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UNIVERSITE DES MASCAREIGNES

Civil & Environmental Engineering Department


BEng (Hons) Civil Engineering
Module: Introduction to Traffic Engineering

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Traffic as a societal issue.
Everybody cares about traffic; often among top political and social issues.

Do we want more or less traffic?


As motorists, we want more capacity, higher speed, and roads that are safe for our higher speed
driving. Accommodating this desire has been the historic concern of traffic engineering.

However, as residents, pedestrians, cyclists, children, and seniors, we want less traffic, slower
traffic, and traffic that’s safer for the people who aren’t protected by a metallic frame. The proper
balance within the above contrasting objectives through engineering techniques is about Traffic
Engineering.

Unexpected Consequences of Mobility drive the profession.


Mobility is critical to our quality of life including development in all areas. Highway engineers
have given us wonderful roads providing us mobility. If nobody used the road except you,
everything would be just fine. However, lots of people besides you need mobility, and the resulting
traffic has had unexpected consequences that require engineering. For years, the main two impacts
the profession was concerned with were:

1. accidents
2. congestion
Often, the solution has been wider roads. More recently, however, a third unexpected
consequence has driven the profession:

3. reducing the walkability & livability of cities


This latter issue affects quality of life and public health, and is the main impetus for “road diets”
and “traffic calming.”
Traffic engineers deal with:
 physical roadway issues
 traffic flow – measuring, modeling, predicting the quality of traffic flow, especially at
intersections, which in cities are the bottlenecks that determine flow quality
 traffic safety

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1.1 TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING
Transportation engineering is the application of technology and scientific principles to the
planning, design, operation, maintenance and management of systems and facilities for any mode
of surface transportation in order to provide for the safe, rapid, comfortable, convenient,
economical and environmentally compatible movement of people and goods.

1.2 TRAFFIC ENGINEERING


Traffic engineering is the phase of transportation engineering that deals with the safe and efficient
planning, geometric design and traffic operations of roads, streets and highways, their networks,
terminals, abutting lands and relationships with other motorized and non-motorized modes of
transportation.

It focuses mainly on research and construction of the infrastructure necessary for safe and efficient
traffic flow, such as road geometry, sidewalks and crosswalks, segregated cycle facilities, traffic
signs, road surface markings and traffic lights.
It is the phase of transportation engineering that deals with the planning, geometric design and
traffic operations of roads, streets and highways, their networks, terminals, abutting lands, and
relationships with other modes of transportation.
Five critical components interact in a traffic system:
1. Road users-drivers, pedestrians, bicyclists, and passengers
2. Vehicles (different types)
3. Roads and highways
4. Traffic control devices
5. The general environment

2.0 ROAD USER AND VEHICLE CHARACTERISTICS


Traffic controls could be easily designed if all drivers reacted to them in exactly the same way.
Safety could be more easily achieved if all vehicles had uniform dimensions, weights, and
operating characteristics.
Drivers and other road users have widely varying characteristics.
Simple aspects like reaction time, vision characteristics, and speed become complex because no
two road users are the same.

Traffic engineers provide information to drivers in uniform ways. Although this does not assure
uniform reactions from drivers, it at least narrows the range of behavior as drivers become
accustomed to and familiar with the facilities traffic engineers design into the system.

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2.1 Road User Characteristic
 Visual
 Perception-reaction time (PRT) Detection
 Reaction Distance
 Expectancy
 Age
 Complexity of reaction
 Presence of alcohol and/or drugs in the driver's system(optional)
(i) Visual

The test is a standard chart-reading exercise that measures static visual acuity -that is, the ability
to see small stationary details clearly.
(ii) Perception-reaction time (PRT)

The perception time includes the detection, identification, and decision elements involved
responding to an action, whereas the reaction time is the time it takes to initiate the physical
response.

Some references refer it to the Perception Identification Emotion Volition time or PIEV, which is
comparable in concept to the PRT.
During perception and reaction, the driver must perform four distinct processes:

• Detection. In this phase, an object or condition of concern enters the driver's field of vision, and
the road user/driver becomes consciously aware that something requiring a response is present.

• Identification. In this phase, the driver acquires sufficient information concerning the object or
condition to allow the consideration of an appropriate response.

• Decision. Once identification of the object or condition is sufficiently completed, the driver must
analyze the information and make a decision about how to respond.

• Response. After a decision has been reached, the response is now physically implemented by the
driver.
(iii) Reaction Distance
Reaction time is the distance the vehicle travels while the driver goes through the process.

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In the example of a simple braking reaction, the PRT begins when the driver first becomes aware
of an event or object in his or her field of vision and ends when his or her foot is applied to the
brake.

During this time, the vehicle continues along its original course at its initial speed. Only after the
foot is applied to the brake pedal the vehicle begin to slow down in response to the stimulus.
The reaction distance is simply the PRT multiplied by the initial speed of the vehicle.
(iv) Expectancy

• Continuity. Experiences of the immediate past are generally expected to continue. Drivers do
not, for example, expect the vehicle they are following to suddenly slow down.
• Event. Things that have not happened previously will not happen. If no vehicles have been
observed entering the roadway from a small driveway over a reasonable period of time, then the
driver will assume that none will enter now.

• Temporal. When events are cyclic, such as a traffic signal, the longer a given state is observed,
drivers will assume that it is more likely a change will occur.
Other Factors Affecting PRT

 Age,
 Fatigue,
 Complexity of reaction, and
 Presence of alcohol and/or drugs in the driver's system
2.2 Vehicle characteristics
 Size
 Weight
 Axle configuration
 Power to weight ratio
 Turning ratio
 Turning path
 Pollution created
 Design vehicle
(a) Size, Weight, Axle Configuration
A vehicle has three dimension: length, width, height

The height of vehicles are more important considered in placing of signals and designing over
passes and under passes.

