vakratuṇḍa mahākāya sūryakoti samaprabha nirvighnaṃ kuru me sarvakāryeṣu sarvadā

Knowledge of Astronomy, Science & Geography in Bharata Varsha at the time of composition of Surya Siddhanta.

Atul Kumar Kuthiala1

This paper aims to look for and present

internal evidence available in Surya
Siddhanta about the then Knowledge of
Science and Geography, terms, and
definitions. Twenty-nine such instances were
found and compiled in this paper. The paper
suggests the existence of internal evidence in
SS that even though the book was composed
around 12,045 BCE, observations to gather
astronomical data started at least 24,000
years before that. The paper supports that
Maharushi (Researchers/Scholars) of those
times possessed an excellent understanding
of Astronomy, associated arithmetic, and
Geography.

Keywords: Surya Siddhanta, Ancient Indian Science, Knowledge of Astronomy, Geography

Introduction:

Surya Siddhanta (SS) is the most respected ancient Hindu treatise on Astronomy. The knowledge contained in the
book has survived a very long time, say several thousands of years, and therefore, has earned its well-deserved place.
As commented by many scholars, the book is a compendium in the form of Sutra without detailed explanations or
commentary by the original author. It is not difficult to understand the reason. During those days, or even in earlier
times Gurukula tradition was the order of the day. Available knowledge was written down in concise form, as
Sutra/Mantra or Verses and students were imparted detailed instructions by way of explanations, question-answers,
and practical demonstrations with the help of working models, memorizing the Sutra, the crux was the mainstay of
education. The book is divided into fourteen parts. The names of the first eleven chapters end with the word adhikara.
Samskrita word interpreted to mean Authority. The remaining three chapters end with the word adhyaya, meaning
Lecture or Lesson. These later chapters contain explanatory Sutra of what has already been stated in the first eleven
chapters. Possibly, containing answers given to students on their enquiries.

SS has been updated several times. Neither the name of the person who initially complied the treatise nor those who
updated appear in the book and even the Sutra have not been arranged chronologically.

Background:

Astronomy in the West started with the Geocentric model of the solar system and changed to the accepted Heliocentric
tropical model, in due course. On the other hand, traditional Indian astronomy is Observer-centric with sidereal
observations for the motion of stars and planets. The text of SS suggests that it is a Geocentric model. However, it
should be noted that the Geocentric model did not come in the way of daily or even minute calculations of Graha as
observations were carried out with reference to distant and fixed stars. The term fixed is also not absolute but relative.
The motion of distant stars was extremely slow in comparison to the motions of the bodies under consideration.

To start with, one needs to make a fair assessment as to the time during which data was collected for compilation in
the form of SS. Motions of several stars, planets, and satellites were observed and compiled. These are the Surya,

1
Ex Doordarshan (India), Corresponding email: atulkuthiala@hotmail.com
Chandra, and various other planets, and their attributes are named Chandraochcha, Chandrapata for Chandra and
Sheeghra, Manda, Uchcha for some other Graha, etc.

The observed speeds range from faster ones of one lunar month for the Chandra; one solar year for Surya, Budha, and
Shukra; to as slow as Mandochch of Shani recorded in various Sutra, Chapter 1, Madhyamadhikara reproduced below.
Translation by Rev. Burgess.
29. ln an Age (yuga), the revolutions of the sun, Mercury, and Venus, and of the
conjunctions (cighra) of Mars, Saturn, and Jupiter, moving eastward, are four million,
three hundred and twenty thousand;
30. Of the moon, fifty-seven million, seven hundred and fifty-three thousand, three
hundred and thirty-six; of Mars, two million, two hundred and ninety-six thousand, eight
hundred and thirty-two;
31. Of Mercury's conjunction (cighra). seventeen million, nine hundred and thirty-seven
thousand, and sixty; of Jupiter, three hundred and sixty-four thousand, two hundred and
twenty;
32. Of Venus's conjunction (cighra), seven million, twenty-two thousand, three hundred
and seventy-six; of Saturn, one hundred and forty-six thousand five hundred and sixty-
eight;
33. Of the moon's apsis (ucca), in an Age, four hundred and eighty-eight thousand, two
hundred and three; of its node (pata), in the contrary direction two hundred and thirty-
two thousand, two hundred and thirty-eight;

