SURFACE

WHAT

HOW

HOW DOES HUMAN INFLUENCE

WHY IS IT A PROBLEM

MANAGING SURFACE RUNOFF

https://gokcecapital.com/surface-runoff/

https://www.chesapeakebay.net/issues/threats-to-the-bay/stormwater-runoff

https://www.nature.com/articles/s41893-022-00853-4

https://hydrology.usu.edu/rrp/Contents.htm

https://hydrology.usu.edu/rrp/pdfs/RainfallRunoffProcesses.pdf

RESOURCES BOOKS

Whats is Run-off

Runoff means the draining or flowing off of precipitation from a

catchment area through a surface channel enters into a stream
channel. It represents the output from catchment in a given
unit of time. 
Consider a catchment area receiving precipitation. For a given
precipitation, when the evapotranspiration, initial loss,
infiltration and detention storage requirements are satisfied,
the excess precipitation moves over the land surfaces to reach
smaller channels. This portion of runoff is called overland flow
and involves building up of storage over the surface and
draining off the same.

Flows from several small channels join bigger channels and

flows from these in turn combine to form a larger stream, and
so on, till the flow reaches the catchment outlet. The flow in
this mode, where it travels all the time over the surface as
overland flow and through the channels as open-channel flow
and reaches the catchment outlet is called surface runoff.
\
A part of the precipitation that infilters moves laterally through
upper crusts of the soil and returns to the surface at some
locations away from the point of entry into the soil. This
component of runoff is known variously as interflow, through
flow, storm seepage, subsurface flow or quick return flow.
Another route for the infiltered water is to undergo deep
percolation and reach the groundwater storage. The time lag, i.e.
the difference in time between the entry into the soil and
outflows from it is very large, being of the order of months and
years. This part of runoff is called groundwater runoff or
groundwater flow.
 The phreatic zone, saturated zone, or zone of saturation, is the part of an aquifer, below
the water table, in which relatively all pores and fractures are saturated with water.

Based on the time delay between the precipitation and the

runoff, the runoff is classified into two categories; as (a) Direct
runoff (b) Base flow.

Based on the time delay between the precipitation and the

runoff, the runoff is classified into two categories; as (a) Direct
runoff (b) Base flow.
a)  Direct runoff
It is the part of runoff which enters the stream immediately after
the rainfall. It includes surface runoff, prompt interflow and
rainfall on the surface of the stream. In the case of snow-melt,
the resulting flow entering the stream is also a direct runoff.
Direct storm runoff and storm runoff are also used to designate
direct runoff.
 
b)  Base flow
The delayed flow that reaches a stream essentially as
groundwater flow is called base flow.

Runoff occurs when there is more water than land can absorb.

The excess liquid flows across the surface of the land and into nearby
creeks, streams, or ponds. Runoff can come from both natural
processes and human activity.

Factors affecting Runoff

Climatic
Rainfall Characteristics
1.Types of Precipitation
2. Rainfall Intensity
3. Duration of Rainfall
4. Rainfall Distribution
5. Direction of Prevailing Wind
6. Other (temp, wind velo, relative humidity, annual rainfall affect tbe
water loses from watershed area

