Tesla Autopilot - Wikipedia https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tesla_Autopilot#Safety_statistics_and_co...

Tesla Autopilot
Tesla Autopilot is a suite of advanced driver-assistance
system (ADAS) features offered by Tesla that amounts to SAE
International Level 2 vehicle automation. Its features are lane
centering, traffic-aware cruise control, automatic lane changes,
semi-autonomous navigation on limited access freeways, self-
parking, and the ability to summon the car from a garage or
parking spot. With all of these features, the driver is
responsible and the car requires constant supervision. The
company claims the features reduce accidents caused by driver Tesla Autopilot in operation
negligence and fatigue from long-term driving.[1][2] In October
2020, Consumer Reports called Tesla Autopilot "a distant
second" in driver assistance systems (behind Cadillac's Super Cruise), although it was ranked first
in the "Capabilities and Performance" and "Ease of Use" category.[3]

As an upgrade to the capabilities of Autopilot, the company's

stated intent is to offer full autonomous driving (SAE Level 5)
at a future time, acknowledging that technical and regulatory
hurdles must be overcome to achieve this goal.[4] From 2016
through 2022, Tesla CEO Elon Musk has repeatedly made
inaccurate predictions as to when Tesla would be able to
achieve Level 5 autonomy.[5] In 2019, some experts criticized
Tesla Autopilot engaged on I-80 Tesla vehicles' lack of lidar, which is used by other companies
near Lake Tahoe working on autonomous driving.[6] In October 2020, Tesla
started a Full Self-Driving (FSD) capability[7] beta program in
the United States;[8][9] as of February 2023, Tesla has about
360,000 participants in this program.[10] Industry observers and academics criticized Tesla's
decision to use untrained consumers to validate the beta software as dangerous and irresponsible.
[11][12][13][14] Collisions and deaths involving Tesla cars with Autopilot engaged have drawn the
attention of the press and government agencies.[15]

History
Elon Musk first discussed the Tesla Autopilot system publicly in 2013, noting that "Autopilot is a
good thing to have in planes, and we should have it in cars."[16] Over the ensuing decade, Autopilot
went through a series of hardware and software enhancements, gradually approaching the goal of
full autonomy, which, as of January   2023, remains a work in progress. Autopilot, as initially
introduced in 2014, referred to automatic parking and low-speed summoning on private
property,[17] using sensor and computing hardware developed by Mobileye. By 2016, the Mobileye-
based Autopilot had added automatic emergency braking, adaptive cruise control, and lane

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centering capabilities[18] when Tesla and Mobileye dissolved their partnership that July.[19]
Enhanced Autopilot (EA) was announced later in 2016 as an extra-cost option that used a new
hardware suite developed by Tesla;[20] the key distinguishing feature for EA, "Navigate on
Autopilot", which uses the new hardware suite to guide the vehicle on controlled-access roads,
from on-ramp to off-ramp, was delayed until 2018.[21] At the same time that EA was introduced,
Tesla also offered Full Self-Driving (FSD) as an upgrade option to EA in 2016, which would
extend machine-guided driving capabilities to local roads.[20] FSD beta testing started in October
2020.[22]

Hardware 1 and Autopilot (Mobileye)

In October 2014, Tesla offered customers the ability to pre-purchase Autopilot[17][23][24] that was
not designed for self-driving.[25] Initial versions were built in partnership with Mobileye,[26] but
Mobileye ended the partnership in July 2016 because Tesla "was pushing the envelope in terms of
safety".[27][28]

Tesla cars manufactured after September 2014 had the initial hardware (hardware version 1 or
HW1) that supported Autopilot.[29] The first Autopilot software release came in October 2015 as
part of Tesla software version 7.0.[30] Version 7.1 removed some features to discourage risky
driving.[31]

Version 8.0 processed radar signals to create a point cloud similar to lidar to help navigate in low
visibility.[32][33] In November 2016, Autopilot 8.0 was updated to encourage drivers to grip the
steering wheel.[34][35] By November 2016, Autopilot had operated for 300 million miles
(500 million km).[36]