Weight of the vehicle plays an important role in design of both flexible and rigid pavements. The
weight of vehicle is transferred through axle; it is important to design a pavement.

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(b) Power to Weight ratio of vehicle
 Human powered vehicles – cycles have low powered to weight ratio and their acceleration
characteristic, speed on slopes are low.
 Motorized vehicle - have high power to weight ratio
 Heavy vehicles- have poor power to weight ratio.
Power to Weight ratio is important factors as it relates to operating efficiency of vehicles.
(c) Turning radius and turning path
MINIMUM TURNING RADIUS

A vehicle has a rigid base and only the front or steering wheels can be turned. Minimum turning
radius is the radius of the circle that will be traced by the front wheel if the vehicle moved with its
steering maximum extend. Big vehicle have bigger turning radius and small vehicle have smaller
radius.

On a turning manoeuvre, the rear wheel are fixed and the vehicle body extend beyond the tyres,
the effective width of vehicle on a turn increases.

The width of the road on curves is increased in order to accommodate the increase in effective
width of vehicle. On horizontal curves, having radii less than about 300 metres, it is required to
provide extra width of pavement. This is known as mechanical widening.

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Mechanical Widening (Wm): The widening required to account for the off-tracking due to the
rigidity of wheel base is called mechanical widening.

Psychological widening (Wp): Extra width of pavement is also provided for psychological
reasons such as, to provide for greater maneuverability or steering at higher speeds, to allow for
the extra space requirements for the overhangs of vehicles and to provide greater clearance for
crossing and overtaking vehicles on the curves. Psychological widening is therefore important in
pavements with more than one lane.

Extra Widening (EW)


The extra widening of pavement on horizontal curves is divided into two parts (i) Mechanical and
(ii) Psychological widening.

Where, n = number of traffic lanes


l = length of wheel base (m)
R = radius of the curve (m)
V = velocity (km/h)

3.0 TRAFFIC STUDIES


Traffic Study is carried out:

 To obtain knowledge of the type and volume of traffic at present and to estimate future
traffic that the road is expected to carry.
 To determine the facilities provided on the roads such as traffic regulation and control,
intersections, so that improvement on the basis of traffic density may be carried out
 To design the geometric features and pavement thickness on the basis of traffic surveys.
 To design bridges & culverts.
 Survey related to accidents helps in re-designing of roads, increasing road width and to
improve regulation and controls

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•Traffic studies may be grouped into three main categories:
– Inventories,
– Administrative studies, and
– Dynamic studies.
(1) Inventories;
provide a list or graphic display of existing information, such as:
– Street widths,
– Parking spaces,
– Transit routes,
– Traffic regulations.
(2) Administrative studies
• use existing engineering records, available in government agencies and departments.
• include the results of surveys, which may involve:
– Field measurements and/or
–aerial photography.
(3) Dynamic traffic studies
• involve the collection of data under operational conditions and
•include studies of:

– speed,
– traffic volume,
– travel time and delay,
– origin and destination study (O - D),
– parking, and
– accidents

3.1 SPEED STUDIES


3.1.1 Types of speeds used in Traffic Analysis
• Time mean speed
• Space mean speed

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• Running speed
• Journey speed
• Spot speed
• Percentile speed
Speed
Speed is one of the most important characteristic of traffic and is measured frequently.
Running Speed is the average speed maintained by a vehicle over a given course while the vehicle
is moving.
Running speed = Length of course /running time =length of course / (journey time – delay)
Journey Time
It is the effective speed of the vehicle between two points
Journey time =distance /total time (including delay)

Time mean speed (vt) is the average speed measurement at one point in space over a period of
time.

Time mean speed is defined as the average speed of all the vehicles passing a point on a highway
over some specified time period (Arithmetic mean).
• Time mean speed is a point measurement (uses spot speed)

Where, Vt = Time mean speed


Vi = Observed instantaneous speed of ith vehicles
n = number of vehicles observed.

Space mean speed (Vs) is the average speed measurement at an instant of time over a space (length
of road)

• Space mean speed is defined as the average speed of all the vehicles occupying a given section
of a highway over some specified time period.

• Space mean speed is a measure relating to length of highway or lane and can be calculated by
the harmonic mean of the speeds.

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Where, Vs = Space mean speed
n = Number of individual vehicle observations
ti = Observed travel time for ith vehicle

The relation between time mean speed (vt) and space mean speed (vs) is given by the following
relation:

where, σs is the standard deviation of the spot speed.


Examples
Uses of Journey speed (and delay)
• Cost of journey
• Congestion, capacity and level of service
• Transportation planning
• Studies for improvement of roads
• Design and installation of traffic control devices

3.1.2 Spot speed studies

– Spot speed studies are conducted to estimate the distribution of speeds of vehicles in a
stream of traffic at a particular location on a highway.
– Carried out by recording the speeds of a sample of vehicles at a specified location.

Uses of spot speed


• For geometric design of roads, design speed can be selected and the horizontal curvature, vertical
profile, sight distance and super elevation can be estimated.

• Establish parameters for traffic operation and control, such as; speed zones, speed limits (85th-
percentile speed)
• For regulation and control of traffic operation, design of traffic signals
• For analysis of causes of accident
• Studies for improvement of roads

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• Problems of congestion
Locations for Spot Speed Studies
Should be selected to achieve the following:

– Unbiased data
– Drivers be unaware
– Equipment concealed from the driver,
– Observers inconspicuous.
Should represent different traffic conditions on a highway for basic data collection.

