resulting from their collision - Carnot's rule, principle that specifies limits on the
with the quick atoms or molecules in the gas or liquid. maximum efficiency any heat engine can obtain.
- His discovery of the nucleus and its role helped to
prove the cell theory 2.3 Period from Year 1848-1948
which states that all living organisms are composed William John Macquorn Rankine (Scottish
of cells and cells come from pre-existing cells. mechanical engineer)
- contributed to civil engineering, physics and
Joseph Lossac (French scientist) mathematics.
- Gay-Lussac first formulated the law, Gay-Lussac's - founding contributor, with Rudolf Clausius and
Law, "if the mass and volume of a gas are held William Thomson, to the science of thermodynamics,
constant then gas pressure increases linearly as the particularly focusing on the first of the three
temperature rises” thermodynamic laws.
- The pressure-temperature law was discovered by - Rankine Introduce thermodynamic function later
Jacques Charles and Joseph Gay identified as entropy.
Lussac (1778-1850).
Rudolph Clausius(German physicist and
Emile Clapeyron(French engineer) and the Theory of mathematician)
Heat - considered one of the central founders of the
- who designed steam locomotives and worked on science of thermodynamics.
the theory of heat. He works through a graphical and - By his restatement of Sadi Carnot's principle known
analytic formulation. as the Carnot cycle, he gave the theory of heat a
- He also combined Boyle's Law, Charles's Law, and truer and sounder basis.
Gay-Lussac's Law to produce Combined Gas Law , - 1865, Clausius gave the first mathematical version
PV/T-k. of the concept of entropy, and also gave it its name.
- appointed professor of physics at the Artillery and
Engineering School at Berlin in 1850.
- second law of thermodynamics in the well-known
form: “Heat cannot of itself pass from a colder to a
hotter body.
- applied his results to an exhaustive development of
the theory of the steam engine, stressing the concept
of entropy (dissipation of available energy).

Stephen Hawking
- Hartle-Hawking, one of the most eminent scientist
after Einstein.
- predicts that black holes will radiate particles with a
blackbody Spectrum which can cause black hole
evaporation.

The top discoveries by Stephen Hawking

* Cosmology.
* The Large Scale Structure of Space and Time.
* The second law of black hole dynamics.
* Hawking's radiation.
* Inflation cosmology

- 1974, showed that black holes emit radiation,

known today as Hawking radiation which may
continue until they exhaust their energy and
evaporate. Initially, Hawking radiation was
controversial.