CEO REVIEWER

Module 3
A. STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING
● Structural engineering is a sub-discipline of civil engineering in which structural engineers
are trained to design the 'bones and muscles' that create the form and shape of man-made
structures
● Structural engineers design the framework of man-made structures, ensuring stability,
strength, and rigidity.
● The designs collaborate with architects and building services engineers, and structural
engineers often supervise construction.
● Beyond buildings, structural engineers can be involved in designing machinery, medical
equipment, and vehicles.
● Structural engineering theory relies on applied physical laws and empirical knowledge of
material and geometric performance.
● Design involves using simple structural concepts to create complex structural systems.
● Structural engineers aim for creative and efficient use of funds, elements, and materials to
achieve project goals.

HISTORY
● Structural engineering has roots dating back to 2700 B.C.E. with the construction of the step
pyramid for Pharaoh Djoser.
● The pyramid's stability relies on its shape and the strength of the stone used, not just its
geometry.
● Pyramids were common in ancient civilizations due to their stable structural form, scalable
nature, and stone strength.
● Ancient architectural design lacked a theoretical foundation; construction was carried out by
artisans, evolving into master builders.
● Historical structures were limited by empirical evidence, and knowledge was retained by
guilds.
● The role of a structural engineer emerged with the Industrial Revolution and the reinvention of
concrete.
● The understanding of structural engineering began to develop in the Renaissance and
advanced into computer-based applications in the 1970s.

Timeline

● 1452 - 1519 - Leonardo da Vinci made many contributions

● 1638 - Galileo Galilei published the book Two New Sciences in which he examined the failure
of simple
● 1660: Hooke's law by Robert Hooke
 ● 1687: Isaac Newton published Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica which contains the
Newton's laws of motion
● 1750: Euler–Bernoulli beam equation
● 1700–1782: Daniel Bernoulli introduced the principle of virtual work
● 1707–1783: Leonhard Euler developed the theory of buckling of columns
● 1826: Claude-Louis Navier published a treatise on the elastic behaviors of structures
● 1873: Carlo Alberto Castigliano presented his dissertation "Intorno ai sistemi elastici", which
contains his theorem for computing displacement as the partial derivative of the strain energy.
This theorem includes the method of "least work" as a special case
● 1874: Otto Mohr formalized the idea of a statically indeterminate structure.
● 1922: Timoshenko corrects the Euler-Bernoulli beam equation
● 1936: Hardy Cross' publication of the moment distribution method, an important innovation in
the design of continuous frames.
● 1941: Alexander Hrennikoff solved the discretization of plane elasticity problems using a lattice
framework
● 1942: R. Courant divided a domain into finite subregions
● 1956: J. Turner, R. W. Clough, H. C. Martin, and L. J. Topp's paper on the "Stiffness and
Deflection of Complex Structures" introduces the name "finite- element method" and is widely
recognized as the first comprehensive treatment of the method as it is known today

STRUCTURE
● The history of structural engineering includes collapses and failures, sometimes due to
negligence, as seen in the Pétion-Ville school collapse.
● In the mentioned collapse, Rev. Fortin Augustin built the school without an engineer, resulting
in a tragic collapse that claimed 94 lives.
● Structural failures prompt careful study, leading to improved practices and a deeper
understanding of structural engineering science.
● Forensic engineering investigations, even when the original engineer followed acceptable
practices, contribute to this understanding.
● An example is the series of failures involving box girders in Australia during the 1970s,
showcasing advancements in structural knowledge and practice through study.

THEORY
● Structural engineering relies on applied mechanics, materials science, and applied
mathematics for understanding how structures support and resist loads.
● A structural engineer needs detailed knowledge of design codes, structural analysis
techniques, and awareness of material corrosion, especially in external environments.
● Specialist software, like AutoCAD, StaadPro, ETABS, Prokon, Revit Structure, Inducta RCB, has
been available since the 1990s, aiding in precise structure design, analysis, and drawing.
● This software can also consider environmental loads, such as earthquakes and winds,
enhancing the overall design process.
PROFESSION
● Structural engineers handle engineering design and analysis, ranging from individual structural
elements to entire systems like buildings.
● Specializations within structural engineering include buildings, bridges, pipelines, industrial
structures, and more.
● Engineers may focus on specific construction materials and types of buildings, such as
offices, schools, or hospitals.
● The profession of structural engineering formalized during the industrial revolution,
distinguishing it from architecture.
● Today's structural engineers need a deep understanding of static and dynamic loading,
requiring creativity to ensure structures can withstand various loads.
● Qualification typically involves a four or five-year undergraduate degree and at least three
years of professional practice.
● Structural engineers are licensed or accredited by learned societies and regulatory bodies
globally, such as the Institution of Structural Engineers in the UK and IABSE internationally.

Specializations

Building Structures
● Structural building engineering is closely linked to architecture, driven by creative material and
form manipulation to meet functional and safety requirements.
● The lead designer on buildings is typically the architect, with a structural engineer serving as a
sub-consultant.
● The extent of influence each discipline has in the design varies based on the structure type,
with simpler structures led by architecture and others, like tensile structures, influenced more
by the engineer for both form and aesthetics.
● The structural design ensures the building stands up safely, functions without issues, and
accommodates factors like temperature, creep, cracking, and imposed loads.
● The design must be practically buildable within manufacturing tolerances, allowing for
architectural and building service requirements.
● Structural engineering specialties for buildings include earthquake engineering, façade
engineering, fire engineering, roof engineering, tower engineering, and wind engineering.

