Chapter 1 - Introduction

Objectives
At the end of this chapter, you will be able to:
a) know the concept of structural analysis and design as applied to
different types of engineering projects;
b) know the different kinds of loads considered in the analysis and design
of a structure;
c) know the load combinations as specified by national and local building
codes;
d) account for dynamic effects from moving loads, elevators, supports and
so forth, impact factors that increase the live load.
e) To estimate load on tributary area for buildings.
Structure
The word structure describes much of what is seen in nature. Living plants possess a
structural form consistent with their needs. Insects and animals play more active
role in building the structures that they need. One example of these is the delicate
web of the spider. Each structure is built to support the needs and activities of the
creature.

Men are builders, conceivers and designers of structures. When the structures of
human began to reflect their ability to conceive, design and construct them,
structural engineering was born, and has grown in great sophistication just to meet
the demands of humanity. These demands are (a) highly functional and related to
the basic needs of society, or (b) cosmetic and related to the aesthetic or emotional
sensitivities of humans. And usually, the structures designed and built that meet
their own set of demands are products of structural engineering.
Structural Engineering
The area of structural design is casually associated with either science or engineering. There are
important differences between the roles played by each discipline. Science involves the
investigation of what exists, whereas engineering engages in synthesis, to form what does not
exist.
Structural engineering centers about the conception, design and construction of the structural
systems that are needed in support of human activities. It involves determining the most
suitable proportions of a structure and dimensioning the structural elements and details of which
it is composed. Although structural engineering is directly associated with civil and architectural
engineering, it interfaces with other engineering disciplines that requires structural system or
component in meeting their objectives.
Projects that involves structural engineering includes bridges, buildings, roads, dams,
transportation facilities like terminals, liquid or gas storage and transmission facilities, power
generation and transmission units, water and sewage treatment plants, industrial plants and
factories, vehicular frames and machine components. Each of these projects requires structural
systems or components to meet the requirements for which they are being erected, designed to
safely carry the loads that the structures are subjected to.
Three (3) phases of structural engineering project are:

1. Planning phase – involves a consideration of the various requirements and factors

that will affect the general layout and dimensions of the structure and leads to the choice
of one or perhaps several alternative types of structures, which offers the best solution.
Primary consideration is the function of the structure (to enclose, to convey or to support)
and secondary considerations are aesthetic, sociological, legal, financial, economic or
environmental.
2. Design phase – involves a detailed consideration of the alternative solutions
evolved in the planning phase and leads to the most suitable proportions, dimensions and
details of the structural elements and connections for constructing each alternative
structural arrangement being considered.
3. Construction phase – involves procurement of materials, equipment and
personnel; shop fabrication of the members and subassemblies; transportation to the site
and the actual field construction and erection. Redesigning of structural elements can
also happen during this phase.
History
Evolution of structural engineering:
a) Development of the theories of mechanics of materials and structural analysis;
b) Formulation of the computational techniques necessary to solve the governing equations
of these theories;
c) Introduction of new building materials;
d) Application of the theories and materials to the creation of new structural forms;
e) Inventive development of construction techniques.

