Basic Geology

BASIC GEOLOGY
Learning Objectives 2
• Explain the main types of rocks

• Identify rocks by their lithology
• Explain the two main physical properties of reservoir
rocks
• Describe four geological components of a prospect
• Illustrate different types of petroleum reservoirs
• Describe structural features that affect drilling
• List methods used for evaluation during drilling
Definition 3
• Geology is the science that deals with the history

and structure of the earth and it’s life forms,
especially as recorded in the rock record
• During drilling rock characteristics and associated

drilling conditions can change many times
• An understanding of the anticipated geology is

essential for properly designing the well and then
drilling it efficiently and safely.
Geologic Time Scale 4
ERA PERIOD EPOCH SUCCESSION OF LIFE

Quaternary Recent
0 – 1 Million Pleistocene
Years
Pliocene
CENOZOIC
Miocene
Tertiary
Oligocene
65 Million Years
Eocene
Paleocene
Cretaceous
MESOZOIC Jurassic
Triassic
Permian
Pennsylvanian
Mississippian
PALEOZOIC Devonian
Silurian
Ordovician
Cambrian
PRECAMBRIAN
Microfossils 5
Note the . In it is a nannofossil on the surface of this foraminifera
Microfossils found or extracted from drill

cuttings are the primary tool used by the oil
industry for age dating geologic strata.
Types of Rocks 6
• IGNEOUS: Rocks formed by solidification of hot mobile

material termed magma.
• Intrusive (solidifies underground)
• Extrusive (volcanic eruption)
• METAMORPHIC: Rocks formed by the transformation, in
the solid state, of pre-existing igneous or sedimentary
rocks as a result of high temperature and pressure.
• SEDIMENTARY: Rocks formed from accumulations of
sediment, which may consist of rock fragments of
various sizes, the remains of animal and plants, the
product of chemical action or evaporation , or a
combination of these.
Distinction of Rocks for Petroleum 7
Non- • Igneous
Reservoir • Metamorphic
Reservoir • Sedimentary
Some Rock Samples 8
Reservoir
Reservoir
Reservoir
Reservoir
Description of Rock Cuttings 9
Argillaceous • Shale, Clay, Claystone
Arenaceous • Sandstone, Siltstone
Carbonates • Limestone, Dolomite
Evaporites • Anhydrite, Salt
Other • Pyrite, Mica, Chert, Coal

Lithology 10
The Character of Rock Formations

Shale
Sandstone
Limestone
Calcareous shale
Anhydrite
Argillaceous Limestone
Quartz
Conglomerate
Clay
Dolomite
Lignite
Physical Properties of Reservoir Rocks 11
Porosity • It is the percent volume

(ɸ) of pore space
• It is a measure of a
Permeability
fluid’s ability to flow
(k)
through a porous media
Physical Properties 12
Porosity (ɸ):
bulk volume - grain volume 

Percent Porosity = 100 ×  
 bulk volume
 pore volume 
Percent Porosity = 100 × 
 bulk volume 
• ABSOLUTE POROSITY: The percent of total voids in the

rock compared to the total rock volume
• EFFECTIVE POROSITY: The percent of interconnected

void spaces in the rock compared to the total rock
volume
Oil Reserves in Place 14
Oil In Place (Barrels) = 7,758 x Vo x ф(1-Sw)
Where,
Vo = Volume of oil bearing rock in acre-feet
Ф = Effective porosity, fraction
Sw = Water saturation, fraction
Permeability (k):
It is a measure of a fluid’s ability to flow through
a porous media
Linear horizontal flow Radial horizontal flow
Q=A k × ΔP Q = 2π hk × ΔP
μ Ln re
μ L
rw
Where,
Q = flow rate, cc/sec
A = cross-sectional area of rock, cm2
k = permeability, Darcy
 = viscosity of the fluid, cp
P = differential pressure, atm
L = length over which P applies, cm
h = thickness of medium, cm
re = external radius
rw = well radius
Bulk Density (b):

• It is the weight per unit volume of rock
• In sedimentary rocks it is less than the density of the
matrix material due to rock porosity
• Under normal compaction, the bulk density increases
with depth
• Unit of measurement is gm/cc
• Example:
• Take rock with a specific gravity of 2.7 and a porosity of
10%. The pores are filled with salt water having a
specific gravity of 1.05. The bulk density of the shale
would then be (.9) (2.7) + (.1) (1.05) = 2.53
Prospect Components 17
1 • Source Rock
2 • Reservoir
3 • Seal
4 • Trap
• SOURCE ROCK: Organic deposit that, when

heated, release oil and/or gas. These deposits
are usually formed in marine and lacustrine
environments. Most common rock type is shale.
• RESERVOIR: Container that holds sufficient
volumes of oil and/or gas. Most common rock
types include sandstone, limestone, and
dolomite.
SEAL: Barrier that inhibits movement

of oil and/or gas. Common rock types
that act as seals are evaporites and
shales.
TRAP: Refers to the three dimensional

geometric configuration of the reservoir
and associated seal.
Petroleum System Elements
Anticlinal Trap
(Impermeable)
Potential
Migration Route
Faults & Fractures
Unconformities
Salt Faces and Welds
Porous and Permeable Beds
Migration & Accumulation 21
Flow of gas and oil from the source rock to the trap. Expulsion of oil and gas from the source
rock occurs because of volume increase during generation that fractures the shale.
Migration is usually upward through subsurface fractures due to buoyancy