Hardware 2 and Enhanced Autopilot

In October 2016, Autopilot sensors and computing hardware transitioned to hardware version 2
(HW2) for new cars,[37] the upgraded hardware collectively was called Autopilot 2.0 to distinguish
it from the original Autopilot/HW1 vehicles.[38] At the time it was launched, Autopilot 2.0 vehicles
with HW2 actually had fewer features than HW1 vehicles; for example, HW2 vehicles were unable
to be summoned in 2016.[39][40]

Tesla also used the term Enhanced Autopilot (EA) to refer to planned capabilities that would be
coming to HW2 vehicles; the signature EA feature announced in December 2016 was "Navigate on
Autopilot", which allows machine-controlled driving on controlled-access highways from on-ramp
to off-ramp, including the abilities to change lanes without driver input, transition from one
freeway to another, and exit.[41] HW2 vehicles were updated in January and February 2017 with
software version 8.0, which included traffic-aware cruise control and autosteer (lane-centering) on
divided highways and 'local roads' up to a speed of 45 miles per hour (72 km/h).[42][43] Software
version 8.1 for HW2 arrived in March 2017, providing HW2 cars feature parity with HW1 cars, but
not "Navigate on Autopilot".[44]

In August 2017, Tesla announced hardware version 2.5 (HW2.5), which upgraded the on-board
processor and added redundant systems.[45] Software version 9.0 was released in October
2018,[46] in preparation for the release of "Navigate on Autopilot" for HW2/HW2.5 vehicles with
EA, which was implemented later that month.[47] At the same time, Tesla removed the option to

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purchase the "Full Self-Driving" upgrade.[48] In a November 2018 test drive, The Verge reporter
Andrew J. Hawkins called the beta "Navigate on Autopilot" system "the feature that could give
Tesla an edge as it grows from niche company to global powerhouse".[49] As initially released,
"Navigate on Autopilot" would suggest lane changes, but could not change lanes until the
suggestion had been confirmed by the driver through the turn signal stalk.[50]

In March 2019, Tesla transitioned to hardware version 3 (HW3) for new cars.[51] Completely
automated lane changes without requiring driver confirmation using "Navigate on Autopilot" were
added as an option in an April software update,[52] although Consumer Reports called it "far less
competent" than a human driver.[53] To comply with the new United Nations Economic
Commission for Europe regulation related to automatically commanded steering function,[54]
Tesla provided an updated Autopilot in May, limited to Europe.[55] In September, Tesla released
software version 10 to Early Access Program (EAP) testers, citing improvements in driving
visualization and automatic lane changes.[56]

Full Self-Driving options

In October 2016, a video entitled "Full Self-Driving Hardware on All Teslas"[57] that claimed to
demonstrate Full Self-Driving, the system designed to extend automated driving to local roads, was
released by Tesla,[58][59] with CEO Elon Musk tweeting a link to a longer version in November
2016;[60] the main interior camera was arranged to show the person in the driver's seat does not
touch the steering wheel or pedals during the demonstration. The video also shows perspectives
from the vehicle's cameras and image recognition system.[61] The title card states "The person in
the driver's seat is only there for legal reasons. He is not doing anything. The car is driving itself."
at Musk's suggestion.[62] It was nicknamed the "Paint It Black" video, after the 1966 Rolling Stones
song used as its soundtrack.[58]

Former employees who helped to produce the 2016 video were interviewed by The New York
Times in 2021.[63] In the interview, they stated the vehicle was following a route that had been
mapped with detailed scanning cameras, which is a technology that was and is not available in
Tesla production cars. Even with these augmentations in place, the vehicle allegedly struck "a
roadside barrier" on the Tesla grounds during filming, requiring repairs to the vehicle. Motor
Trend and Jalopnik compared what Tesla had showcased to the deceptive video depicting a Nikola
One EV truck which was actually powered by gravity;[64] Jalopnik commented "[the Tesla video]
may be worse, because this video was used to deceptively suggest capabilities of a system deployed
into real people's hands and used on public roads."[65] In June 2022, Ashok Elluswamy, director of
Autopilot software, stated the video was not intended "to accurately portray what was available for
customers in 2016. It was to portray what was possible to build into the system." Elluswamy's
statement was made during a deposition taken for a civil lawsuit filed against Tesla by the family of
a driver that was killed in 2018 after the Model X he was driving using Autopilot crashed into a
concrete barrier in Mountain View, California.[66] Contrary to the assertions in the video, human
drivers had to intervene to take control, and video showing the car crashed into a fence when trying
to park was deleted.[67]