500 BC – the beginning of structural engineering. From this point until the time of Christ, the
Greeks primarily used stone to build post and lintel structures, that is, structures whose columns
supported short beams.
Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) and Archimedes (287-212 B.C.) – established the beginnings of the
principles of statics through experience.
Romans – used stone and masonry as the primary building materials until 500 A.D., although some
metals and woods were introduced. They are not analytic in their approach, but rather were
builders who concentrated on certain structural forms.
Gothic Builders – their splendid cathedrals characterized by pointed arches stabilized by
“flying buttresses” were the only major structural accomplishments during the Middle Ages
(500 – 1500)
Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) – formulated the beginning of structural theory during the
early part of the Renaissance.
Galileo (1564-1642) – who published Two New Sciences, is generally credited with
originating the mechanics of materials. He studied the failure of a cantilever beam, and
even though his writings were not totally correct, they did establish an important
beginning.
A. Pallidio (1518-1580) – introduced the modern truss.
R. Hooke (1635-1703) – established the law governing the linear behavior of materials.
Johann Bernoulli (1667-1748) – stated the principle of virtual displacements
Daniel Bernoulli (1700-1782) – contributed to the understanding of elastic curves and strain
energy of flexure.
Leonard Euler (1701-1783) – examined column buckling and energy methods.
Louis Navier (1785-1836) – followed up the earlier work of C.A. de Coulomb (1736-1806) and published a
book on strength of materials that dealt with the elastic analysis of beam flexure.
1800 to 1900 – the golden age of structural engineering in which most of the present-day theories of
mechanics of materials and structural analysis were developed.
Relevant developments during the golden age of structural engineering:
• S. Whipple (1804-1888), K. Culmann (1821-1881) and J. W. Schwedler (1823-1894) formulated the
principles of statically determinate truss;
• B.P.E. Clapeyron (1799-1864) established the three-moment equation;
• J.C. Maxwell (1831-1879) developed the method of consistent displacements and the reciprocal
theorem of deflections;
• O. Mohr (1835-1918) presented the method of elastic weights and worked on influence lines;
• A. Castigliano (1847-1884) stated the theorems that would carry his name;
• C.E. Greene (1842-1903) formulated the moment area method for deflection and rotation;
• H. Müller-Breslau (1851-1925) published his principle for influence line construction;
• A. Föppl (1854-1924) worked in the area of space frame analysis;
• Portland cement appeared early in the 1800s;
• The first reinforced concrete bridge was constructed before the end of the century;
• Iron rolling mills made iron more usable, and quantity steel production was introduced by H.
Bessemer;
Relevant developments in the 20th century:
• G. Maney (1888-1947) introduced the slope deflection method which was the forerunner
of modern displacement methods;
• Hardy Cross (1885-1959) contributed the moment distribution method;
• R. Southwell (1888-1970) presented the more general relaxation method;
• The development in items 2 and 3 allowed the systematic solution of statically
indeterminate structures and served as the cornerstone of frame analysis for a quarter of a
century;
• Several analysts contributed to the merging of matrix algebra and frame and continuum
analysis to form the modern matrix and finite element methods of analysis;
• The areas of inelastic analysis and strength methods were introduced;
• Materials such as aluminum, high-strength steels and concrete, special cements, plastics,
laminated timber and composites were brought about;
• Use of electric welding and prestressed concrete were introduced;
• Improved construction methods and electronic computation were introduced in the 1950s.
• Construction of long-span bridge of many configurations were perfected;
• Record-breaking heights in buildings were erected;
• Newer structural forms such as shells, panels and stress-skin structures were advanced.
Structural Analysis
Structural analysis is the process by which the structural engineer
determines how a structure responds to specified loads or
actions. This response is usually measured by establishing the
forces and deformations throughout the structure.

Methods of Structural Analysis:

1. Classical Method – such as slope deflection, consistent
deformation methods
2. Modern Matrix Method – such as finite element method
using digital computers
Basic Structural Elements

All structural systems (forms) are composed of the

following basic structural elements:
1. Beam – is a slender member subjected to
loads perpendicular to its longitudinal axis. As the
load is applied, it bends and deflects into a shallow
curve. At a beam section, shear and moment are
developed by the load. (see Fig 1)

2. Column – is an axially loaded vertical member

in compression in an ideal situation. However, in
actual practice, the initial crookedness of columns or
an eccentricity of the applied load creates bending
moment making the column carry both axial load and
bending moment. This member is called beam-
column. (see Fig 2)
3. Hanger – is an axially loaded member in
tension. (see Fig 3)
4. Truss – is a structural element composed
of bars whose ends are assumed to be connected
by frictionless pin joints. All members of the truss
are axially loaded. It is also much lighter than
beam of the same capacity and easier to erect. In
actual practice, truss joints are formed by welding
or bolting the ends of the bars to a connection
plate. (see Fig 4)
5. Arch – is a curved member stressed
heavily in direct compression. To be in pure
compression, an efficient state of stress, the arch
must be shaped so that the resultant of the
internal forces on each section passes through
the centroid. The base of the arch intersects the
end supports called abutments. (see Fig 5)
6. Cable – is a relatively slender, flexible member
composed of a group high-strength steel wires twisted
together mechanically and stressed in tension by transverse
loads. Since it has no bending stiffness, it can only carry
direct tensile stress and will obviously buckle under the
smallest compressive force.
Under its own weight (a uniform load acting along the arc of
the cable), the cable takes a shape of a catenary. If the cable
carries distributed uniformly over the horizontal projection
of its span, it will take the shape of a parabola. When the
sag (the vertical distance between the cable chord and the
cable at midspan) is small, the cable shape produced by its
dead load may be closely approximately by a parabola. (see
Fig. 6)
7. Rigid frame – is a structure composed of beams and
columns connected together by rigid joints which typically
carry axial load and moment. For a joint to be rigid, the
angle between members framing into a joint must not
change when the members are loaded. (see Fig. 7)
8. Plate or slab – is a planar element whose
depth (or thickness) is small compared to their length
and width and typically used as floors. It carries loads
by bending. The behavior of a plate depends on the
position of support along its boundaries. If rectangular
plate is supported on opposite edges, it bends in single
curvature (one-way). If it is supported around its
boundaries, it will bend in double curvature (two-way).
(see Fig. 8)