– Mid-blocks of urban highways and straight, level sections of rural highways for speed trend
analyses.
– Any location may be used for solution of a specific traffic engineering problem.
Time of Day and Duration of Spot Speed Studies

– depends on the purpose of the study


– recommended when traffic is free-flowing,
– during off-peak hours
– Typically, the duration is at least 1 hour and the sample size is at least 30 vehicles.
Sample Size for Spot Speed Studies

– The larger the sample size, will give an estimated mean within acceptable error limits.
•Average Speed
•Median Speed
•Modal Speed
•The ith-percentile Spot Speed
•Standard Deviation of Speeds
Methods for Conducting Spot Speed Studies

– manual and/or automatic


– manual method is seldom used (observation of time taken by a vehicle to cover a known
distance)
– Automatic devices

1. Road detectors (pressure contact tubes)


2. induction loops
3. radar-based speedometer

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4. The principles of electronics
1. Road Detectors

– pneumatic road tubes & induction loops collect data on speeds & volume at the same time
– Advantage: Human errors are considerably reduced
– Disadvantages: expensive and may affect driver behavior,
Pneumatic road tubes

– laid across the lane in which data are to be collected


– When moving vehicle passes over, an air impulse is transmitted to the counter.
– two tubes are placed across the lane, 2 m apart
– An impulse is recorded when the front wheels of a moving vehicle pass over the first tube;
– A second impulse is recorded when the front wheels pass over the second tube.
– The time elapsed between the two impulses and the distance between the tubes are used to
compute the speed of the vehicle.
2. Inductive loop

– A rectangular wire loop buried under the roadway surface.


– It operates on the principle that a disturbance in the electrical field is created when a motor
vehicle passes across it.
3. Radar-Based Traffic Sensors
4. Electronic-Principle Detectors
– Using video image processing, traffic characteristics such as speed, volume, queues, and
headways are computed.

Presentation and Analysis of Spot Speed Data

– Statistical methods
– Analyzing data
– frequency histogram
– cumulative frequency distribution curve
Cumulative speed distribution

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85th percentile speed

- It is the speed at or below which 85% of the vehicle are passing the point on the highway.
That is, only 15 % of the vehicle exceed the speed at that spot.

The driver exceeding 85th percentile speed are usually consider to drive faster than the safe
speed under existing condition hence the speed is adopted as safe speed limit.
Examples

3.2 TRAFFIC VOLUME STUDIES


• Flow (volume) is defined as the number of vehicles that pass a point on a highway or a given
lane or direction of a highway during a specific time interval.

• The measurement is carried out by counting the number of vehicles nt, passing a particular point
in one lane in a defined period t.
• Then the flow q expressed in vehicles/hour is given by q = nt/t

Traffic Volume
• The variation of volume with time, i.e. month to month, day to day, and hour to hour and within
an hour is also as important as volume calculation.
• Volume variations can also be observed from season to season, urban-rural.

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Classified volume count
• It is essential for highway design
• Volume or flow is expressed in vehicles per hour or vehicles per day.
• Enable the conversion of mixed traffic into passenger car unit.

• Peak hour traffic is needed for the design of intersections, whereas for determine the number of
lanes in the carriage way the daily traffic is needed.

• The traffic counts are taken by noting the number of vehicles of various classes that passes the
count point in each direction during periodic time intervals.

• Traffic census is taken regularly on a network twice a year, for seven consecutive days in each
round.
• One round covers peak season and other the lean season.
• The average of seven days traffic is average daily traffic.

PASSENGER CAR UNITS (PCU) FOR TRAFFIC VOLUME STUDY:


Different classes of vehicles such as cars, buses, trucks, scooters, cycles, etc. are found to use the
common roadway facilities without segregation on most of the roads. Such a traffic flow is called
heterogeneous traffic flow or mixed traffic flow.
The different vehicle classes have a wide range of static characteristics such as length, width, etc.
and dynamic characteristics such as speed, acceleration, etc. It is rather difficult to estimate the
traffic volume and traffic capacity of roadways under mixed traffic flow.
It is a common practice to consider the passenger car as the standard vehicle unit in order to convert
other vehicle classes and this unit is called Passenger Car Unit (PCU).
PCU =Capacity of roadway with passenger cars only/Capacity of the roadway with that class of
vehicle
PCU indicates the space required for a vehicle on a road. For example,
PCU for the car is 1 and that for the bus is 3 – 3.5, it means the space required for a bus on the
road is three to three and a half times more than that required for a car.
Pcus are introduced to allow for differences in the amount of interference to other traffic by the
addition of one extra vehicle to the traffic, according to the type of vehicle. For example, a large
lorry is longer, wider and slower than the average car and, therefore, has a considerably greater

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effect on other vehicles by making it more difficult for them to overtake and by slowing down
those which are forced to follow. On any particular section of road, under particular traffic
conditions, the addition of one vehicle of a particular type, per hour, will reduce the average speed
of the remaining vehicles by the same amount as the addition of, say, x cars of average size per
hour. Under these conditions, one vehicle of this type is said to be equivalent to x passenger car
units.

Car 1.0

Motorcycle 0.5

Bicycle 0.2

LGV 2.2

Bus, Truck 3.5

3-wheeler 0.8

Factors affecting PCU :


The various factors affecting PCU of vehicle class related with vehicle, traffic stream,
roadway and control conditions are listed below :
(a) Vehicle Characteristics :
■ dimensions (length, width etc.)
■ power
■ speed
■ acceleration and braking characteristics
(b) Traffic stream characteristics :
■ Gap (transverse and longitudinal) between moving vehicles.
■ Composition of different vehicle classes
■ Mean speed and speed distribution.
■ Ratio of volume to capacity of the road.
(c) Roadway characteristics :
■ Road geometries (including gradient and curves)
■ access control

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■ rural/urban
■ intersections (number and type)
(d) Control of traffic :
■ Speed limit
■ One-way street operation
■ Traffic control devices (signs, markings, signals etc.)
From the above factors, it is seen that PCU value of a particular vehicle class cannot remain a
constant value. It is a dynamic value changing with roadway, traffic and control conditions. Out
of the above factors, the most significant factors are size (Length and width) of vehicle, average
speeds of traffic stream and gap (transverse and longitudinal) between the vehicles.