At the time the "Paint it Black" video was released in 2016, FSD was acknowledged to be "some way
off in the future."[41] The option to purchase the FSD upgrade to EA was removed from Tesla's
website in October 2018; Elon Musk tweeted the upgrade was "causing too much confusion".
Technology analyst Rob Enderle called the removal of the upgrade option "incredibly stupid",

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adding "don't release a system that doesn't work and make it hard to order."[68] During a January
2019 earnings call, Elon Musk reiterated "full self-driving capability is there", referring to
"Navigate on Autopilot", an EA feature limited to controlled-access highways.[48] The EA option
was replaced by FSD in 2019 without offering "Navigate on Autopilot"-like functionality for local
roads; autosteer and traffic-aware cruise control were transferred to the basic Autopilot feature set,
which was made standard on all new Teslas.[69][70]

In September 2020, Tesla reintroduced the term Enhanced Autopilot to distinguish the existing
subset of features which included high-speed highway travel and low-speed parking and
summoning, from FSD, which would add medium-speed city road travel.[71] Tesla released a "beta"
version of its FSD software (which extended "Navigate on Autopilot"-like machine-controlled
driving and navigation to 'local roads') in the United States in October 2020 to EAP testers.[8][9]
The EA option tier was made available to all buyers by June 2022,[69] and the FSD beta had
expanded to approximately 160,000 testers in the United States and Canada by September.[72] In
November, the FSD beta was extended to all owners in North America that had purchased the
option.[73] As of February 2023, Tesla has about 360,000 participants in this program.[10]

In February 2023, 362,758 vehicles equipped with the FSD beta were recalled by the U.S. National
Highway Traffic Safety Administration (NHTSA), and addition of new participants was halted by
the company.[74][75] Tesla will issue a software update to address the issues identified by the
regulator.[76]

Pricing

In 2016, the initial price of Autopilot (called "Enhanced Autopilot") was $5,000, and FSD was an
add-on for $3,000.[77] In April 2019, basic Autopilot was included in every Tesla car,[78] and FSD
was $5,000, growing to $10,000 in October 2020 and $15,000 in September 2022.[79] As the price
of FSD increased, the fraction of buyers who purchased it steadily declined, from an estimated 37%
in 2019 to 22% in 2020 to 12% in 2021.[80] Starting in 2021, the company offers a subscription for
FSD for $199 per month or $99 per month if the customer has already purchased Enhanced
Autopilot.[81]

Team executive turnover

There has been high turnover in Autopilot lead roles.[82] Some of the executives leaving were:

▪ 2015–2016: Sterling Anderson (Autopilot Director)[83] left to start a competing company.

▪ 2017–2017: Chris Lattner (Vice President of Autopilot Software) left after six months due to
cultural fit issues.[84]
▪ 2017–2018: Jim Keller (Vice President, Autopilot Hardware Engineering) left to join Intel.[85]
▪ 2018–2022: Andrej Karpathy (Senior Director, Artificial Intelligence) left to revisit "long-term
passions around technical work in AI, open source and education".[86][87]

As of November 2022, executives include:

▪ Ashok Elluswamy (Director, Autopilot Software)[88]

▪ Milan Kovac (Director, Autopilot Software Engineering)[88]

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▪ Pete Bannon (Vice President, Hardware Engineering)[89]

Full Self-Driving
Full Self-Driving (FSD) capability[7] is a pre-release upgrade package to Autopilot offering
additional ADAS features, such as traffic light recognition. As of April 2022, more than 100,000
people had beta access to FSD,[90][91] including employees, early access program members, and
opt-in users who met certain safety score criteria.[92][93] The FSD Beta was opened on November
23, 2022, to any owner in North America that had paid for the option.[73]