Earthquake Engineering Structures

● Earthquake engineering focuses on designing structures to withstand earthquakes.
● Objectives include understanding how structures interact with shaking ground, anticipating
earthquake consequences, and designing structures to perform during seismic events.
● Earthquake-proof structures may not require extreme strength.
● Base isolation is a crucial tool in earthquake engineering, enabling a structure's base to move
freely with the ground.
Civil Engineering Structures
● Civil structural engineering encompasses structures in the built environment, including
bridges, dams, foundations, and more.
● The structural engineer is the lead designer and often the sole designer for these structures.
● Structural safety is crucial in design, with certain structures in the UK requiring approval from
a chartered engineer.
● Civil engineering structures face extreme forces, like temperature variations, dynamic loads,
and high pressures, in corrosive environments such as at sea or in industrial facilities.

Mechanical Structures
● Structural engineering principles extend to various mechanical structures.
● Designing moveable structures requires considerations for fatigue, load resistance variations,
and significant deflections.
● Static structures can experience movement, and structural engineering adapts to this reality.
● Moveable structures like boats and aircraft endure varying forces throughout their lifetime,
demanding robust structural design.
● Mechanical structural engineering is applicable to boilers, pressure vessels, coachworks,
carriages, cranes, elevators, escalators, marine vessels, and hulls.

Aerospace Structures
● Aerospace structures encompass launch vehicles, missiles, hypersonic vehicles, military
aircraft, and commercial aircraft.
● Typical aerospace structures consist of thin plates with external surface stiffeners, bulkheads,
and frames to support the shape.
● Fasteners like welds, rivets, screws, and bolts are used to hold the components together in
aerospace structures.

Nanoscale Structures
● Nanostructures are objects between molecular and microscopic size, with dimensions on the
nanoscale.
● Nanotextured surfaces have one nanoscale dimension, while nanotubes have two, and
spherical nanoparticles have three.
● Nanoparticles and ultrafine particles (UFP) are often used interchangeably, though UFP can
extend into the micrometer range.
● The term 'nanostructure' is commonly associated with magnetic technology.

Structural Engineering for Medical Science

● Medical equipment, or armamentarium, aids in the diagnosis, monitoring, or treatment of
medical conditions.
● Types of medical equipment include diagnostic machines for medical imaging, infusion pumps,
medical lasers, and surgical machines like LASIK.
● Medical monitors, measuring vital signs and parameters like ECG, EEG, blood pressure, and
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dissolved gases, enable medical staff to assess a patient's condition.
● Biomedical equipment technicians (BMETs) play a crucial role in maintaining medical
equipment, employed primarily by hospitals in the healthcare delivery system.

Structural Elements
Any structure is essentially made up of only a small number of different types of elements:
● Columns
– Columns carry axial force (compression) or both axial force and bending (beam-column).
– Design checks for axial capacity and buckling capacity of the column.
– Buckling capacity depends on geometry, material, and effective length (𝑲 ∗ 𝒍) influenced by
restraint conditions.
– Interaction chart represents the complex non-linear relationship between axial load and
bending in a column.
● Beams
– Beams have one dimension much greater than the other two and are subjected to loads normal
to their main axis.
– Beams and columns are line elements often represented by simple lines in structural modeling.
– Types of beams include cantilevered, simply supported, fixed, continuous, and combinations
of these.
– Beams carry pure bending, causing compression and tension in different parts of the section
along their length.
– Compression part must resist buckling and crushing, while the tension part must adequately
resist tension.
● Trusses
– A truss is a structure with members and nodes where forces are applied, causing members to
act in tension or compression.
– Compression members are called struts, while tension members are called ties.
– Gusset plates connect intersecting elements in most trusses, and they can't transfer bending
moments.
– Truss connections arrange lines of force at joints, enabling truss members to act in pure
tension or compression.
– Trusses are commonly used in large-span structures, where solid beams would be
uneconomical.
● Plates
– Plates carry bending in two directions, exemplified by concrete flat slabs.
– Understanding plates involves continuum mechanics, but design commonly uses codified
empirical approaches or computer analysis due to complexity.
– Yield line theory is another design method, analyzing assumed collapse mechanisms to
provide an upper bound on collapse load.
– Great care is needed when using yield line theory to ensure realistic assumed collapse
mechanisms, as it provides an upper-bound and can lead to unsafe predictions.
● Arches
– Arches carry forces in compression in one direction only.
 – Arches are suitable for masonry construction due to their force-carrying characteristics.
– Design involves ensuring the line of thrust remains within the depth of the arch.
– Arches are commonly used to enhance the aesthetics and stability of structures.
● Shells
– Shells derive strength from their form and carry forces in compression in two directions.
– Examples of shells include domes.
– Designing shells involves creating a hanging-chain model, acting as a catenary in pure tension,
and inverting the form to achieve pure compression.
● Catenaries

B. CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING
● Construction Engineering involves managing and delivering construction projects for
residential, commercial, or industrial applications.
● Civil Engineers specializing in construction management are classified as Construction
Engineers.
● Construction Engineers plan activities, supervise structural installations, and inspect
completed buildings.
● They collaborate with architects and engineering technicians for building design and problem-
solving on-site.
● Construction Engineers use Computer-Aided Design software and combine project
management skills with mathematical knowledge.
● Specializations may include residential housing, bridges, skyscrapers, or industrial
warehouses.
● The demand for Construction Engineers depends on the health of the construction industry in
each country.