The motion of the first point of the Constellation of Aries which takes 24,000 years (Surya Siddhanta value) to
complete one oscillation, Sutra 9 and 10, chapter 3 Triprashnadhikara,

triṃśatkṛtyā yuge bhāṃśaiscakraṃ prākparilambate |

tadguṇādbhudinairbhaktad dyugaṇādyadavāpyate ||9||
taddositraghnā daśāptaṃśā vijñeyā ayanābhiddhaḥ
tatsaṃyuktāṅka grahātkrānticchāyacaradalādikam ||10||

9. In an Age (yuga), the circle of the asterisms (bha) falls back eastward thirty score of
revolutions. Of the result obtained after multiplying the sum of days (dyugana) by this
number, and dividing by the number of natural days in an Age,
10. Take the part which determines the sine, multiply it by three, and divide by ten ; thus
are found the degrees called those of the precession (ayana). From the longitude of a
planet as corrected by these are to be calculated the declination, shadow, ascensional
difference (caradala), etc.
and the following much slower motions again from Chapter 1, Sutra 41 to 44.
41. The revolutions of the sun's apsis (manda), moving eastward, in an Ǽon, are three
hundred and eighty-seven; of that of Mars, two hundred and four; of that of Mercury,
three hundred and sixty-eight;
42. Of that of Jupiter, nine hundred; of that of Venus, five hundred and thirty-five; of the
apsis of Saturn, thirty-nine. Farther, the revolutions of the nodes, retrograde, are :
43. Of that of Mars, two hundred and fourteen; of that of Mercury, four hundred and
eighty-eight; of that of Jupiter, one hundred and seventy-four; of that of Venus, nine
hundred and three ;
44. Of the node of Saturn, the revolutions in an Mon are six hundred and sixty-two : the
revolutions of the moon's apsis and node have been given here already.
Out of all these observed and recorded motions, the composer of SS states in the initial conditions that only the
following motions have completed their respective complete revolutions, in Sutra 57 and 58, Chapter 1,
Madayamadhikara:
asmin kṛtayugasyānte sarve madhyagatā grahāḥ |
vinā tu pātmandoccānmeṣādau tulytāmitāḥ ||57||
makarādau śaśāṅkoccaṃ tatpātastu tulādigaḥ |
niraṃśatvaṃ ptāśchnyenoktāste manda chāriṇaḥ ||58||
57. Now, at the end of the Golden Age (krta yuga), all the planets, by their mean motion
— excepting, however, their nodes and apsides (mandocca) — are in conjunction in the
first of Aries.
58. The moon's apsis (ucca) is in the first of Capricorn, and its node is in the first of
Libra; and the rest, which have been stated above to have a slow motion — their position
cannot be expressed in whole signs.

In these Sutra, the positions of all the seven ‘planets’ are given as aligned with the first point of the Constellation of
Aries. Moon's apsis is positioned in the beginning of Capricorn whereas its descending node is stated to be located at
the beginning of Libra. Moon’s apsis has completed ¾ and its descending node has completed ½ of its circle by this
time. Rest all have completed integral numbers of circles and integral number of oscillations in the case of the first
point of the Constellation of Aries. This clearly indicates that the start time of collection of data with reference to the
slowest of motion all in the list was at least the start of the previous cycle of observed apparent motion of the first
point of the Constellation of Aries. From the heliocentric theory of our solar system, we know that this is due to the
precessional motion of the Earth’s axis.

It is, therefore, logical to state that the data on which SS was formulated was collected at least over a period of previous
24,000 years. The author has demonstrated in his previous paper, to be published, that initial conditions in SS pertain
to the year 12,595 BCE. With this result, we state that data collection started at least in 36,595 BCE and was handed
down the years through Hindu Guru-Shishya, Gurukula parampara to the composer of SS.