Approach

Tesla's approach to try to achieve SAE Level 5 is to train a neural network using the behavior of
hundreds of thousands of Tesla drivers[94] using chiefly visible light cameras and information from
components used for other purposes in the car (the coarse-grained two-dimensional maps used for
navigation; the ultrasonic sensors used for parking, etc.[95][96]). Tesla has made a deliberate
decision to not use lidar, which Elon Musk has called "stupid, expensive and unnecessary".[97] This
makes Tesla's approach markedly different from that of other companies like Waymo and Cruise
which train their neural networks using the behavior of highly trained drivers,[98][99] and are
additionally relying on highly detailed (centimeter-scale) three-dimensional maps and lidar in their
autonomous vehicles.[96][100][101][102][103]

According to Elon Musk, full autonomy is "really a software limitation: The hardware exists to
create full autonomy, so it's really about developing advanced, narrow AI for the car to operate
on."[104][105] The Autopilot development focus is on "increasingly sophisticated neural nets that
can operate in reasonably sized computers in the car".[104][105] According to Musk, "the car will
learn over time", including from other cars.[106]

Tesla's software has been trained based on 3 billion miles driven by Tesla vehicles on public roads,
as of April 2020.[107][108] Alongside tens of millions of miles on public roads,[109] competitors have
trained their software on tens of billions of miles in computer simulations, as of January 2020.[110]
In terms of computing hardware, Tesla designed a self-driving computer chip that has been
installed in its cars since March 2019[111] and also developed a neural network training
supercomputer ("Tesla Dojo");[112][113] other vehicle automation companies such as Waymo
regularly use custom chipsets and neural networks as well.[114][115]

Predictions and deployment

In March 2015, speaking at an Nvidia conference, Musk stated:

"I don't think we have to worry about autonomous cars because it's a sort of a narrow form of
AI. It's not something I think is very difficult. To do autonomous driving that is to a degree
much safer than a person, is much easier than people think."[116] "...I almost view it like a
solved problem."[117]

In December 2015, Musk predicted "complete autonomy" by 2018.[118] At the end of 2016, Tesla
expected to demonstrate full autonomy by the end of 2017,[119][120] and in April 2017, Musk

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predicted that in around two years, drivers would be able to sleep in their vehicle while it drives
itself.[121] In 2018 Tesla revised the date to demonstrate full autonomy to be by the end of
2019.[122]

In February 2019, Musk stated that FSD would be "feature complete" by the end of 2019:[123][124]

I think we will be feature complete, full self-driving, this year. Meaning the car will be
able to find you in a parking lot, pick you up and take you all the way to your
destination without an intervention. This year. I would say I am of certain of that, that
is not a question mark. However, people sometimes will extrapolate that to mean now it
works with 100% certainty, requiring no observation, perfectly, this is not the case.

In 2019[125][126] and 2020,[127] Tesla's order page for "Full Self-Driving Capability" stated:

Coming later this year:

▪ Recognize and respond to traffic lights and stop signs
▪ Automatic driving on city streets.

In January 2020, Musk claimed the FSD software would be "feature complete" by the end of 2020,
adding that feature complete "doesn't mean that features are working well".[128] In August 2020,
Musk stated that 200 software engineers, 100 hardware engineers and 500 "labelers" were working
on Autopilot and FSD.[129] In early 2021, Musk stated that Tesla would provide SAE Level 5
autonomy by the end of 2021.[130][131] An email conversation between Tesla and the California
Department of Motor Vehicles (DMV) retrieved via a Freedom of Information Act request by
PlainSite contradicts Musk's forward-looking statement.[132]

Full Self-Driving beta

In October 2020, Tesla first released a beta version of its FSD software to early access program
testers, a small group of users in the United States.[133][8][9] Musk stated that the testing of FSD
beta "[w]ill be extremely slow [and] cautious" and "be limited to a small number of people who are
expert [and] careful drivers".[8] The release of the beta program renewed concern regarding
whether the technology is ready for testing on public roads.[134][135] In January 2021, the number
of employees and customers testing the beta FSD software was "nearly 1,000"[136] expanding in
May 2021 to several thousand employees and customers.[90]

In October 2021, Tesla began the wide release of the FSD beta to approximately 1,000 more drivers
in the US, and the beta became accessible to Tesla drivers who achieved a 100 / 100 on a
proprietary safety scoring system.[137] By November 2021 there were about 11,700 FSD beta
testers[138] and about 150,000 vehicles using Tesla's safety score system,[139] which then grew to
60,000 users participating in FSD beta by January 2022,[91] and 100,000 users by April 2022.[90]
In November 2022, the FSD beta was opened to all North American owners who had purchased
the option, regardless of safety score.[73] As of April 2023, FSD beta has been used to drive 150
million miles.[140]

Tesla Dojo

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Dojo is a machine learning training supercomputer. Dojo's focus on machine learning led to a
considerably different architecture than conventional designs.[141]

Dojo was first mentioned by Musk in April 2019[142][143] and August 2020.[143] It was officially
announced by Musk at Tesla's AI Day on August 19, 2021.[144] In September 2021, a Tesla Dojo
whitepaper was released.