C. ManagementEngineering
● Management engineers historically designed control systems but now focus on systems
supporting change.
● The shift involves moving from project or department focus to a systems focus, involving
multiple departments and disciplines.
● Management engineering uses industrial engineering knowledge for internal consulting
services across all organization departments.
● The goal is to develop, implement, and monitor more efficient, cost-effective business
processes and strategies.

D. GeotechnicalEngineering
● Geotechnical engineering applies scientific methods and engineering principles to Earth's
materials for solving engineering problems and designing works.
● Encompasses soil mechanics and rock mechanics, extending into geology, geophysics,
hydrology, and related sciences.
 ● Applications include prediction and mitigation of natural hazards, design of structures, flood
control, and more.
● Used in civil engineering, military, mining, petroleum, and other disciplines dealing with
construction on or within the ground.
● Involves soil mechanics and rock mechanics principles to investigate subsurface conditions,
assess risks, design foundations, and monitor construction.
● A project starts with a review of material properties, followed by a site investigation to
understand the engineering properties of soil, rock, and other materials.
● Geotechnical engineers determine and design foundations, earthworks, and pavement
subgrades based on site conditions.
● Foundations vary for different structures, such as shallow and deep foundations for high-rise
buildings, bridges, and other constructions.
● Extensive involvement in dam projects, evaluating subsurface conditions, seepage, and
stability under various loading conditions.
● Relates to coastal and ocean engineering, involving design and construction of structures like
wharves, marinas, and offshore platforms.
● Geotechnical engineering and engineering geology are closely related, with some overlap but
distinct approaches due to their engineering and geological origins.

HISTORY
● Historical use of soil for flood control, irrigation, burial, and construction.
● Early activities in irrigation and flood control in ancient civilizations.
● Lack of theoretical basis for soil design until the 18th century, relying on experience.
● Foundation-related engineering problems prompt a scientific approach.
● Henri Gautier's recognition of the "natural slope" and rudimentary soil classification.
● Charles Coulomb's contribution to mechanics applied to soils in 1773.
● Development of Mohr-Coulomb theory combining Coulomb's and Mohr's theories.
● 19th-century developments, including Darcy's Law, stress distribution theories, and soil
consistency indices.
● Modern geotechnical engineering begins in 1925 with Karl Terzaghi's Erdbaumechanik.
● Terzaghi's principle of effective stress, bearing capacity theories, and settlement prediction.
● Donald Taylor's recognition of particle interlocking and dilation in soil strength.
● Critical state soil mechanics by Roscoe, Schofield, and Wroth in 1958 connecting volume
change and shearing behavior.
● Geotechnical centrifuge modeling for testing physical scale models of geotechnical problems.

Practicing Engineers
● Geotechnical engineers often graduate from a four-year civil engineering program.
● Some hold a master's degree in geotechnical engineering.
● In the US, geotechnical engineers are typically licensed as Professional Engineers (PEs).
● California and Oregon are states with licensed geotechnical engineering specialties.
● The Academy of Geo-Professionals issues Diplomate, Geotechnical Engineering (D.GE)
certification.
 ● State licensure requirements include graduation from an ABET accredited school.
● Passing the Fundamentals of Engineering and Professional Engineering examinations is
necessary.
● Several years of work experience under a licensed Professional Engineer's supervision is
required.

Soil Mechanics
● Geotechnical engineering views soils as a three-phase material: rock or mineral particles,
water, and air.
● Voids in soil, spaces between mineral particles, contain water and air.
● Engineering properties of soils are influenced by four key factors: particle size, type, grain size
distribution, and relative quantities of mineral, water, and air.
● Fine particles (fines) are particles with a diameter less than 0.075 mm.

Soil Properties
● Specific weight or Unit Weight: Cumulative weight of solid particles, water, and air per unit
volume of soil.
● Porosity: Ratio of void volume to total soil volume; mathematically related to void ratio (e/n).
● Void ratio: Ratio of void volume to solid particle volume in a soil mass; mathematically related
to porosity.
● Permeability: Measure of water flow ability through soil, expressed in darcies (d).
● Compressibility: Rate of volume change with effective stress; involves consolidation when
pores are water-filled.
● Shear strength: Maximum shear stress a soil mass can withstand without shear failure.
● Atterberg Limits: Liquid limit, Plastic limit, and Shrinkage limit used for estimating engineering
properties and soil classification.

Geotechnical Investigation
● Geotechnical investigations by engineers and geologists for designing structures and
addressing subsurface distress.
● Investigations involve surface and subsurface exploration, often using geophysical methods.
● Subsurface exploration includes in-situ tests (e.g., standard penetration test, cone penetration
test).
● Site investigation comprises subsurface sampling and laboratory testing of soil samples.
● Test pits, trenching, and large diameter borings provide insight into soil conditions at depth.
● Various soil samplers used, with standard penetration test being common for disturbed
samples.
● Advanced methods like ground freezing and Sherbrooke block sampler exist but are more
expensive.
● Laboratory tests include Atterberg limits, water content measurements, and grain size
analysis.
● Disturbed samples may alter properties like shear strength, stiffness, hydraulic conductivity.
● Triaxial shear and unconfined compression tests measure strength and stiffness in the
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laboratory.
● Surface exploration includes geologic mapping, geophysical methods, and photogrammetry.
● Geophysical techniques for subsurface exploration involve seismic waves, surface-wave
methods, and electromagnetic surveys.