Discussion:

An effort has been made to list material entities depicting knowledge gained and handed over this period, as they
appear in the Sutra defining initial conditions. Our ancestors made detailed observations of stars, planets, and natural
satellites. Named this science Jyotisha Vidya, one branch of which we know as Astronomy in modern times. It needs
to be mentioned here that Sutra contain traditional/religious definitions as well, which are invariably suppositions and
could also be abstract. Therefore, frequently the intermixed scientific facts get obscured under such religious matters.
1. Definition of time. Time had been defined in its philosophical as well as real nature. Time is of two kinds.
One is which destroys the worlds and the other is kalanatmaka. Latter is divided into two: Real which can be
measured and unreal which cannot be measured. Chapter 1, Sutra 10 to 13. The definition begins with that
of the smallest units which are immeasurable and builds it up to one solar year. It continues further to define
Kalpa which is equal to 4,32,00,00,000 solar years in subsequent Sutra. Each year comprises 360 solar days.
10. Time is the destroyer of the worlds; another Time has for its nature to bring to pass.
This latter, according as it is gross or minute, is called by two names, real (murta) and
unreal (amurta).
11. That which begins with respirations (prana) is called real; that which begins with
atoms (truti) is called unreal. Six respirations make a vinadi, sixty of these a nadi;
12. And sixty nadis make a sidereal day and night. Of thirty of these sidereal days is
composed a month; a civil (savana) month consists of as many sunrises;
13. A lunar month, of as many lunar days (tithi); a solar (saura) month is determined by
the entrance of the sun into a sign of the zodiac : twelve months make a year. This is
called a day of the gods.
2. Observations about the direction of motion, daily motion, and definition of a revolution of a Graha.
Chapter 1, Sutra 25 to 27.
25. The planets moving westward with exceeding velocity, but constantly beaten by the
asterisms, fall behind, at a rate precisely equal, proceeding each in its own path.
26. Hence they have an eastward motion. From the number of their revolutions is derived
their daily motion, which is different according to the size of their orbits; in proportion
to this daily motion they pass through the asterisms.
27. One which moves swiftly passes through them in a short time; one which moves
slowly, in a long time. By their movement, the revolution is accounted complete at the
end of the asterism Revati.
3. Division of a circle into its smaller parts. In Vedic Astronomy, the circumference of a circle is described as
equal to 21,600 kala. It is pertinent to repeat here that traditionally in Indian Mathematics, the total angle at
the centre of a circle was measured in arclengths called amsha and not in degrees as we do today. It is
coincidental that 1 degree equals 1 amsha. 1 arc minute equals 1 kala and 1 arc second equals 1 vikala.
Consequently, the Circumference of a circle is 360 amsha or part lengths of its circumference. Each amsha
consists of 60 kala. And each kala is equal to 60 vikala. A Circle was divided into 12 rashi of 30 amsha each.
One complete revolution comprises 12 rashi. Chapter 1, Sutra 28.
4. Rotation of the earth on its axis. Sutra 34, chapter 1. Western Scholars have not given credit to this Sutra
which implies the rotation of the earth on its axis citing the explicit absence of words or expressions for the
rotation of the earth in the sutra. Incidentally, Aryabhata is given this credit by them due to his having
mentioned the expression ‘earth’s rotation’ in his Aryabhattiya, explicitly. The author’s view is different as
the Sutra mentions about rising of asterisms to complete one daily rotation of the earth.
34. Of the asterisms, one billion, five hundred and eighty-two million, two hundred and
thirty-seven thousand, eight hundred and twenty-eight. The number of risings of the
asterisms, diminished by the number of the revolutions of each planet respectively, gives
the number of risings of the planets in an Age.
5. Calculation of the mean position of Graha using a very large number of observations to minimize per day
error in the calculation of time and their position. As has been explained above, instead of noting down and
processing the daily motion of planets, a very large unit of time was defined to convert the observed data
from its fractional form to integral form in terms of completed revolutions by each observed and recorded
motion of each Graha. It also needs to be pointed out that name of this chapter is Madhyamadhikara
translated as ‘Mean Motions of the Planets’. Implying that the calculations for time etc. are averages taken
over a period and not exact.
56. The processes which have thus been stated in full detail, are practically applied in an