Dojo's primary goal is scalability. Dojo consists of multiple cabinets. Each cabinet holds multiple,
vertically-arranged training tiles.[145] Each tile holds multiple Tesla-designed D1 processing chips
with associated memory.[146] According to Tesla's senior director of Autopilot hardware, Ganesh
Venkataramanan, "Tesla places 25 of these chips onto a single 'training tile', and 120 of these tiles
come together... amounting to over an exaflop [a million teraflops] of power".[147] (As of
August 2021, Nvidia stated that the (pre-Dojo) Tesla AI-training center used 720 nodes of eight
Nvidia A100 Tensor Core GPUs (5,760 GPUs in total) for up to 1.8 exaflops of performance.[148])
Dojo supports software programming using PyTorch, rather than C, C++, or CUDA. The static
random access memory (SRAM) presents as a single address space.[145]

Criticism

Tesla's self-driving strategy has been criticized as dangerous and obsolete as it was abandoned by
other companies years ago.[149][150][151] Most experts believe that Tesla's approach of trying to
achieve autonomous vehicles by eschewing high-definition maps and lidar is not feasible.
[152][153][154] Auto analyst Brad Templeton has criticized Tesla's approach by arguing, "The no-map
approach involves forgetting what was learned before and doing it all again."[155] In a May 2021
study by Guidehouse Insights, Tesla was ranked last for both strategy and execution in the
autonomous driving sector.[156] Some news reports in 2019 state "practically everyone views [lidar]
as an essential ingredient for self-driving cars"[6] and "experts and proponents say it adds depth
and vision where camera and radar alone fall short."[157]

An August 2021 study conducted by Missy Cummings et al found three Tesla Model 3 cars
exhibited "significant between and within vehicle variation on a number of metrics related to driver
monitoring, alerting, and safe operation of the underlying autonomy... suggest[ing] that the
performance of the underlying artificial intelligence and computer vision systems was extremely
variable."[158]

In September 2021, legal scholars William Widen and Philip Koopman argued that Tesla's
advertising of FSD as an SAE Level 2 system was misleading to "avoid regulatory oversight and
permitting processes required of more highly automated vehicles".[159] Instead, they argued FSD
should be considered a SAE Level 4 technology and urged state Departments of Transportation in
the U.S. to classify it as such since publicly available videos show that "beta test drivers operate
their vehicles as if to validate SAE Level 4 (high driving automation) features, often revealing
dramatically risky situations created by use of the vehicles in this manner."[159]

Driving features
Tesla's Autopilot is classified as Level 2 under the SAE six levels (0 to 5) of vehicle automation.[160]
At this level, the car can act autonomously, but requires the driver to monitor the driving at all
times and be prepared to take control at a moment's notice.[161][162] Tesla's owner's manual states

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that Autopilot should not be used on city streets or on roads where traffic conditions are constantly
changing;[163][164][165] however, some FSD capabilities ("traffic and stop sign control (beta)"), and
future FSD capabilities ("autosteer on city streets") are advertised for city streets.[166]

Overview of Autopilot, Enhanced Autopilot, and Full Self-Driving key ADAS features[166]
Name Enhanced Autopilot Full Self-Driving
Autopilot
Feature (EA) (FSD)
SAE Classification Level 2
Traffic-Aware
Yes Yes Yes
Cruise Control
Autosteer Yes Yes Yes
Navigate on
No Yes Yes
Autopilot
Auto Lane Change No Yes Yes
Autopark No Yes Yes
Summon No Yes Yes
Smart Summon No Yes Yes
Traffic and Stop
No No Yes
Sign Control
Autosteer on City
No No Future
Streets