BUILDING FOUNDATIONS
● Foundation design by geotechnical engineers involves transmitting loads from structures to
the earth.
● The process includes estimating load magnitude, developing a subsurface exploration plan,
determining soil parameters through testing, and designing the foundation.
● Key considerations are bearing capacity, settlement, and ground movement beneath the
foundations.
● Bearing capacity assesses the ability of site soils to support the loads imposed by buildings or
structures.
● Settlement occurs in all foundations, with heavier structures or softer sites presenting
potential concerns.
● Differential settlement and long-term settlement are particular concerns addressed during
foundation design.
● Ground movement beneath foundations can result from various factors like climatic changes,
frost expansion, or slope instability.
● Design must consider all factors to ensure the safety and stability of the foundation.
● Building codes often provide basic foundation design parameters, but they may be
conservative and specific to certain construction types and sites.
● Foundations may bear directly on bedrock in areas of shallow bedrock or rely on deep
foundations in areas with deeper bedrock and soft overlying soils.

Shallow Foundations
● Shallow foundations transfer building loads to the near surface, not a subsurface layer, with a
depth to width ratio typically less than 1.
● Footings, also known as "spread footings," spread the load and transfer structural loads to the
ground through direct areal contact.
● Isolated footings are used for point or column loads, while strip footings are for wall or long
loads.
● Footings are usually constructed from reinforced concrete directly on the soil, embedded into
the ground for frost movement and additional bearing capacity.
● Slab foundations involve the entire structure bearing on a single concrete slab covering the
entire area.
● The slab must be thick enough to provide rigidity, spread bearing loads uniformly, and
minimize differential settlement.
● Flexure may be allowed in some cases, where the building can tolerate small movements of the
foundation.
● Thickness of the slab varies, being less than 300 mm for small structures like single-family
houses and several meters thick for larger structures.
 ● Slab foundations can be either slab-on-grade or embedded foundations, the latter commonly
used in buildings with basements.
● Design considerations include accommodating potential ground movement due to changing
soil conditions for slab-on-grade foundations.

Deep Foundations
● Deep foundations are used for structures or heavy loads when shallow foundations are
insufficient.
● They can rely on end bearing resistance, frictional resistance along their length, or both.
● Geotechnical engineers use specialized tools, like the cone penetration test, to estimate
resistance in the subsurface.
● Types of deep foundations include piles, drilled shafts, caissons, piers, and earth stabilized
columns.
● Skyscrapers, like the Jin Mao Tower in China, often require deep foundations using tubular
steel piles.
● Underpinning piles can be used in buildings undergoing settlement to stabilize the existing
structure.
● Piles can be driven, drilled, or installed using an auger, with various hammers for driving, such
as drop hammers, diesel hammers, hydraulic hammers, and air hammers.
● Piles can be made of materials like steel, timber, and concrete.
● Drilled piles can typically carry more load than driven piles due to their larger diameter.
● The auger method of pile installation involves pumping concrete into the hole as the auger is
being removed.

LATERAL STRUCTURES
● Retaining walls hold back earth, stabilizing soil and rock from downslope movement.
● They provide support for vertical or near-vertical grade changes.
● Retaining walls can be considered for structures like cofferdams and bulkheads designed to
hold back water.
● The primary geotechnical concern is the lateral earth pressure created by the weight of
retained material, which can cause deformation or failure.
● Lateral earth pressure depends on wall height, soil density, soil strength, and allowable wall
movement.
● The pressure is smallest at the top and increases toward the bottom, similar to hydraulic
pressure, pushing the wall away from the backfill.
● Groundwater behind the wall, not dissipated by drainage, adds additional horizontal hydraulic
pressure.

GRAVITY WALLS
●
● Gravity walls rely on the mass, size, and weight of the wall to resist pressures from behind.
● They often have a slight setback or batter for improved stability.
● Dry-stacked stone or segmental concrete units are commonly used for short landscaping
 ●
walls.
● Taller retaining walls in the past were often made from large masses of concrete or stone.
● Modern taller retaining walls are built as composite gravity walls using materials like
geosynthetics or steel-reinforced backfill soil.
● Composite gravity walls may involve precast facing, gabions, crib walls, or soil-nailed walls.
● Reinforced-soil gravity walls use horizontal layers of soil reinforcement, often geogrid,
providing tensile strength.
● Precast, segmental concrete units are used for the wall face, accommodating some differential
movement.
● The reinforced mass, along with the facing, becomes the gravity wall, designed to retain
pressures from the soil.
● Gravity walls typically need to be 30 to 40 percent as deep as the height of the wall and may
need to be larger with slopes or surcharge.

Cantilever Walls
● Cantilevered walls were common before modern reinforced-soil gravity walls.
● Cantilevered walls are made from a thin stem of steel-reinforced, cast-in-place concrete or
mortared masonry.
● They cantilever loads to a large, structural footing, converting horizontal pressures to vertical
pressures on the ground.
● Buttressed or counterfort options may be used to improve stability against high loads.
● Buttresses are short wing walls at right angles to the main trend of the wall.
● Cantilever walls require rigid concrete footings below seasonal frost depth.
● They use less material compared to traditional gravity walls.
● Cantilever walls resist lateral pressures through friction at the base and/or passive earth
pressure.
● Basements are a form of cantilever walls, with forces greater than conventional walls due to
limited movement.