3.2.1 Types of volume measurements


• Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT):
- If the traffic is taken continuously for all the days in a year the average traffic is known as AADT.

The average 24-hour traffic volume at a given location over a full 365-day year, i.e. the total
number of vehicles passing the site in a year divided by 365.

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• Average Annual Weekday Traffic (AAWT):

The average 24-hour traffic volume occurring on weekdays over a full year. It is computed by
dividing the total weekday traffic volume for the year by 260.

• Average Daily Traffic (ADT):

- An average 24-hour traffic volume at a given location for some period of time less than a year.
It may be measured for six months, a season, a month, a week, or as little as two days. An ADT is
a valid number only for the period over which it was measured.

ADT may be used for:


Planning of highway activities.
Measurement of current demand.

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Evaluation of existing traffic flow.

• Average Weekday Traffic (AWT):

- An average 24-hour traffic volume occurring on weekdays for some period of time less than one
year, such as for a month or a season.

 Peak Hour Volume (PHV) or Peak Hour Flow (PHF):


The highest hourly volume in a day is called peak hour volume. It is the maximum number of
vehicles that pass a point on a highway during one hour.

There is one peak in the morning and another in the evening referred as ‘morning peak hour’ and
‘evening peak hour’.
It is used for,

1. Functional classification of highways (dike arterial, sub-arterial, collector, and local streets for
urban roads).

2. The geometric design of highway (like the number of lanes, intersection signalization,
channelization, etc.)
3. capacity analysis
4. Parking demands and regulations.
5. Planning and location of traffic control devices, (traffic signs, signals, markings)
6. Location of interchanges.

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Peak Hour Volume is very important factor in the design of roads and control of traffic. Peak hour
factors should be applied in most capacity analyses in accordance with the Highway Capacity
Manual (HCM), which selected 15-minute flow rates as the basis for most of its procedures. The
peak-hour factor (PHF) is descriptive of trip generation patterns and may apply to an area or
portion of a street and highway system. The PHF is typically calculated from traffic counts. It is
the average volume during the peak 60-minute period V av60 divided by four times the average
volume during the peak 15 minute’s period V av15.

One can also use 5, 10, or 20 minutes instead of 15 minutes interval for the calculation of PHF.
But in that case we have to change the multiplying factor in the denominator from 4.
Generalizing,

where Vavn is the peak n minute flow.

• Vehicle Classification (VC) with respect to the type of vehicles for cars, two-axle trucks, or three-
axle trucks.
• Vehicle Kilometers (Miles) of Travel (VMT)

Vehicle Miles of Travel (VMT) is a measure of travel along a section of road. It is the product of
the traffic volume (that is, average weekday volume or ADT) and the length of roadway in miles
to which the volume is applicable. VMTs are used mainly as a base for allocating resources for
maintenance and improvement of highways.

Design Hourly Volume (DHV)

The figure below shows the relationship between the highest hourly volume and ADT on an
arterial. Based on the figure, it is recommended that the hourly traffic volume that should be used
in design is the 30 highest hourly volume of the year (30 HV). The reason is that curve steepens
quickly to the left on the point of 30 HV and indicates only few hours with higher volume (i.e. it
is not economical to design based on higher traffic volume). The curve flattens to the right and
indicates many hours in which the volume is not much less than the 30 HV.

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The DHV is normally expressed as a percentage of ADT (K-factor which is in range of 0.1-0.2)
For design, the K factor often represents the proportion of AADT occurring during the 30th peak
hour of the year.
DHV = ADT x K
K = proportion of daily traffic occurring during peak hour

Directional Design Hourly Volumes (DDHV) - AADTs are converted to a peak-hour volume
in the peak direction of flow.
DDHV =ADT x K x D

D = proportion of peak hour traffic travelling in peak direction of flow

Flow Rate or Rate of Flow (Short counts less than an hour)

Flow rate is the equivalent hourly rate at which vehicles pass over a given point or section of a
lane or roadway during a given time interval of less than 1 hour, usually 15 min.
Flow Rate = Peak Volume × no of intervals per 1 hour

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A volume of 200 vehicles observed over a 15-minute period may be expressed as a rate of 200×4
= 800 vehicles/hour, even though 800 vehicles would not be observed if the full hour was
counted. The 800 vehicles/hour become a rate of flow that exist for a 15-minute interval.
These are used for,

1. Analyzing maximum rates of flow and, variation within the peak hour

2. Providing economical means of obtaining volume data.

3. Determining capacity limitations in urban areas.

Cordon count volumes:

These are done for;

1.Planning parking facilities

2.To obtain accumulation of vehicles inside the cordon area.

Pedestrian volumes:

These are utilized in planning the crosswalks and signals for pedestrians.

Turning movements counts:

These are used in

1.Design of intersection and interchanges

2. Planning of signal timings

3. Planning turn prohibitions

4.Channelization, etc.

3.2.2 Methods of Traffic Volume study


Traffic Volume is the number of vehicles crossing a section of road per unit time at any selected
period.
Data collection methodologies

– Manual method
- Semi-automated method
– Automated method

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Manual counts
This method employs a field team to record traffic volume on the prescribed record sheets.
ADVANTAGE; Gives classification of vehicles, occupancy, and turning movements.
DISADVANTAGE; It cannot work throughout continuously.
Semi-automated method

Semi-automated methods rely primarily on the use of pneumatic road tubes and a wide variety of
recording devices that can be connected to such tubes. All of which are portable devices.
Automated method

Fully automated studies rely on a wide variety of permanently installed detectors and sensors,
usually in conjunction with connections to a stationary or portable computer station.
3.2.2.1 Traffic Volume Data Presentation
Intersection Counts
–vehicle classifications,
–through movements,
–turning movements.
Intersection Summary Sheets:

Traffic Flow Maps: volume of traffic on each route is represented by the width of a band.