abridged form. The calculation of the mean place of the planets may be made from any
epoch (yuga) that may be fixed upon.
6. They had developed the concept of imaginary lines joining the poles, which we call longitude in modern
times. Sutra 68, Chapter 1.
62. Situated upon the line which passes through the haunt of the demons (rakshasa)
and the mountain which is the seat of the gods, are Rohitaka and Avanti, as also the
adjacent lake.
The author’s view is that Rev. Burgess has erred in his translation of some words in
this Sutra. The expression haunt of Rakshasa has been translated as the place Lanka,
‘the fabled seat of King Ravana, the chief of the Rakshasas, the abduction by whom of
Rama's wife’. Whereas the original word in the Sutra, Rakashalaya is to be taken as
abode of demons, the south pole. This has been clarified in Sutra 35 of chapter 12, later
in SS (see item 20 below).
7. The name of the next chapter Spashtadhikara, translated as ‘True Places of the Planets’ itself indicates that
the composer was aware that mean positions calculated in chapter 1 need to be processed further to get the
true positions of Graha for a particular instant.
8. They were well-versed in dealing with large arithmetical integral numbers, in simple operations like addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division. Also, the composer was aware of the rules for rounding off the
fractions to their nearest integral value.
9. As is evident from working examples, they understood and employed principles of ratio and proportions to
calculate and predict the daily mean motion of planets accurately.
10. On the strength of these capabilities, the composer of SS devised an algorithm to calculate present and predict
future mean positions of various Graha and some stars.
11. They understood that the motion of the planets was not actually circular, also that their speeds were not
regular. Therefore, they characterized eight types of speeds of the planets. Sutra 12 and 13, Chapter 2.
12. The motion of the planets is of eight kinds : retrograde (vakra), somewhat retrograde
(anuvakra), transverse (kutila), slow (manda), very slow (mandatara), even (sama), also,
very swift (Cighratara), and swift (cighra).
13. Of these, the very swift (aticighra), that called swift, the slow, the very slow, the even
— all these five are forms of the motion called direct (riju); the somewhat retrograde is
retrograde.
12. They understood that the ratio of Diameter to Circumference of a circle is a constant and used a value of
3:10. This has been explained in the author’s other paper. Sutra 9 and 10, chapter 3.
13. They understood the concept of Relative motion. Above mentioned Sutra 9 and 10 of chapter 3 are excellent
examples in explaining this. Observed motion explicitly mentioned herein in the first line of Sutra 9 and
associated working steps/practices taught to the students in the class separately to calculate per annum rate
of slippage of Asterism as per the second line of Sutra 9 and Sutra 10, explains this.
14. They developed a formula to calculate the per annum rate of slippage of Asterism, with reference to the first
point of the Constellation of Aries. It can be shown that the calculated value using Sutra 10, chapter 3 is 54
vikala per year. The author has shown in his other paper that this rate of slippage leads to a value of one
precessional circle of the earth’s rotation to be 24,000 years.
The author’s view is that this Sutra is a formula to calculate the value, as mentioned above, and does not have
any physical significance attached to it. Many modern Indic Astronomers believe that SS teaches that time
taken by one precessional circle of the earth’s rotation is 7,200 years. This inference apparently is incorrect.
15. They had worked out formulae for calculating the size of the Sun’s and Moon’s disks, their shadows, and
predicted timings and other details of Lunar Eclipses. Sutra 1 onwards chapter 4.
1. The diameter of the sun's disk is six thousand five hundred yojanas ; of the moon's,
four hundred and eighty.
2. These diameters, each multiplied by the true motion, and divided by the mean motion,
of its own planet, give the corrected (sphuta) diameters. If that of the sun be multiplied
by the number of the sun's revolutions in an Age, and divided by that of the moon's,
3. Or if it be multiplied by the moon's orbit (kaksha), and divided by the sun's orbit, the
result will be its diameter upon the moon's orbit : all these, divided by fifteen, give the
measures of the diameters in minutes.
4. Multiply the earth's diameter by the true daily motion of the moon, and divide by her
mean motion : the result is the earth's corrected diameter (suci). The difference between
the earth's diameter and the corrected diameter of the sun
5. Is to be multiplied by the moon's mean diameter, and divided by the sun's mean
diameter : subtract the result from the earth's corrected diameter (suci), and the