Excavation Shoring
● Shoring for temporary excavations requires a wall design that stays within the excavation
limits.
● Sheet piles or soldier beams with lagging are common methods for shoring.
● Sheet piles are thin, interlocking steel sheets driven before excavation, forming a continuous
barrier.
● Soldier beams are wide flange steel H sections spaced apart, with horizontal timber or steel
sheeting inserted as excavation proceeds.
● Excavation for underground space requires retaining walls to prevent unsafe soil
displacements.
● Diaphragm walls, very stiff and watertight, are used for urban deep excavations to save time
and space.
● Diaphragm walls are supported by lateral supports to prevent horizontal movements.
● Additional support may be needed with walers or tie-backs if the shoring wall alone is
 ●
insufficient.
● Walers connect across the excavation, using soil loads on either side to resist each other or
transfer horizontal loads.
● Tie-backs are steel tendons drilled into the wall face, providing additional lateral resistance
beyond the soil pressure.

EARTHWORKS
● Excavation involves removing soil from a site to shape the earth as needed.
● Filling is the process of shaping the earth by placing soil on the site.
● Compaction increases soil density and decreases permeability.
● Fill placement work often has specifications for a specific degree of compaction.
● In-situ soils can be compacted using methods like rolling, deep dynamic compaction,
vibration, blasting, gyrating, kneading, and compaction grouting.

WATER RESOURCE ENGINEERING

● Water Resource Engineers develop equipment and systems for water management facilities.
● They ensure a continuous supply of clean water for drinking, living, and recreation.
● Water Resource Engineers design, oversee construction, and maintain water systems.
● The industry is growing due to an increasing population and the demand for more water.
● A Bachelor's degree and official certification are required for this career, with many
professionals pursuing Master's Degrees.

TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
● Transportation engineering applies technology and scientific principles to plan, design,
operate, and manage transportation facilities.
● Planning involves forecasting decisions related to trip generation, distribution, mode choice,
and route assignment.
● Passenger trips are a focus, representing peak demand on transportation systems.
● Core areas include facility planning, design, operations planning, logistics, network analysis,
financing, and policy analysis.
● Transportation facilities support air, highway, railroad, pipeline, water, and space
transportation.
● Design aspects include sizing, materials, thickness, and geometry of transportation facilities.
● An inventory of the area precedes planning, considering population, land use, economic
activity, and more.
● Operations and management encompass traffic engineering, involving signs, signals,
markings, tolling, and intelligent transportation systems.
● Human factors, including driver-vehicle interface and road signs, are considered in
transportation engineering.

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING
● Highway engineering involves planning, designing, constructing, and operating highways,
roads, and associated facilities.
 ● Engineers estimate transportation needs, secure funding for projects, and analyze high-traffic
locations for safety and capacity.
● The focus is on improving the transportation system using engineering principles.
● Three design controls include drivers, vehicles, and roadways.

RAILROAD ENGINEERING
● Railway engineers manage the design, construction, and operation of railroads and mass
transit systems with fixed guideways.
● Tasks involve alignment design, station location, construction cost estimating, and
specialization in train dispatching for control.
● Focus on building a cleaner and safer transportation network by reinvesting in and revitalizing
the rail system.
● Collaboration with elected officials in Washington, D.C., addresses rail transportation issues to
meet the country's needs.

Port and Harbor Engineering

● Port and harbor engineers focus on designing, constructing, and operating maritime facilities
such as ports, harbors, and canals.

AIRPORT ENGINEERING
● Airport engineers specialize in the design and construction of airports, considering the
impacts and demands of aircraft.
● Airport engineering involves analyzing wind direction for runway orientation, determining size
and safety areas, and addressing wing tip clearances and clear zones.

Energy and Environmental Engineering

● Energy and environmental engineering aims to efficiently use energy and preserve the
environment.
● Solar radiation plays a crucial role in understanding Earth's weather and available daylight,
impacting both global and internal environments.
● Energy engineers need knowledge in mechanics, thermodynamics, mathematics, materials,
electrical machines, and energy systems.
● Environmental engineering encompasses internal environments (building services and
pollutant removal) and external environments (water courses, air, land, and seas).
● The field focuses on developing cleaner, more efficient energy systems, exploring renewable
resources like solar, wind, and wave energy.

MODULE 4

A. What is Sustainable Development?

● "Sustainable development" was introduced by the World Commission on Environment and
Development (WCED) in 1987.
 ●
Development (WCED) in 1987.
● The concept originated in the report "Our Common Future," also known as the Brundtland
Commission report.
● The WCED, formed by the United Nations in 1984, consisted of 23 members from 22
countries.
● Over three years, the commission studied the conflicts between global environmental issues
and the needs of less-developed nations.
● WCED's definition of sustainable development: "Meeting the needs of the present without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs."
● Efforts post-1987 to explain and expand the concept of sustainable development.
● An engineer's perspective sees sustainable systems as either in equilibrium or changing slowly
at a tolerable rate.
● The closed-loop human ecosystem model from 1990 illustrates engineers' roles in sustainable
development.
● Engineers contribute to efficient use of natural resources, harvesting renewables, processing
resources with minimal waste, and transportation with minimal environmental impact.
● Development, processing, and transport of resources improve living standards, providing
clean water, energy, housing, infrastructure, food distribution, and healthcare.
● Engineers play vital roles in each phase of the human ecosystem model for sustainable
development.

B. Engineering for Sustainable Development

● Engineers are essential problem solvers in infrastructure and environmental challenges.
● Their work impacts progress toward sustainable development.
● Engineers contribute to sustainability in the entire chain of production and consumption.
● Key areas of contribution include extracting and developing natural resources.
● Engineers play roles in processing and modifying resources sustainably.
● They design and build transportation infrastructure with environmental considerations.
● Meeting consumer needs is a crucial aspect where engineers contribute to sustainability.
● Resource recovery and reuse are parts of engineers' roles in promoting sustainability.
● Engineers are involved in the production and distribution of energy, focusing on sustainability.