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Examples of Traffic Volume Data Presentation (i) Time-Based Distribution Charts:

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(ii) Example of Summary of Traffic Volume Data for a Highway Section

3.2.3 Periodic Volume Counts


In order to obtain certain traffic volume data, such as AADT, it is necessary to obtain data
continuously. However, it is not feasible to collect continuous data on all roads because of the cost
involved. To make reasonable estimates of the annual traffic volume characteristics on an area-
wide basis, different types of periodic counts, with counts duration ranging from 15 minutes to
continuous, are conducted; the data from these different periodic counts are used to determine
values that are then employed in the estimation of annual traffic characteristics. The periodic
counts usually conducted are;

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– Continuous counts,
– Control counts, or
– Coverage counts
Continuous counts

These counts are taken continuously using mechanical or electronic counters. Stations at which
continuous counts are taken are known as permanent count stations.
Control counts

Control-count stations are strategically located so that representative samples of traffic volume can
be taken on each type of highway or road in an area-wide traffic counting program. The data
obtained from control counts are used to determine seasonal and monthly variations of traffic
characteristics so that expansion factors can be determined. These expansion factors are used to
determine year-round average values from short counts.

Control counts can be divided into major and minor control counts. Major control counts are taken
monthly, with 24-hour directional counts taken on at least 3 days during the week and also on
weekends. It is usual to locate at least one major control-count station on every major road. The
data collected give information regarding hourly, monthly, and seasonal variations of traffic
characteristics. Minor control counts are five-day weekday counts taken every other month on
minor roads.
Coverage Counts

These counts are used to estimate ADT, using expansion factors developed from control counts.
The study area is usually divided into zones that have similar characteristics. At least one coverage
count station is located in each zone. A 24-hour non-directional weekday count is taken at least
once every four years at each coverage station. The data indicates changes in area-wide traffic
characteristics.

3.2.3.1 Adjustment of Periodic Counts – Expansion factors


Expansion Factors are derived from Continuous Count Stations.
• Hourly expansion factors (HEFs) are determined by the formula;

Table 2.2 (a) - Computation of Hourly Expansion Factors for a Rural Primary Road

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Daily expansion factors (DEFs) are computed as;

Table 2.2 (b) - Daily Expansion Factors for a Rural Primary Road

Monthly expansion factors (MEFs) are computed as;

Table 2.2 (c) - Monthly Expansion Factors for a Rural Primary Road

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3.3 TRAVEL TIME AND DELAY STUDIES

Travel time and delay studies concern:


– Travel time: time required to travel from one point to another on a given route.
– The locations, durations, and causes of delays.
– Gives a good indication of the level of service
– identifying locations with problems.

Applications of Travel Time and Delay Data

– efficiency of a route
– locations with relatively high delays
– causes for delays
– before-and-after studies
– travel times on specific links
– economic studies for evaluation of traffic operation alternatives

Definition of Terms Related to Time and Delay Studies

1. Travel time: time taken by a vehicle to traverse a given section of a highway.


2. Running time: time a vehicle is actually in motion

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3. Delay: time lost due to causes beyond the control of the driver.
4. Operational delay: delay caused by the impedance of other traffic. (for example, parking
or ‘unparking’ vehicles),
5. Stopped-time delay
6. Fixed delay: caused by control devices such as traffic signals regardless of the traffic
volume
7. Travel-time delay: difference between the actual travel time and the travel time obtained
by assuming that a vehicle traverses at an average speed equal to that for an uncongested
traffic flow
The method for evaluating delay at an intersection is based on a survey over a length between two
point upstream and downstream of the site. It involves the counting of vehicles occupying an
intersection approach at successive time interval such as 15 seconds for a total period of time, 5 to
10 minutes duration.
Each successive count represent an instantaneous density. During the given time period the number
of vehicles leaving the intersection approach is also counted.

3.3.1 Methods for Conducting Travel Time and Delay Studies

– Two categories of Methods; (i) those requiring a Test Vehicle (ii) those not requiring a
test vehicle.

Methods requiring a Test Vehicle; 3 techniques:


(i) floating-car (ii) average speed (iii) moving-vehicle techniques
Floating Car Technique

In this method, the test car is driven by an observer along the test section. The driver of the test
vehicle attempts to pass as many vehicles as those that pass his test vehicle. The time taken to
traverse the study section is recorded. This is repeated (max 30 times), and the average time is
recorded as the travel time.

Average-speed Technique

This technique involves driving the test car along the length of the test section at a speed that, in
the opinion of the driver, is the average speed of the traffic stream. Average time is determined.

Moving-Vehicle Technique
This method is also known as Wardrop Charlesworth method. This method consists in counting
the number of cars met, number of cars overtaken, and the time taken to travel by the observer,
once moving against the traffic and once moving along with the traffic.

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Here we have a test car with four observers in it which is travelling at approximately the same
speed as that of the traffic.
The first observer equipped with two stopwatches is an observer to record delays. At strategic
locations such as bridges, intersections, roads in the vicinity of markets etc. he observes with the
help of two stopwatches the time required to negotiate these focal points, i.e. he observes the delay
time.
The second observer in the car notes the cause of this delay either in the tabular form or with vivid
descriptions. The third observer record the number of vehicles overtaken by the floating car or the
number of vehicles that overtakes the floating car, in specified time.
The fourth observer notes the number of vehicles traveling in opposite direction in each trip.
Advantages of the method :
(i) The moving observer method gives an unbiased estimate of the flow.
(ii) As compared to the stationary observer method, the moving observer method is equivalent to
a stationary count over twice the single journey time. Hence it is economical in manpower.

(iii) It gives mean values of flow and speed over a section, rather than at a point. Thus it gives
directly the space mean speed, whereas spot speed studies give the time-mean speed.
(iv) It gives additional information on stops at intersections, delays, parked vehicles, etc.
(v) It enables data on speed and flow to be collected at the same time.