Watershed Factors That Affect Runoff Watershed factors affecting runoff are land slope, shape, soil, and
land use. Land Slope The principal effect of land slope is on the rate of runoff. Runoff will flow faster on a
steeper slope. This results in higher peaks at downstream locations. The effect of land slope on the
volume is usually minor. Shape The shape of the watershed has an effect on the rate of runoff. The rate
of runoff will be lower for a long narrow watershed than for a fan-shaped watershed. Soil The type of
soil has a major effect on runoff due to its infiltration rate. Infiltration is the flow of water through the
soil surface into the soil. Pore size and distribution are important. In sands, the pores are stable since
sand' particles do not crumble or swell. Soils with silt or clay are subject to breakup of the crumbs during
raindrop impact and wetting. There is a melting of aggregate, and the very small particles floating on the
surface penetrate and clog existing pores, reducing infiltration. As infiltration continues, some of the
voids between soil particles are filled with water. The remaining water continues its downward
movement. The flow of water downward through the soil and below the surface is called transmission
or percolation. As the rainfall continues and the storage in the upper soil layer is filled, the infiltration
rate will be limited by the percolation rate of a lower soil layer. When the rate of rainfall exceeds the
infiltration rate, the excess water will start flowing over the soil surface, and runoff begins. NRCS has a
wealth of information on soils. We have classified all soils according to their infiltration rate after
prolonged wetting with all vegetation removed. The soils are divided into four hydrologic groups: Group
A soils have low runoff potential and high infiltration rates even when thoroughly wetted. They consist
chiefly of deep, well to excessively drained sands or gravels. These soils have a high rate of water
transmission (greater than 0.30 in/hr). Group B soils have moderate infiltration rates when thoroughly
wetted and consist chiefly of moderately deep to deep, moderately well to well drained soils with
moderately fine to moderately coarse textures. These soils have a moderate rate of water transmission
(0.15 - 0.30 in/hr). Group C soils have low infiltration rates when thoroughly wetted and consist chiefly
of soils with a layer that impedes downward movement of water and soils with moderately fine to fine
texture. These soils have a low rate of water transmission (0.05 - 0.15 in/hr). Group D soils have high
runoff potential. They have very low infiltration rates when thoroughly wetted and consist chiefly of clay
soils with a high swelling potential, soils with a permanent high water table, soils with a claypan or clay
layer at or near the surface, and shallow soils over nearly impervious material. These soils have a very
low rate of water transmission (0.0 - 0.05 in/hr). A list of soils and their hydrologic group may be found
in the following references: 1. Engineering Field Manual, Chapter 2. 2. National Engineering Handbook,
Section 4, Hydrology, Chapter 7. 3. Technical Release 55, Urban Hydrology for Small Watersheds, Second
Edition, (June 1986), Appendix A Land Use Vegetation Vegetation has a significant influence on
infiltration, and therefore, on runoff. Many studies have shown that for the same soils under the same
conditions, infiltration is highest for forest and grassland, lower for cultivated field crops and lower still
for fallow or bare soil. Root systems perforate the soil, keeping it unconsolidated and porous. Organic
matter promotes a crumb structure and improves permeability. Vegetation and crop residues protect
the soil surface from raindrop impact and reduce particle breakup. Vegetation provides surface
roughness and obstruction to flow on the surface. This reduces the velocity of flow, providing additional
time for infiltration. NRCS uses the term "hydrologic condition" to describe or classify a given land use or
vegetative cover. The condition may be rated as poor, fair, or good. This refers to the density of plant
and residue cover, the amount of year-round cover, and the amount of surface roughness. The better
the condition, the greater the infiltration and the less the volume runoff. This is discussed further in
Module 104

8.2 Factors Affecting Runoff

The main factors affecting the runoff from a catchment area are:
a)       Precipitation characteristics
b)      Shape and size of catchment
c)       Topography
d)      Geologic characteristics
e)       Meteorological characteristics
f)        Storage characteristics of a catchment
 
18.2.1Precipitation Characteristics
Precipitation is the most important factor, which affects runoff. 
The important characteristics of precipitation are duration,
intensity and areal distribution. 
Duration Total runoff depends on the duration of rainstorm. 
For a given rainfall intensity and other conditions, a longer
duration rainfall event will result in more runoff. 
Intensity Rainfall intensity influences both rate and volume of
runoff.  The runoff volume and also runoff rate will be greater
for an intense rainfall event than for less intense event. 
Areal Distribution It also influences both the rate and volume
of runoff.  Generally, the maximum rate and volume of runoff
occurs when the entire watershed contributes.
 
18.2.2 Shape and Size of Catchment
The runoff from a catchment depends upon the size, shape and
location of the catchment. The following are the general
observations:
a)  More intense rainfall events are generally distributed over a
relatively smaller area, i.e., larger the area lower will be the
intensity of rainfall.
b)  The peak normally decreases as the area of the basin
increase. (peak flow per unit area)
c)   Larger basins give a more constant minimum flow than the
smaller ones. (effect of local rains and greater capacity of the
ground-water reservoir)
d)  Fan shaped catchments give greater runoff because
tributaries are nearly of same size and hence time of
concentration of runoff is nearly same.  On the contrary,
discharges over fern leaf arrangement of tributaries are
distributed over long period because of the different lengths of
tributaries.