The Roles of Engineers

● Globally, there are around 15 million engineers specializing in various fields.
● Engineer types include civil, environmental, mechanical, electrical, chemical, and more.
● Engineers engage in projects focusing on basic human needs and solving environmental
problems.
● They are problem solvers, utilizing scientific discoveries, empirical experience, and innovative
approaches.
● Engineers analyze costs, benefits, and environmental impacts over the life of projects.
● Political, cultural, and social considerations are essential in project locations.
● Engineers perform baseline studies, project analyses, feasibility studies, and environmental
impact studies.
● Their functions involve project planning, design, development, construction supervision, and
 ● Their functions involve project planning, design, development, construction supervision, and
more.
● Engineers contribute to sustainable development by measuring progress and managing
resources.

SUSTAINABLE ENGINEERING
● Engineers contribute to sustainable development by planning projects that preserve natural
resources and support human and natural environments.
● In resource development and extraction, engineers are involved in evaluating deposits,
planning mining operations, petroleum engineering, water resource planning, agricultural
engineering, and designing fish farms.
● Engineers play crucial roles in processing and modifying resources by developing pollution
measuring instruments, changing industrial processes for efficiency, designing products for
reuse, and collaborating in eco parks.
● Transportation engineering involves building canals, roads, pipelines, bridges, railroads, ports,
and designing energy-efficient, environmentally friendly transportation systems for the future.
● Meeting consumer needs involves creative land planning, infrastructure development,
providing water treatment facilities, designing housing and infrastructure, and reducing risks
from natural hazards.
● Engineers assist in resource recovery and reuse by improving recycling methods, solid waste
facilities, collecting and reusing construction materials, and developing treatment facilities for
urban organic waste.
● Environmental restoration projects include treating old industrial waste sites, reclaiming mine
properties, restoring water bodies, renewing urban areas, and reclaiming eroded farmlands.
● In energy production and use, engineers work on efficiently extracting and processing
petroleum, improving power station efficiency, exploring alternative energy sources, and
designing energy-efficient buildings and transportation systems.

C. ENGINEERING PROGRESS
● Engineers conducted a systematic analysis of Agenda 21 after the 1992 Rio Summit and
identified 1700 issues with engineering or technical implications, including 241 with major
engineering implications.
● Eminent engineers, scientists, and environmental NGOs convened at the United Nations
headquarters in 1993 to review high-priority needs and discuss potential action programs.
● Progress in the 10 years post the Rio Summit includes the formation of the World Engineering
Partnership for Sustainable Development (WEPSD), creation of environmental committees,
development of environmental policies and sustainable development guidelines by engineering
organizations.
● Engineers actively contributed to the Earth Charter and engaged with the United Nations
Commission on Sustainable Development (UNCSD).
● Collaborations between engineers and scientists led to major breakthroughs in computer
technology and communication networks.
● Educational programs were initiated to introduce sustainable development concepts to both
engineering students and practicing engineers.
 ●
engineering students and practicing engineers.
● Industrial processes were improved to enhance resource efficiency in manufacturing and
reduce waste products.

ENGINEERING ORGANIZATIONS
● Global engineering organizations, including WFEO, UATI, FIDIC, and CAETS, are actively
educating their members about sustainable development.
● In 1991, WFEO adopted the Arusha Declaration, offering guidelines for engineers based on the
study of Our Common Future.
● WFEO's Environmental Committee reviewed drafts of Agenda 21, highlighting that engineering
contributions were omitted, leading to concerns about the weakening of the report.
● FIDIC, independently, formed an Environmental Task Committee in 1988, addressing
environmental trends and planning for the Rio Summit. They developed guidelines, policies,
and training programs.
● Realizing the need for joint efforts, WFEO and FIDIC, along with UATI, formed the World
Engineering Partnership for Sustainable Development (WEPSD) during the 1992 Rio Summit.
● WEPSD accomplished significant work in five years, laying the groundwork for sustainable
development programs by WFEO, FIDIC, and other international organizations.
● Engineering societies in many countries actively considered sustainable development
implications in engineering practices.
● WFEO and WEPSD members were present at the 1992 Rio Summit, and WFEO officers were
represented at the Rio + 5 conference.
● Collaboration between WFEO and FIDIC resulted in a report, "The Engineer’s Response to
Sustainable Development," published by WFEO in February 1997.
● Major international engineering organizations have collaborated on various projects since 1997
and contributed to the World Summit on Sustainable Development (WSSD) in 2002.
● Engineers and scientists agreed to be represented jointly at the WSSD, preparing a joint paper
titled "Role and Contributions of the Scientific and Technological Community to Sustainable
Development."

Ethics, Policies and Sustainable Development Guidelines

● Many engineering organizations, both international and national, have developed
environmental codes of ethics, policies, and sustainable development guidelines.
○ Examples of notable environmental codes and policies include:
○ The WFEO Arusha Declaration on Environment and Development.
○ The WFEO Model Code of Ethics adopted in September 2001.
○ FIDIC's set of environmental policies adopted in 1990, outlining consulting engineer
obligations (http://www.fidic.com/about/statement04.asp).
○ The Melbourne Communique, a statement of operating principles adopted by 20
national organizations of Chemical Engineers.
○ The American Association of Engineering Societies' Public Policy on Sustainable
Development and Action Principles adopted in 1992 (http://www.aaes.org/content.cfm?
L1=2&L2=3&OID=18).
○ The Code of Ethics of the American Society of Civil Engineers, enforceable in requiring
 ○ The Code of Ethics of the American Society of Civil Engineers, enforceable in requiring
consideration of sustainable development principles in civil engineering projects (http://
www.asce.org/inside/codeofethics.cfm?strPrinter=1).
○ In June 2002, representatives of the National Academy of Engineering in the USA met
with major American engineering organizations to unify support for the goals of the
2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development and adopted a powerful statement on
engineers and sustainable development.