– the observer makes a round trip on a test section (see figure below),
– The observer starts at section X-X, drives the car eastward to section Y-Y,
– turns the vehicle around
– drives westward to section X-X again

The following data are collected;

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- The time it takes to travel east from X-X to Y-Y (Te), in minutes
- The time it takes to travel west from Y-Y to X-X (Tw), in minutes
- The number of vehicles traveling west in the opposite lane while the test car is traveling east
(Ne)
- The number of vehicles that overtake the test car while it is traveling west from Y-Y to X-X,
that is, traveling in the westbound direction (Ow)
- The number of vehicles that the test car passes while it is traveling west from Y-Y to X-X that
is, traveling in the westbound direction (Pw)

The volume (Vw) in the westbound direction can then be computed from the expression:

Where (Ne, Ow and Pw) is the number of vehicles traveling westward that cross the line X-X
during the time (TeTw).

Similarly, the average travel time in the westbound direction is obtained from

Methods Not Requiring a Test Vehicle

(a) License-Plate Observations: observers at the beginning and end of the test section. (A sample
size of 50 matched license plates)
• Each observer records the last three or four digits of the license plate of each car that passes,
together with the time at which the car passes.
• In the office by matching the times of arrival at the beginning and end of the test section for
each license plate recorded.
• Difference between these times is the traveling time of each vehicle.
• Average of these is the average traveling time on the test section.

(b) Interviews: obtaining information from people who drive on the study site regarding their
travel times, experience of delays, requires the cooperation of the people.

(c) ITS Advanced Technologies (Telematics)

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– Use of Cell phones to collect travel times. The cell phone network is divided into several
sectors known as cells. Each cell has a base station through which signals are received and
transmitted.
– GPS satellite system
– Technology is used to determine average speeds and travel times along highways.

3.4 ORIGIN AND DESTINATION STUDIES (O – D studies)

The O - D studies of vehicular traffic determines their volume, their origin and destination in
each zone under study. The various applications of O & D studies may be summed up as follows:

- It is carried out for assessing the by-passable traffic across towns and for planning new
facilities like expressways.
- To locate expressway or major routes along the desire lines.
- To judge the adequacy of parking facilities and to plan for future.
- To locate intermediate stops of public transport.
- To establish preferential routes for various categories of vehicle including by-pass.

INFORMATION TO BE COLLECTED IN O-D SURVEYS

•Origin
•Destination
•Purpose of Trip
•Frequency
•Travel Time
•Travel Cost
•Route Preferred

Methods for collecting the O - D data

- Road-side interview method,


- License plate method.
- Return post card method,

 Road-side interview method


The vehicles are stopped at previously decided interview stations, by a group of persons and the
answers to prescribed questionnaire are collected on the spot.
The information collected include the place and time of origin and destination, route, locations of
stops, the purpose of the trip, type of vehicle and number of passengers in each vehicle noted.
 License plate method

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The entire area under study is cordoned out and the observers are simultaneously stationed at all
points of entry and exit on all the routes leading to and out of the area.
Observers at the observation station note the license plate numbers (registration numbers) of the
vehicle entering and leaving the cordoned area and the time.

 Postcard studies
Postcard studies involve handing out colour or otherwise coded cards as the vehicles enter the
system under study and collecting them as vehicles leave.

Presentation of O - D Data

The data are presented in the following forms


(i) Origin and destination tables are prepared showing number of trips between
different zones.
(ii) Desire lines are plotted which a graphical representation is prepared in almost all
O - D surveys.

Desire lines
Desire lines are the lines connecting the origin points with the destination points.

3.5 PARKING STUDIES

Parking studies are used to determine the demand for and the supply of parking facilities.

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• Any vehicle will at one time be parked for a short time or longer time, provision of parking
facilities is essential
• need for parking spaces is crucial in areas of business, residential, or commercial activities.
• Park-and-ride facilities
•Provision of adequate parking space to meet the demand for parking in the Central Business
District (CBD)

3.5.1 Types of Parking Facilities

• On-Street Parking Facilities


– Also known as kerb facilities. Parking bays are provided alongside the kerb on one or both sides
of the street.
– limited to specific times for a maximum duration.
– may or may not be free.
– reserved parking for the handicapped
– reserved loading bay
On street parking can be;
– Parallel parking
– 30 ⁰ parking
– 45 ⁰ parking
– 60 ⁰ parking
– Right angle parking

 Parallel parking
– The vehicles are parked along the length of the road.
- It consumes the maximum kerb length
– Only a minimum number of vehicles can be parked for a given kerb length.
– Least obstruction to the on-going traffic on the road since least road width is used.
 30⁰ parking
– The vehicles are parked at 30 with respect to the road alignment.
– More vehicles can be parked compared to parallel parking.
– There is better maneuverability.
– Delay caused to the traffic is also minimum

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 45⁰ parking
- compared to parallel parking and thirty-degree parking, more number of vehicles can be
accommodated in this type of parking.

 60⁰ parking

- More number of vehicles can be accommodated in this type of parking

 Right angle parking

- The vehicles are parked perpendicular to the direction of the road.


- Minimum kerb length is required.
- The vehicles need complex maneuvering
- May cause obstruction to the road traffic particularly if the road width is less.
- It can accommodate maximum number of vehicles for a given kerb length.