9. Thin Shell – is a three dimensional curved

surfaces. The thickness is often small but it can span
large distances because of the inherent strength and
stiffness of the curved shape. Under uniformly
distributed loads, shell develops in-plane stresses
called membrane stresses that efficiently support the
external load. In addition to the membrane stresses,
which are small, shear stresses perpendicular to the
plane of the shell, bending moments and torsional
moments also develop.
Structural Behaviors
The structural engineer should be able to analyze three basic aspects of structural behavior:
(Norris, Wilbur and Utku)
1. Stress, strain and deflection characteristics under static or quasi-static loading or
deformation conditions;
2. Response and vibrational characteristics under dynamic loading conditions;
3. Buckling characteristics usually under static loading conditions, but occasionally under
dynamic loading conditions.
The structural engineer must be able to formulate independent equations based on the
following types of relations or conditions that govern the behavior of the structure:
1. Conditions for static equilibrium of the internal and external forces and couples acting on
the structures;
2. Relations between stress and strain of the materials involved;
3. Geometrical relations between strains and displacements of points on the structure.

Some analysts prefer that there are only two types of relations involved, namely:
1. Conditions on static equilibrium;
2. Relations between stresses (or internal forces) and displacement.
Basic Approaches in Structural Analysis
Two basic approaches in structural analysis:
1. Force method - most classical methods are force method.
• A number of equations are written for an equal number of unknowns
based on statics and on the degree of redundancy of forces. For each
redundant force, one equation is written in which the displacement of its
point of application on the primary structure is expressed in terms of the
known forces and the unknown redundant forces. These equations are then
solved simultaneously for the unknown redundant.
• Once all forces acting on the primary structure have been known, the
stresses can be then computed. Then the structural analysis can be
completed by computing the strain from the stress-strain relations and the
displacements using either the stress-displacement relations or the strain-
displacement relations.
2. Displacement method – slope-deflection method and Castigliano’s
first theorem are examples of this method.
• Independent unknown displacement components involved in the
structure are identified and considered as the basic unknowns. The
internal forces in the structure are then expressed in terms of these
unknown displacements, using the stress-displacement relations. For each
unknown displacement component, a corresponding equilibrium equation
is written in terms of known external forces and the unknown internal
forces, which are expressed in terms of displacements. These equations
are solved simultaneously.
• Once the displacements have been determined, the internal forces
can be back-figured. Thus all the unknown forces are computed except the
unknown external forces which can be computed easily using the
remaining equilibrium equations.
Types of loads:
• Dead load – load associated with the weight of the structure and
its permanent components (floors, ceilings, ducts, etc.)
• Live load – load that can be moved on or off a structure. This
includes the weight of people, furniture, machinery and other
equipment. Live load varies depending on the function of a structure.
Codes permit live load reduction for members that have a large
tributary area. (refer to ACI code or NSCP)
• Impact load – load absorbed by the structure that is induced by
the kinetic energy of a moving body that tends to deform the structure.
As an alternative to a dynamic analysis, moving loads are often treated
as static forces and increased empirically by an impact factor.
Table 1: Live load Impact Factor
Loading Case Impact Factor I, Percent
Supports of elevators and elevator machinery 100
Supports of light machinery, shaft or motor driven 20
Supports of reciprocating machinery or power-driven 50
Hangers supporting floors and balconies 33
Cab-operated traveling crane support girders & their connections 25

For bridges,

50 15.2
I = ———— (English Unit) I = ———— (SI Unit)
L + 125 L + 38.1

The impact factor I need not be greater than 30%.