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Autopilot, Enhanced Autopilot, and Full Self-Driving feature history

Hardware Requirements
Year Function Description[167]
HW1 HW2 HW3 AP EA FSD
Over-the-air Autopilot updates received
2014 software as part of recurring Tesla
updates software updates.
If Autopilot detects a
potential front or side
collision with another
vehicle, bicycle or
pedestrian within a
distance of 525 feet
(160 m), it sounds a
2014
Safety warning.[168] Autopilot also
features has automatic emergency
braking that detects
objects that may hit the
car and applies the
brakes, and the car may
also automatically swerve
out of the way to prevent a
collision.
Autopilot includes a video
display of some of what it
sees around it. It displays
driving lanes and vehicles
in front, behind and on
either side of it (in other
lanes). It also displays
lane markings and speed
2014 Visualization
limits (via its cameras and
what it knows from maps).
On HW3, it displays stop
signs and traffic signals. It
distinguishes pedestrians,
bicyclists/motorcyclists,
small cars, and larger
SUVs/trucks.
Also known as adaptive
cruise control, the ability to
maintain a safe distance
from the vehicle in front of
it by accelerating and
braking as that vehicle
speeds up and slows
down. It also slows on
tight curves, on interstate
ramps, and when another
car enters or exits the road
Traffic- in front of the car. It can be
2014[25] aware cruise
[169][166] enabled at any speed
control.[166] between 0 mph and
90 mph. By default, it sets
the limit at the current
speed limit plus/minus a
driver-specified offset,
then adjusts its target
speed according to
changes in speed limits. If
road conditions warrant,
Autosteer and cruise
control disengage and an

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Hardware Requirements
Year Function Description[167]
HW1 HW2 HW3 AP EA FSD
audio and visual signal
indicate that the driver
must assume full control.
Steers the car to remain in
whatever lane it is in (also
known as lane-keeping). It
is able to safely change
lanes when the driver taps
the turn signal stalk.[170]
On divided highways,
HW2 and HW3 cars limit
use of the feature to
90 mph (145 km/h), and
2014[25] on non-divided highways
[169][166] Autosteer
the limit is five miles over
the speed limit or 45 mph
(72 km/h) if no speed limit
is detected.[171] If the
driver ignores three audio
warnings about controlling
the steering wheel within
an hour, Autopilot is
disabled until a new
journey is begun.[172]
Lane Warns the driver when the
2014[173]
[174][175] departure vehicle begins to move out
warning of its lane.

Autopilot In 2017, changed to

2014 Maximum 90 mph (140 km/h).
speed [176][177]

Front-facing cameras
detect speed limit signs
and display the current
limit on the dashboard or
Speed center display. Limits are
2014
Assist compared against GPS
data if no signs are
present or if the vehicle is
HW2 or HW2.5.[168]
Moves car into and out of
a tight space using the
2014[25] Basic Tesla phone app or key
[169][166] summon fob without the driver in
the car.[178][179]
Monitors vehicle speed
Forward and speed of the leading
2014[180] Collision vehicle to warn the driver
Warning when approaching the
vehicle in front too closely.
Driver initiates the lane
changing signal when
safe, then the system
Automatic does the rest.[182]
2014[181] lane change Autosteer is disabled upon
a manual lane change. In
2019, the need for driver
initiation was removed (the

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Hardware Requirements
Year Function Description[167]
HW1 HW2 HW3 AP EA FSD
driver still needs to
supervise).[183]
Parks the car in
perpendicular or parallel
2015[184] parking spaces, with either
[185][186] Autopark nose or tail facing
[169][166] outward; driver does not
need to be in the
car.[187][188]
A set of features
consisting of "guiding [the
Tesla] through highway
interchanges and exits"
and handling "lane
changes on certain roads"
automatically.[191]
Navigates on-ramp to off-
ramp. Initial version
Navigate on suggested lane changes
2016[189] (the driver has to engage
[169][190][166] Autopilot
(Beta) the turn signal), navigated
freeway interchanges and
exited the freeway.[190][192]
In 2019, automatic lane
changes and automatic
moving to a more
appropriate lane based on
speed were added (the
driver still needs to
supervise).[181]
Reduces acceleration
Obstacle when an obstacle is
2018[193] Aware detected in the path of
Acceleration travel while driving at low
speeds
Sounds a warning chime
Blind Spot when changing lanes and
2019[194] Monitoring another vehicle or
obstacle is detected.
Lane Applies steering to
2019[195] Departure maintain vehicle's
Avoidance intended lane.
Emergency Applies steering to prevent
Lane departing from the
2019[195] Departure intended lane and there
Avoidance could be a collision.
Enables supervised 150 ft
(46 m) line-of-sight remote
car retrieval on private
Smart property (for example,
2019[196] Summon parking lots) using the
Tesla phone app; the car
will navigate around
obstacles.[197][198][199]