Earth Charter
● Engineers played a crucial role in contributing a technological perspective to the development
of the Earth Charter.
● Discussions about the need for an earth ethic began as early as 1945 during the formation of
the United Nations.
● The Earth Charter initiative, led by Maurice Strong and Mikhail Gorbachev, was launched in
1994, resulting in the official launch of the Earth Charter on June 29, 2000, in The Hague.
● The WFEO contributed to the development of the Earth Charter by appointing a USA National
Earth Charter Committee in 1997 and presenting its views at an Earth Charter Continental
Conference in Brazil in 1998.
● WFEO participated in a virtual conference to comment on a draft of the Earth Charter, and
WFEO Vice President Poirot explained the implications of the Earth Charter to engineers at the
World Congress on Sustainable Development in Calcutta, India, on January 21, 2000.
● The WFEO Executive Council adopted its Earth Charter Resolution on September 20, 2000,
following the WFEO General Assembly's adoption of four resolutions supporting the Earth
Charter in 1999.
● The Earth Charter is a powerful document with implications for engineers and deserves wide
reading.

JOINT PROGRAMS
● Over the past decade, international engineering groups have formed partnerships in
sustainable development programs with global organizations, including the World Bank, the
UN, and other international agencies.
● The World Engineering Partnership for Sustainable Development (WEPSD), a collaboration
between WFEO, FIDIC, and UATI, worked with the World Bank and UNDP in 1996 to evaluate
the feasibility of treating urban wastes for land application in agriculture.
● This joint program demonstrated that properly treated urban organic wastes could help
address health hazards in cities and increase food productivity through improved crop yields
in nearby farms.
● Protecting and developing water resources, a critical global issue, was addressed through
collaboration between the Global Environmental Facility (GEF), FIDIC, and WFEO. The
International Waters Workshop—CEO Dialogue in 2000 recommended high-priority water
projects and outlined a long-term program for consideration by the GEF and private investors.
● WFEO and FIDIC agreed to assist the UNEP-GEF Technology Transfer Networks (SANet)
program, which aims to disseminate information about environmentally responsible
technology. SANet's mission is to facilitate the widespread use of cleaner technology,
 ●

technology. SANet's mission is to facilitate the widespread use of cleaner technology,

successful case histories, expert knowledge, planning tools, and co-financing of projects.

UN Commission on Sustainable Development

● Engineering organizations have played a key role in advancing sustainable development by
presenting to the United Nations Commission on Sustainable Development (UNCSD).
● The UNCSD, established in December 1992, ensures effective follow-up to the United Nations
Conference on Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992.
○ Since 1998, WFEO has organized and sponsored four panels of experts on crucial
topics, contributing to UNCSD annual meetings.
○ Water Panel (April 27, 1998): Four expert panelists demonstrated privatization projects'
initiation and structure.
○ Production/Consumption Panel (April 28, 1999): Four expert panelists showcased
cleaner production technologies.
○ Panel on Sustainable Practices in Agriculture (May 1, 2000): Three expert panelists
presented case studies on natural resource management technologies.
○ Energy Panel (April 17, 2001): Three expert panelists shared case histories about
technologies employing renewable energy sources.
● An engineering officer of WFEO served as a member of and advisor to the U.S. delegation to
the 1997 UN General Assembly.

Computers and Communication

● Engineers have played a crucial role in the development of breakthroughs in computer
technology and communication networks over the past decade.
● Significant advances in computers and software have made these technologies more powerful,
smaller, and economical, with the Internet enabling rapid global communication.
● Computer engineers have been integral in driving progress in computing, leading to powerful
technical programs and the storage of enormous amounts of data beneficial for scientists and
engineers.
● Software development has facilitated the exchange of electronic information, allowing the
sharing of knowledge, information, and technologies, contributing to the engineering
dimension of sustainability.
● The "digital divide" has emerged as a challenge, referring to the gap between countries with
and without access to technology. WFEO's committees on Information and Communication
(CIC) and Technology (ComTech) are addressing methods to bridge this divide.
● In 1999, WFEO endorsed a proposal for a virtual engineering library for sustainable
development, aiming to support engineering education globally through internet-accessible
resources.
● The Australasian Virtual Library (AVEL) serves as a prototype, with hopes to expand it into a
global system named the Virtual Environment and Sustainable Systems Engineering Library
(VESSEL).
● The AVEL program, incorporated into the Australian Virtual Columbo Plan, is funded by
Australia's overseas aid program and the World Bank, initially targeting primary and secondary
school teachers and policymakers.
 ●

school teachers and policymakers.