Wind load – load due to magnitude of wind pressure on the structure
which depends on the wind velocity, the shape and stiffness of the
structure, the roughness and profile of the surrounding ground, and
the influence adjacent structures. (refer to NSCP)

Wind velocity is measured by an instrument called anemometer. The

influence of the shape of the structure on wind pressure is accounted
for by drag factors.

The generic formula for wind load is F = A x P x Cd where F is the force

or wind load, A is the projected area of the object, P is the wind
pressure, and Cd is the drag coefficient..
• Earthquake load – a common dynamic loading that the structure must resist wherein
the base of the structure is subjected to a sudden movement. The deformation at the
upper portion induces a horizontal vibration that causes horizontal shear forces
throughout the structure.

In active earthquake zones, the maximum rate of horizontal acceleration of the

foundation may reach values having a magnitude between 0.5 and 1.0 times g, the
acceleration due to gravity. If the structure is assumed to act as a rigid body, it will
accelerate horizontally at the same rate as its foundation. Hence, each part of the
structure will be acted upon by a horizontal inertia force equal to its mass
multiplied by its horizontal acceleration, or for example,

weight
Lateral force = ————— x 0.5g = one-half of its weight
g
Miscellaneous Types of Loads
• Soil Pressure – the lateral pressure caused by soil on retaining wall.
• Hydrostatic Pressure – the lateral pressure usually caused by water on dams and
tanks. It can be easily computed with the elementary principles of hydraulics.
• Centrifugal Force – lateral force exerted by moving vehicle crossing a bridge.
• Longitudinal Force – horizontal force acting in the direction of the longitudinal axis
of the bridge, that is, in the direction of the roadway.
• Non-Directional Loads
o Thermal Force – force set up in a structure as a result of temperature changes.
o Shrinkage – for concrete, the shrinkage ratio is 0.0003.
o Fabrication Errors – the difference in dimension and shape between the finished
structure and their design dimension and shape. Fabrication errors, either actual or
induced, cause structural stress response especially in indeterminate structure.
o Support Settlements – if a structure is supported in a statically indeterminate
manner and their supports settle unevenly, then induced stresses will develop.
Tributary Area
• Slab/Beam
The tributary area of the beam is that area of slab that is supported by a particular beam.
B1 Ws

S assumed
S/2 B21 S

B1
S
L B1

w S/2 L wS/3

WL simplified
assumed

L S

wS/3 ((3-m2)/2)

simplified

Fig11: (a) one-way slab action wherein loads are divided between beams equally; (b) two-way slab action where loads are divided between B1s
and B2s as shown
Column
To determine the load transmitted into the column from floor slabs, the engineer can either (1) determine
the reactions of the beams framing into the column or (2) multiply the tributary area of the floor
surrounding the column by the magnitude of the load per unit area acting on the floor. The tributary area of
the column is that area surrounding the column that is bounded by the panel centerlines.

A B C D
A A
1
2 s/2 Tributary area for Col A1
A s/2
2 Tributary area for Col B2
A s/2
s/2 Tributary area for Col C1
3
A
L/2 L/2 L/2 L/2 L/2 L/2

Fig 12: Concept of tributary area for columns

Illustrative Problems

1. A three-ply asphalt felt and gravel roof over a 50mm thick insulation board is supported by
450mm deep precast reinforced concrete beams with 900mm wide flanges. If the insulation board
weighs 0.144 kN/m2 and the asphalt roofing weighs 0.264 kN/m2, determine the total dead load, per
meter of length, each beam must support.

Solution: Assume 0 .9m strip of the roofing Weight of beam is as follows:

Flange: 0.10m x 0.90m x 23.55kN/m3 = 2.120 kN/m
Stem: 0.25m x 0.35m x 23.55kN/m3 = 2.061 kN/m
Insulation: 0.90m x 0.144 kN/m2 = 0.130 kN/m
Roofing: 0.90m x 0.264 kN/m2 = 0.238 kN/m
Total dead load = 4.547 kN/m
2. Using the tributary area method, compute the floor total loads supported by columns A1 and B2
shown in the figure. The floor system consists of a 150mm thick reinforced concrete slab weighing 23.55
kN/m3. Allow 0.72 kN/m2 for the weight of floor beams, utilities and a ceiling suspended from the floor. In
addition, allow 0.48 kN/m2 for lightweight partitions. The exterior wall supported by the perimeter beams
weighs 8.8 kN/m. Live load is equal to 2 KPa. Assume no reduction for live load.