(gas and oil are lighter than water).
Types of Petroleum Reservoirs 22
Anticline
Fault Trap
Stratigraphic Trap
Salt Dome
Anticlinal Trap 23
Gas
Oil
Seal
Water
Reservoir Oil
rock
Fault Trap 24
Fault trap requires:

• Dipping Beds
• Juxtaposition of impermeable
beds and/or
• Smear/gouge seal as beds
move past each other
Types of Faults 25
Normal Fault Reverse Fault

Hanging wall moves down Hanging wall moves up
relative to Footwall relative to Footwall
A
B A A
C B A B
Foot wall C B C
Hanging wall C
Foot wall Hanging wall
Section will be missing “faulted Section will be repeated with

out” with normal faults reverse faults
Stratigraphic Traps 26
Dome 27
Dome - An anticlinal structure, elliptical or

circular in outline. Often formed by intrusion
of igneous or diapiric sedimentary rock from
below.
Salt Trap 28
Cap Rock?
Salt Dome
Geophysics 29
• The Science that deals with the composition and

physical phenomena of the earth and it’s liquid
and gaseous environments
• Most commonly: Earth Magnetism, Gravity, and
Seismic Vibrations
Acquiring Seismic Data - Land 30
Vibrator Truck
Recording Truck (Energy Source)
Geophone
(Receivers)
Returning
Sound Waves
American Petroleum Institute, 1986

Acquiring Seismic Data - Marine 31
A Seismic Section 32
3-D Earth Model 33
Gravity, seismic, and petrophysical log data are combined

Structural Features 34
DIP
• The angle at which a stratum or any planar
feature is inclined from the horizontal
• The dip is at right angles to the strike
Structural features that affect drilling

performance:
• Dip angle
• Strike angle
• Faults
• Fractures
• Vugs
• Intercalation and lamination
• Uplifted
• Tectonic stresses and their direction
STRIKE
• The course or bearing of the outcrop of an
inclined bed or structure on a level
surface; the direction or bearing of a
horizontal line in the plane of an inclined
stratum, joint, fault, cleavage plane, or
other structural plane
• It is perpendicular to the direction of the
dip
Strike - parallel to the long axis of a structure or parallel to the direction or

trend taken by a structural element. Perpendicular to dip direction.
Dip - the maximum angle of a surface or structural element from horizontal.

Dip direction is perpendicular to strike.
Evaluation During Drilling 38
• Description and analysis of cuttings

• Mud weight - in & out
• Gas detection and measurement
• Detection of hydrocarbon shows
• Logging while drilling
• Rate of penetration
• Torque and drag
• Directional measurements
• Temperature of drilling fluid
• Chemical analysis of drilling fluid
• Coring
Depth Reference 39
KB/RT - 25’
+1000’
KB/RT - 75’
0’
SEA
LEVEL
-1000’
-2000’
-3000’
-4000’
-5000’
7025’ Measured Depth (MD) 5075’ Measured Depth (MD)

6525’ True Vertical Depth (TVD) 5075’ True Vertical Depth (TVD)
-5000’ Subsea True Vertical Depth (SSTVD) -5000’ Subsea True Vertical Depth (SSTVD)
3000’ Below Mud Line (BML)

Basic Geology

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BASIC GEOLOGY

• Explain the main types of rocks

• Geology is the science that deals with the history

• During drilling rock characteristics and associated

• An understanding of the anticipated geology is

ERA PERIOD EPOCH SUCCESSION OF LIFE

Note the . In it is a nannofossil on the surface of this foraminifera

Microfossils found or extracted from drill

• IGNEOUS: Rocks formed by solidification of hot mobile

Argillaceous • Shale, Clay, Claystone

Arenaceous • Sandstone, Siltstone

Carbonates • Limestone, Dolomite

Evaporites • Anhydrite, Salt

Other • Pyrite, Mica, Chert, Coal

The Character of Rock Formations

Porosity • It is the percent volume

bulk volume - grain volume 

• ABSOLUTE POROSITY: The percent of total voids in the

• EFFECTIVE POROSITY: The percent of interconnected

Oil In Place (Barrels) = 7,758 x Vo x ф(1-Sw)

Bulk Density (b):

• SOURCE ROCK: Organic deposit that, when

SEAL: Barrier that inhibits movement

TRAP: Refers to the three dimensional

Petroleum System Elements

Migration is usually upward through subsurface fractures due to buoyancy

Fault trap requires:

Normal Fault Reverse Fault

Foot wall Hanging wall

Section will be missing “faulted Section will be repeated with

Dome - An anticlinal structure, elliptical or

• The Science that deals with the composition and

American Petroleum Institute, 1986

Gravity, seismic, and petrophysical log data are combined

Structural features that affect drilling

Strike - parallel to the long axis of a structure or parallel to the direction or

Dip - the maximum angle of a surface or structural element from horizontal.

• Description and analysis of cuttings

7025’ Measured Depth (MD) 5075’ Measured Depth (MD)

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