• Off-Street Parking Facilities


– privately or publicly owned;
- surface lots and garages

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– Self-parking garages
– attendant-parking garages

3.5.2 Definitions of Parking Terms

(a) A space-hour is a unit of parking that defines the use of a single parking space for a period of
1 hour.
(b) Parking volume is the total number of vehicles that park in a study area during a specific length
of time, usually a day. It does not account for repetition of vehicles.
(c) Parking accumulation is the number of parked vehicles in a study area at any specified time.
Obtained by checking the amount of parking during regular intervals on different days of the week
on an hourly or 2-hour basis
It is used to determine hourly variations of parking and peak periods of parking demand.
(d) Parking load is the area under the accumulation curve. It can be obtained by multiplying the
number of vehicles occupying the parking area at each time interval with the time interval. It is
expressed as vehicle hours.
(e) Parking duration length of time a vehicle is parked at a parking. It is an indication of how
frequently a parking space becomes available.
(f) Average parking duration; it is the ratio of total vehicle hours to the number of vehicles parked
AVD=Parking Load / Parking volume
(g) Parking turnover is the rate of use of a parking space.
Obtained by dividing the parking volume per unit time (/hr) by the number of parking spaces. This
can be expressed as number of vehicles per bay per time duration. Parking turnover =Parking
volume per hour /Number of bay
(h) Occupancy or Parking index or Efficiency; It is defined as the ratio of number of bays occupied
in a time duration to the total space available.
It gives an aggregate measure of how effectively the parking space is utilized
It can be calculated thus,
Parking Index= (Parking load /Parking capacity) X 100 %

Page 34 of 43
3.5.3 Methodology of Parking Studies

• Inventory of Existing Parking Facilities

- Before taking any measures for improvement of conditions, data regarding availability of parking
space, extent of its usage and parking demand is essential. The same data is also required for
estimation the parking fares.
Since the duration of parking varies with different vehicles, several statistical methods are used to
access the parking need.

- Detailed listing of the location and all other relevant characteristics of each legal parking facility,
both on- and off-street facilities, private and public.

 Type and number of parking spaces at each parking facility


 Times of operation and limit on duration of parking, if any
 Parking fees and method of collection
 Restrictions; reserved, loading and unloading zones, bus stops, taxi space

- The inventory should be updated at regular intervals of about four to five years.
Parking surveys

Parking surveys are conducted to collect parking statistics. The most common parking surveys
conducted are;
• In-out survey,
• Fixed period sampling and
• License plate method of survey.

 In-out survey
- The occupancy count in the selected parking space is taken at the beginning.
- Then the number of vehicles that enter the parking space for a particular time interval is counted.
- The number of vehicles that leave the parking space is also taken.
- The final occupancy in the parking space is also taken.
- Parking duration and turnover is not obtained.
– Hence we cannot estimate the parking fare from this survey.
- Labor required is very less.
 Fixed period sampling
– This is almost similar to in-out survey.
– All vehicles are counted at the beginning of the survey.
– Then after a fixed time interval that may vary between 15 minutes to 1 hour, the count is again
taken.

Page 35 of 43
– Here there are chances of missing the number of vehicles that were parked for a short duration.

 License Plate Method


– This results in the most accurate and realistic data.
– Every parking space is monitored at a continuous interval of 15 minutes or so and the license
plate number is noted down.
– This will give the data regarding the duration for which a particular vehicle was using the parking
bay.
– This will help in calculating the fare because fare is estimated based on the duration for which
the vehicle was parked.
– But this method is very labor intensive.

– Determination of Turnover and Duration


(i) Collection of data on a sample of parking spaces in a given block.
(ii) Recording the license plate of the vehicle parked on each parking space in the sample at the
ends of fixed intervals during the study period.
(iii) The length of the fixed intervals depends on the maximum permissible duration.
For example, if the maximum permissible duration of parking at a curb face is 1 hour, a suitable
interval is every 20 minutes.
If the permissible duration is 2 hours, checking every 30 minutes would be appropriate.
Turnover is then obtained from the equation:

Figure 2.5.3.1 Parking Accumulation at a Parking Lot

Page 36 of 43
– Parking Demand
 by interviewing drivers at the various parking facilities
 Interview all drivers using the parking facilities on a typical weekday between 8:00 a.m.
and 10:00 p.m.
 Information include (i) trip origin, (ii) purpose of trip, (iii) driver’s destination after
parking.
 The location of the parking facility, times of arrival and departure, vehicle type.
Parking interviews also can be carried out using the postcard technique, about 30 to 50 percent
of the cards distributed are returned.

 Analysis of Parking Data


Analysis of parking data includes summarizing, coding, and interpreting the data so that the
relevant information required for decision making can be obtained. The relevant information
includes the following;
– Number and duration for vehicles legally parked
– Number and duration for vehicles illegally parked
– Space-hours of demand for parking
– Supply of parking facilities
Ill Effects of parking
• Congestion; Parking takes considerable street space thus lowering the road capacity. Speed will
be reduced, journey time and delay will increase. The operational cost of vehicles increases
leading to economical loss for the community.
• Accidents; Careless monitoring of parking and unparking leads to accidents which are referred
to as parking accidents.
• Environmental pollution; they also cause pollution to the environment because stopping and
starting of vehicles while parking and unparking results in noise and fumes.
• Obstruction to firefighting operations; Parked vehicles may obstruct the movement of
firefighting vehicles. Sometimes they block access to hydrants and access to buildings.

Examples

Traffic Flow Theory


Types of flow
Traffic flow is usually classified as:

Page 37 of 43
a) Uninterrupted flow: A vehicle traversing a section of lane or roadway is not
required to stop by any cause external to the traffic stream (Ex: Freeways)
b) Interrupted flow: A vehicle traversing a section of a lane or roadway is required
to stop by a cause outside the traffic stream, such as signs or signals at
intersections or junctions (Ex: Urban Arterials).
Note:
Stoppage of vehicles by a cause internal to the traffic stream does not constitute
interrupted flow.
Traffic Stream Parameters
Macroscopic parameters - Describes traffic stream as a whole:
Volume or Flow rate (q)
Speed [sms] (v) or (u)
Density (k)
Microscopic parameters - Describes behavior of individual vehicle or pairs:
Speed of individual vehicle
Headway
Spacing
Fundamental Parameters - speed, flow and density

Traffic Stream Parameters – Headway


- Headway or Time Headway
- Time, in seconds (or in minutes), between two successive vehicles as they pass a point on
the roadway, measured from the same common feature of both vehicles (e.g. the front axle
or front bumper)
Time, usually expressed in seconds, between the passing of
the front ends of successive vehicles/ transit units (moving
along the same lane in the same direction)