remainder is the diameter of the shadow ; which is reduced to minutes as before.
………
16. The reason for solar and lunar eclipses was understood and is stated in Sutra 9, chapter 4.
 9. The moon is the eclipser of the sun, coming to stand underneath it, like a cloud : the
moon, moving eastward, enters the earth's shadow, and the latter becomes its eclipser.
17. They identified the locations of various stars in the asterism and many other visible stars with the help of two
coordinates. They called these Dhruva and Vikshepa. Sutra 1 and 6, chapter 8 translation reproduced below.
It is pertinent to point out here that Rev. Burgess has translated Vikshepa in Sutra 6 as latitudes. Also, the
two identifying coordinates are similar two modern attributes as we erroneously call these Declination and
Right Ascension. In fact, these are ecliptic coordinates.
1. Now are set forth the positions of the asterisms (bha), in minutes. If the share of each
one, then, be multiplied by ten, and increased by the minutes in the portions (bhoga) of
the past asterisms (dhishnya), the result will be the polar longitudes (dhruva).
6. Seventy-nine. Now their respective latitudes, reckoned from the point of declination
(apakrma) of each : ten, twelve, five, north ; south, five, ten, nine ;
18. They visualized the universe as a celestial sphere. Stars are situated below the topmost part, and planets move
around in their orbits below the asterism. Sutra 29 to 31, Chapter 12.
29. This Brahma-egg is hollow ; within it is the universe, consisting of earth, sky, etc. ; it
has the form of a sphere, like a receptacle made of a pair of caldrons.
30. A circle within the Brahma-egg is styled the orbit of the ether (vyoman) : within that
is the revolution of the asterisms (bha) , and likewise, in order, one below the other,
31. Revolve Saturn, Jupiter, Mars the sun, Venus, Mercury, and the moon ; below, in
succession, the Perfected (siddha), the Possessors of Knowledge (vidydhara) , and the
clouds.
19. They said that the earth is a sphere situated in the middle of the celestial sphere supported by nothing or is
self-supported. Sutra 32, chapter 12.
32. Quite in the middle of the egg, the earth-globe (bhugola) stands in the ether, bearing
the supreme might of Brahma, which is of the nature of self-supporting force.
20. They defined two poles of the spherical earth with the help of Meru Danda assumed to be running from one
pole to the other through and through the earth. Named these poles as ‘House of Deva’ and ‘House of
Rakshasha’. Stated these to be mutually opposite. At each pole, the day was equal to six solar months.
Similarly, the night was also of six solar month’s duration. Also that when it was daytime at one pole then it
was night-time at the other pole. Sutra 34 and 35 of chapter 12, Sutra 13 and 14 of chapter 1.
34. A collection of manifold jewels, a mountain of gold, is Meru, passing through the
middle of the earth-globe, and protruding on either side.
35. At its upper end are stationed, along with Indra, the gods, and the Great Sages
(maharshi) ; at its lower end, in like manner, the demons (asura) have their place — each
the enemy of the other.
13. ………. This is called a day of the gods.
14. The day and night of the gods and of the demons are mutually opposed to one another.
Six times sixty of them are a year of the gods, and likewise of the demons.
21. They defined the equatorial circle. Referred to it as Bhuvritta. Sutra 38, chapter 12.
38. At a quadrant of the earth's circumference eastward, in the clime (varsha)
Bhadracva, is the city famed as Yamakoti, having walls and gateways of gold.
22. Also added that whenever Sun is situated over the Vishu/Bhuvritta the objects don’t cast shadows nor do
nakshtra stars have any elevation. Sutra 42, chapter 12.
42. Above them goes the sun when situated at the equinoxes ; they have neither
equinoctial shadow nor elevation of the pole (akshonnati).
23. Through experimentation, they stated that any pole star when viewed from a location situated at the Vishu
will appear at the horizon. Sutra 43, Chapter 12.
43. In both directions from Meru are two pole-stars (dhruva- tara), fixed in the midst of
the sky : to those who are situated in places of no latitude (niraksha), both these have
their place in the horizon.
24. They explained the reason and time for the seasons, summer and winter. Showed that this was due to the
position of the sun in defined Rashi. Also stated that when there is summer in northern part of the globe there
is winter in the southern part. This knowledge confirms that they were aware of the tilt of the earth’s axis and
of its amount. Sutra 45 and 46, Chapter 12.
45. In the half-revolution beginning with Aries, the sun, being in the hemisphere of the
gods, is visible to the gods : but while in that beginning with Libra, he is visible to the
demons, moving in their hemisphere.
46. Hence, owing to his exceeding nearness, the rays of the sun are hot in the hemisphere