 
Fig. 18.2a.Fan shaped catchment.  Fig. 18.2b.Leaf shaped
catchment.(Source: Subramanya, 2008)
 
18.2.3 Topography
The runoff depends upon surface condition, slope and land
features.  Runoff will be more from a smooth surface than from
rugged surface.  Also, if the surface slope is steep, water will
flow quickly and adsorption and evaporation losses will be less,
resulting in greater runoff.  On the other hand if the catchment is
mountainous, the rainfall intensity will be high and hence runoff
will be more.
18.2.4 Geologic Characteristics
Geologic characteristics include surface and sub-surface soil
type, rocks and their permeability.  Geologic characteristics
influence infiltration and percolation rates.  The runoff will be
more for low infiltration capacity soil (clay) than for high
infiltration capacity soil (sand).
 Geological Characteristics of Basin
 Geological characteristics of the catchment area are an important factor affecting
the runoff. These include the type of the surface soil and sub-soil, type of rock
and their permeability characteristics.
 If the soil and sub-soil is pervious, seepage will be more and this in turn reduces
the peak flood. If the surface is rocky, the absorption will be practically nil, and
runoff will be more.
 However, if the rocks have fissures, or if they are porous or have lava tunnels
etc., most of the water will be lost by way of seepage, and surface runoff will be
very small.
 However, if this seeping water has outlet in the stream of the catchment, most of
the water flows back to the stream during its period of low flow.

18.2.5 Meteorological Characteristics

Temperature, wind speed, and humidity are the major
meteorological factors, which affect runoff.  Temperature, wind
speed and humidity affect evaporation and transpiration rates,
thus soil moisture regime and infiltration rate, and finally runoff
volume.
 
18.2.6 Storage Characteristics of a Catchment
Presence of artificial storage such as dams, weirs etc. and natural
storage such as lakes and ponds etc. tend to reduce the peak
flow.  These structures also give rise to greater evaporation.
http://ecoursesonline.iasri.res.in/mod/page/view.php?id=2221

Physiographic Factors
1. Size of Watershed
- A large watershed takes longer time for draining the runoff to
outlet than smaller watershed and vice versa
2. Shape of Watershed
- Shape of watershed is expressed by form factor /
compactness coefficient
3. Slope of Watershed
4. Orientation of Watershed
5. Land Use
6. Soil Moisture
7. Soil Type
8. Topographic Characteristics
9. Drainage Density = Total Channel Length / Watershed
Area
10. Storage Characteristics
a. Depression
 b. Ponds laje and pools
c. Stream
d. Channels
e. Check Dams in Gullies
f. Upstream reservoirs or tanks
g. Ground water storage in deposits / aquifers
Effects of surface run-off
Erosion and deposition
Environmental Effects
Agricultural issues
Flooding

Importance
Water balance calculation
Irrigation Scheduling

What is runoff pollution?

Runoff pollution refers to the contaminants picked up by rainwater and melting snow
that washes off the many impermeable surfaces found in urban environments. It is a
threat to both the quantity and quality of our water supply.
As water washes over 
surfaces like these:

 roads
  bridges
 rooftops
 parking lots

…it will absorb pollutants like these:

 dirt, dust
 rubber, metal deposits
 engine oil, antifreeze
 pesticides, fertilizers, herbicides
 debris, pet waste

Unfortunately, often runoff water carries much of this pollution directly into bodies of
water. It’s better when the runoff returns to the ground to infiltrate. Plants and soil
will naturally filter and clean polluted runoff (to a degree).
Because of nature’s water cycle, the water we use today, and all the water that runs
into the storm drain, is water that we need to use again. We share our water with
everyone and with everything. It’s in our own best interests to keep it as clean as
possible!