A B C D
A A
1
2 2.8m Tributary area for Col A1
A 2.8m
2 Tributary area for Col B2
A 2.8m
2.8m
3
A
3m 3m 3.2m 3.2m 3.2m 3.2m
Solution:
Dead Load Analysis:
Weight of R.C. slab = 0.15m x 23.55 = 3.53 kN/m2
Total floor dead load = 3.53 + 0.72 + 0.48 = 4.73 kN/m2

Dead load to Column A1:

Tributary area: At = 3 x 2.8 = 8.4 m2
Floor dead load: AtD = 8.4 x 4.73 = 39.73 kN
Weight of exterior wall = 8.8 x (3+2.8) = 51.04 kN
Total dead load for Column A1 = 39.73 + 51.04 = 90.77 kN

Dead load to Column B2: Live load to Column B2:

Tributary area: At = 6.2 x 5.6 = 34.72 m2 Tributary area: At = 6.2 x 5.6 = 34.72 m2
Total dead load for Column B2 = 34.72 x 4.73 = 164.23 kN Total live load for Column B2 = 34.72 x 2 = 69.44 kN
Live Load Analysis:
Live load to Column A1:
Tributary area: At = 3 x 2.8 = 8.4 m2 Total load for Column A1 = 90.77 + 16.8 = 107.57 kN
Total live load for Column A1 = 8.4 x 2 = 16.8 kN Total load for Column B2 = 164.23 + 69.44 = 233.67 kN
3. Determine the magnitude of the concentrated force for which the beam in the figure
supporting an elevator must be designed. The elevator, which weighs 3000 N can carry a
maximum of six people with an average weight of 160 N.

Solution:
From Table 1, an impact factor I of 100% applies to
all elevator loads. Hence, the weight of the elevator
and its passengers must be doubled.

Total load = D + L = 3000 + 6(160) = 3960 N

Design load = 3960 x 2 = 7920 N
4. The steel framing of a small building is shown in the
figure. The floor consists of a 125mm thick reinforced slab
supported on steel beam. Beams are connected to each
other and to the corner columns by clip angles. The clip
angles are assumed to provide the equivalent of a pin
support for the beams; that is, they can transmit vertical
load but no moment. An acoustical board ceiling, which
weighs 0.1 kPa, is suspended from the concrete slab by
closely spaced supports, and it can be treated as an
additional uniform load to the slab. The weight of ducts,
piping, conduit and so forth, located between the slab and
ceiling, an additional dead load allowance of 0.96 kPa is
assumed. The designer initially estimates the weight of
beam B1 at 0.5 kN/m and the 7.2m girders B2 on column
lines 1 and 2 at 0.85kN/m. Establish the magnitude of the
dead load distribution on beam B1 and girder B2.
Solution:
Assume that all loads between panel centerlines on either side
of beam B1 (tributary area) is supported by beam B1 (see the
shaded area in Fig. B).

Compute the total dead load per meter to beam B1:

Weight of slab: 0.125(2.4)(23.6) = 7.08 kN/m
Weight of ceiling: 0.1(2.4) = 0.24 kN/m
Weight of ducts, etc.: 0.96(2.4) = 2.30 kN/m
Estimated weight of beam: = 0.50 kN/m
Total dead load = 10.12 kN/m
 R1 R2

R1 R2
Compute the reactions for beam B1:

ΣM@R1 = 0
R2 (7.6) = 10.12 (7.6) (3.8)
R2 = 38.456 R2 = R1 = 38.456 Compute the reactions for girder B2:
ΣM@R1 = 0
Since beam B1 is supported by girder
B2, the reactions from the supports of R2 (7.2) = 0.85 (7.2) (3.6) + 38.456 (2.4) +38.456 (4.8)
beam B1 are transmitted to girder B2 as R2 =41.52kN R2 = R1 = 41.52kN
concentrated loads. (see Fig. B2)
Idealization of Structures
Structural idealization is a process in which
an actual structure and the loads acting on
it are replaced by simpler models for the
purpose of analysis. Civil engineering
structures and their loads are most often
complex and thus require rigorous
analysis. To make analysis less
cumbersome, structures are represented
in simplified forms. The choice of an
appropriate simplified model is a very
important aspect of the analysis process,
since the predictive response of such
idealization must be the same as that of
the actual structure.