of the gods in summer, but in that of the demons in winter : in the contrary season, they
are sluggish.
25. They explained the reason for the appearance of the earth being a flat wheel even though actually it was a
sphere. Sutra 54, chapter 12.
54. Owing to the littleness of their own bodies, men, looking in every direction from the
position they occupy, behold this earth, although it is globular, as having the form of a
wheel.
26. They understood and explained the reason for different speeds and the number of revolutions completed in
the same time by various planets. Sutra 75 to 77, chapter 12.
75. The orbit (kaksha) of one that is situated higher up is large ; that of one situated
lower down is small. Upon a great orbit the degrees are great ; so also, upon a small
one, they are small.
76. A planet situated upon a small circuit (bhramana) traverses the circle of
constellations (bhagana) in a little time ; one revolving on a large circle (mandala), in a
long time.
77. The moon, upon a very small orbit, makes many revolutions : Saturn, moving upon a
great orbit, makes, as compared with her, a much less number of revolutions.
27. They were fully aware and appreciated that for imparting such education it was imperative for a student to
construct a working model of Bhubhagola, Stars, Nakshatra chakra, etc., Sutra 4 to 17, chapter 13 provide
instructions to make one such model with the help of insignificant material like wood, bamboo, etc. The sutra
have not been reproduced due to antiquity of these instructions.
In the words of Rev. Burgess, “Here we have another silly mystification of a simple and comparatively
insignificant matter, like that already noticed at the end of the sixth chapter…. It is perfectly evident that
such a fabric could only be made to revolve in a rude and imperfect way; that it should have marked time,
and continued for any period to correspond in position with the actual sphere, is impossible.”
No wonder he could not appreciate what was written almost 14,000 years ago with respect to his time, having
been exposed to better working models and scientific instruments. But then he did not know that these texts
were from ancient times.
28. It is generally believed that the names of Rashi chakra, viz Mesha, Vrish, etc., are of foreign origin. This
myth is demolished as these find mention in SS, Sutra 25, Bhugoladhyaya, and Sutra 4 and 5, chapter
Manadhyaya:
12/25. Again, dividing himself twelve-fold, he, the mighty one, produced what is known
as the signs ; and yet farther, what has the form of the asterisms (nakshatra) , twenty-
seven-fold.
 14/4. Beginning with Libra, the shadacitimukha is at the end of the periods of eighty-six
(shadaciti) days, in succession : there are four of them, occurring in the signs of double
character (dvisva-bhdva) ;
14/5. Namely, at the twenty-sixth degree of Sagittarius, at the twenty-second of Pisces, at
the eighteenth degree of Gemini, and at the fourteenth of Virgo.
Later, the initial conditions of seasons at the time of the composition of SS are defined in Sutra 9 and 10 of
the same chapter:
14/9. From the sun's entrance (sankranti) into Capricorn, six months are his northern
progress (uttarayana) ; so likewise, from the beginning of Cancer, six months are his
southern progress (dakshinayana).
14/10. Thence also are reckoned the seasons (rtu), the cool season (cicira) and the rest,
each prevailing through two signs. These twelve, commencing with Aries, are the months;
of them is made up the year.
29. At the end of chapter 14, in some prints of SS, a set of twenty-one Bija upanayana Sutra are seen. These are
instructions for the students and future Acharya to observe and incorporate corrections that may come up
with the passage of time. This indicates that the composer of SS was aware that changes may come up in the
future and therefore, advised learners to keep track of such changes and incorporate into the original text.
Summary:
Twenty-nine instances showing knowledge of sciences and Geography around 12,045 BCE were found and listed. In
the author’s opinion, some chapters like the one dealing with Sun’s eclipse formulae involve the use of square roots;
sine, cosine, and Rsine functions as evident from the text of Sutra. The author has shown in a previous paper that such
functions had not been perfected until 2,528 BCE. Therefore, such occurrences have not been included in this list.
It is reiterated here again that the paper considers knowledge mentioned in the fields relevant to SS only. The
knowledge base of our ancestors in that time frame and in other fields like zoology, botany, health and medicine,
agriculture, animal husbandry, metallurgy, architecture, and construction, etc., is not within the scope of this paper.
Acknowledgements:
This paper would not have been complete without the help of the reviewer, my son Prateek, and my daughter Garima.

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śrīgurve namaḥ