Traffic Stream Parameters…… Spacing


- Spacing or Distance Headway
- The distance, in m, between two successive vehicles in a traffic lane, measured from the
same common feature of the vehicles (e.g. rear or front end/bumper)

Page 38 of 43
Relationship among Macroscopic Traffic Flow Parameters
Traffic flow theory involves the development of mathematical relationships among the
primary elements of a traffic stream. The relationship between speed (space mean
speed), flow (number of vehicles passing a given point per unit time), and density (number
of vehicles per unit length of highway) is called the fundamental relations of traffic flow.
The three basic macroscopic parameters of a traffic stream (flow, speed and density) are
related to each other as follows:
The traffic flow, q, a measure of the volume of traffic on a highway, is defined as the
number of vehicles, n, passing some given point on the highway in a given time interval,
t, i.e.: q = n/t
In general terms, q is expressed in vehicles per unit time.
The number of vehicles on a given section of highway can also be computed in terms of
the density or concentration of traffic as follows:
Where the traffic density, k, is a measure of the number of vehicles, n, occupying a length
of roadway, x. ie k=n/x
For a given section of road containing n vehicles per unit length x, the average speed of
the n vehicles is termed the space mean speed v (the average speed for all vehicles in a
given space at a given discrete point in time).
𝑣 = [(1/n) Σ 𝑥𝑖]/𝑡
Where xi is the length of road used for measuring the speed of the ith vehicle.
It can be seen that if the expression for q is divided by the expression for k, the expression
for v is obtained: q/k = (n/t)/n/x) =x/t = v

Thus, the three parameters v, k and q are directly related under stable traffic conditions:
𝑞 = 𝑣𝑘
Or
Flow= speed (space mean speed) *density
This constitutes the basic relationship between traffic flow, space mean speed and
density.
Collecting information about traffic flow characteristics is necessary for planning,
management and solving traffic problems. Also they are necessary to optimize the
operation of existing traffic system and to design future facilities.

Relationships among Flow Rate, Speed, and Density

Page 39 of 43
•Flow rate (q) = n/t thus q=1/ĥ

•Flow rate (q) = density (k) x space mean speed (us)


q = k x us
•Density (k) = n/ l (where l is length of road for travel time t measurement)
Thus k = 1/š (where š is average space headway)
•Space mean speed (us) = flow rate (q) x average space headway (š)
vs = q x š
•Density (k) = flow x time per unit distance
k = q x t/l
The space mean speed and density measures should apply to the same defined road section. Under
stable flow (flow entering the section = flow leaving the section, no queues), the flow rate apply
to any point of the section.
Where unstable operations exist, the computed flow rate represents an average for all points within
the section.

Fundamental diagrams of traffic flow


The relation between flow and density, density and speed, speed and flow, can be represented with
the help of some curves. They are referred to as the fundamental diagrams of traffic flow.
Speed-density diagram

When the flow is very low, there is little interaction between individual vehicles. Drivers are
therefore free to travel at the maximum possible speed. The absolute maximum speed is obtained
as the flow tend to 0, and it is known as the free flow speed or the mean free speed (uf).
When the density is maximum, the speed will be zero. The simplest assumption is that this
variation of speed with density is linear as shown in figure above.
Corresponding to the zero density, vehicles will be flowing with their desire speed, or free flow
speed. When the density is jam density, the speed of the vehicles becomes zero.

Flow-density curve

Page 40 of 43
Some characteristics of the flow-density relationship is listed below:
(i) When the density is zero, flow will also be zero, since there is no vehicles on the road.
(ii) When the number of vehicles gradually increases the density as well as flow increases.
(iii) As the number of vehicles increase, it reaches a situation where vehicles can’t move. This is
referred to as the jam density (kj) or the maximum density. At jam density, flow will be zero
because the vehicles are not moving.
(iv) There will be some density between zero density and jam density, when the flow is maximum.
The relationship is normally represented by a parabolic curve as shown in figure above.
The slope of the line OD gives the space mean speed at density k1 and slope of the line OE will
give mean speed at density k2. Clearly the speed at density k1 will be higher since there are less
number of vehicles on the road.

Note that qm = qcap is the traffic flow at capacity, or simply the capacity of the road. The traffic
density that corresponds to this capacity flow rate is kcap and the corresponding speed is ucap.
Equations for qcap, kcap and ucap can be derived by differentiating dq/dk=0.

Page 41 of 43
Thus, kcap =kj/2, ucap = uf/2 and also qcap =ucapkcap =uf kj/4

Speed - flow relationship

Combined diagrams

Example
Traffic Stream Models

Page 42 of 43
Mathematical relationships describing traffic flow can be classified into two general categories;
macroscopic and microscopic, depending on the approach used in the development of these
relationships. The macroscopic approach considers flow – density relationships whereas the
microscopic approach considers spacings between vehicles and speeds of individual vehicles.

Macroscopic Models
The macroscopic approach considers traffic streams and develops algorithms that relate the flow
to the density and the space mean speeds. Among the many us-k models, the most commonly used
models are;
- Linear model; Greenshields’ model
- Logarithmic model; Greenberg’s model
- Exponential model; Underwood’s model
- Generalized polynomial model; Pipes’ model
- Multi-regime models

Linear model (Greenshields’)

Greenshields hypothesized that a linear relationship existed between space mean speed and
density.
The proposed linear form of the sms – density is in the form; us = a + bk
Using boundary conditions that:
us = uf when k = 0 implies a = uf

and us = 0 when k = kj implies b = - uf/kj

thus the model reduces to the following form

Corresponding relationships for sms – q and q – k can be developed using the relationship; q = k
x us whereby;

and

- Calibration of Greenshields’ model


Example

- Calibration of Greenberg’s model


Example

Page 43 of 43

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