Educational Programs
● Engineering groups initiated educational programs for engineering students and professionals
to integrate sustainable development concepts into their work.
● Many universities globally have started incorporating sustainable development principles into
their curricula, with WFEO documenting progress in the report "The Engineer’s Response to
Sustainable Development" (EngEducation.doc) in 1997.
● In the USA, engineering colleges developed extensive programs, with examples like the
Georgia Institute of Technology creating an Institute for Sustainable Technology and
Development.
● Forward-looking university programs include those at the University of Florida, the Systems
Engineering Department of the University of Virginia, and the Earth Systems Engineering
Program at the University of Colorado.
● Internship programs supporting environmentally-oriented companies, such as the Institute for
Leadership Development in Canada and the Australian Ambassadors Scheme in Australia, have
been established.
● An international workshop in New Zealand in 1994 examined "Fundamentals of Environmental
Education in Engineering Education," leading to recommendations published in the report
"Engineering Education and Training for Sustainable Development" (ParisReport.doc).
● Sustainability considerations are incorporated into university accreditation procedures, as
seen in the USA's ABET document "Engineering Criteria 2000," stating that curricula should
include economic, environmental, sustainability, manufacturability, ethical, health and safety,
social, and political considerations.
● FIDIC contributed to sustainable development education with training programs for members
and industry, collaborating with UNEP and the International Chamber of Commerce (ICC).
● Regional programs, such as one in Africa described by Rafik Meghji, WFEO ComTech’s
Regional Vice President, incorporate sustainable development concepts.

Industrial Process
● Engineering has pioneered new approaches in industrial processes to decrease resource
usage and eliminate waste.
● Over the last 30 years, many industrialized nations implemented laws to regulate toxic waste
generation, leading industries to adapt and find ways to comply.
● The realization that waste reduction could result in significant savings and increased profits
prompted leading industries to take the initiative in improving processing.
● The World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD, http://www.wbcsd.org/)
was formed by industry executives, creating a coalition of 160 companies committed to
sustainable development, representing various engineering disciplines.
● The International Institute for Sustainable Development (http://www.iisd.org) contributes to
policy recommendations, including those related to industrial processes.

D. FUTURE GOALS
● Engineers believe existing knowledge and technology can solve issues in less-developed
 ● Engineers believe existing knowledge and technology can solve issues in less-developed
nations, emphasizing the importance of transferring knowledge and influencing decision-
making.
● Addressing energy, food, health, and basic human needs in developing countries is a priority,
aligning with Rio Summit's Agenda 21.
● Future engineer-led programs should focus on comprehensive information provision, global
education on sustainable development, fostering environmental generalists, and active
engagement in decision-making.
● Enhancing methods to identify and consider environmental costs throughout a project's life
cycle is crucial.
● Hands-on assistance, knowledge sharing, and support for technically viable, commercially
feasible, and socially sustainable projects in developing countries are vital goals.
● Engineers should advocate for well-crafted policies and creative applications of engineering
principles to achieve sustainable development objectives.

SHARE INFORMATION
● Sustainable development can be advanced by creating a comprehensive program to provide
essential information for engineers in developing countries.
● Concerns about reaching engineers in less-developed countries were expressed at the WFEO
Annual Meeting in 2001, highlighting challenges like language barriers and limited access to
modern communication devices.
● A proposal drafted by Don Roberts addresses issues related to technical communications and
information sharing, consisting of five phases and potentially taking 10 years to implement.
● The proposed program includes funding for the Virtual Environment and Sustainable Systems
Engineering Library (VESSEL) and full implementation of the SANet program to enhance
information sharing.

GLOBE EDUCATION PROGRAMS

● Expanding educational programs for students and engineers is crucial for making sustainable
development more understandable and applicable to engineering projects.
● Current university efforts in developing sustainable development programs could be more
efficient and thorough through a global education program, utilizing the Internet and wideband
telecommunications.
● Practical methods of using sustainable technologies should be taught to practicing engineers,
supported by funded and widely distributed guidance documents, including successful case
histories and simple suggestions.
● Engineering educators and professionals should collaborate in creating educational materials
that introduce sustainable development concepts to students at an early age, as demonstrated
by the Discover Engineering Online model.

Engineers as Environmental Generalists

● Encouraging engineers to become environmental generalists is crucial for advancing
sustainable development by broadening perspectives in engineering.
 ●
sustainable development by broadening perspectives in engineering.
● A 1990 paper proposed that around 25% of engineers should be trained as superb
environmental generalists, combining technical skills with knowledge in environmental
disciplines, economics, law, history, political science, and leadership training.
● Early recruitment of students for such a program, along with a broad education and diverse
assignments, aims to prepare "renaissance engineers" capable of assuming leadership roles in
education, industry, and government over time.

Engage Engineers in Decision-making

● Encouraging engineers to actively engage in decision-making processes, beyond project
execution, can enhance project efficiency and effectiveness.
● Engineers should move beyond providing technical advice and planning, involving themselves
in all stages of decision-making for projects to foster sustainable development.
● Engineers can contribute by participating in local and regional civic activities, evaluating
planning studies, engaging with stakeholders, and addressing concerns throughout the project
lifecycle.
● Being part of public hearings, resolving controversies, and offering constructive advice during
construction and operations are essential aspects of an engineer's involvement in decision-
making.

Environmental Impacts and Costs

● Improving methods for assessing environmental costs and impacts throughout a project's life
cycle can mitigate adverse environmental effects.
● Traditional environmental impact studies, often initiated after project selection, can become
battlegrounds between project supporters and opponents, leading to wasteful investigations,
legal costs, and confrontations.
● A better approach involves starting environmental studies earlier, continuing them longer, and
ensuring compatibility with local or national strategic plans.
● Baseline studies of the regional environment should precede project consideration, and
environmental constraints should be considered comprehensively during planning.
● Economic development projects should involve all concerned parties early in the planning
process to prevent confrontation and legal action.
● Continuous environmental monitoring throughout construction and the project's life cycle is
crucial, allowing for design modifications if needed.
● Challenges exist in integrating environmental costs into conventional accounting practices,
and practical approaches are yet to be developed.