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Hardware Requirements
Year Function Description[167]
HW1 HW2 HW3 AP EA FSD
Tesla has made claims
since 2016[200][201][202]
that all new HW2 vehicles
have the hardware
necessary for FSD;
however free[203]
hardware upgrades have
been required.[204] (An
2019[166] FSD upgrade from HW 2 or 2.5
[169][25] hardware to HW3 is free to those
who have purchased
FSD.[205][206]) As of 2020,
Tesla claims that the
software will be upgraded
to provide FSD (at an
unknown future date),
without any need for
additional hardware.
[207][208]

Traffic
light/stop Traffic light/stop sign
2019[209] sign recognition
recognition
When using Traffic-Aware
Cruise Control or
Autosteer, this feature will
Traffic Light stop for stop signs and all
and Stop
non-green traffic lights.[211]
2020[166][210] Sign Control
No confirmation may be
(Beta)
[166][210] needed for driving straight
through green lights.[212]
Chime when traffic light
turns green.[213]
Enables "feature
Autosteer on complete" version that
city streets allows an owner to
2020[214] navigate from home to
[212][133]\ (limited-
access work under FSD, adding
Beta) medium-speed (city
driving) scenarios.[215]
FSD
2020[214] (limited-
[212][133] access
Beta)

Hardware

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Summary
Enhanced Enhanced
Hardware Autopilot Full self-driving computer
Autopilot Autopilot
name hardware 1 hardware 3[c]
hardware 2.0[a] hardware 2.5[b]
Initial
April May October
availability 2014 October 2016 August 2017
2019 2021 2022
date
Computers
Nvidia DRIVE Nvidia DRIVE PX
MobilEye PX 2 AI 2 with secondary Two identical Tesla-designed
Platform
EyeQ3[219] computing node "FSD Chip" processors
platform[220] enabled[217]
Sensors

Forward radar 160 m (525 ft)[167] 170 m (558 ft)[167] None[221][d]

Front / Side
camera color N/A RCCC[167] RCCB[167]
filter array
3:
1 monochrome Narrow (35°): 250 m (820 ft)
Forward
with unknown
cameras Main (50°): 150 m (490 ft)
range
Wide (120°): 60 m (195 ft)

Forward Left (90°): 80 m (260 ft)

looking side N/A
cameras Right (90°): 80 m (260 ft)

Rearward Left: 100 m (330 ft)

looking side N/A
cameras Right: 100 m (330 ft)

12 surrounding
Sonars with 5 m (16 ft) 12 surrounding with 8 m (26 ft) range None[225]
range

Notes

a. All cars sold after October 2016 are equipped with Hardware 2.0, which includes eight cameras
(covering a complete 360° around the car), one forward-facing radar, and twelve sonars (also
covering a complete 360°). Buyers may choose an extra-cost option to purchase either the
"Enhanced Autopilot" or "Full Self-Driving" to enable features. Front and side collision
mitigation features are standard on all cars.[216]
b. Also known as "Hardware 2.1"; includes added computing and wiring redundancy for improved
reliability.[217]
c. Tesla described the previous computer as a supercomputer capable of full self-driving.[218]
d. Radar hardware is not installed in Model 3 and Model Y vehicles built for the North American
market and delivered in May 2021 or later, while Model S and Model X vehicles retain radar
hardware.[222] In November 2021, Tesla China also removed radar.[223] Vehicles operating with
Tesla FSD Beta do not use radar even if vehicle has the hardware.[224]

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Hardware 1

Vehicles manufactured after late September 2014 are equipped with a camera mounted at the top
of the windshield, forward looking radar[226][227] in the lower grille, and 12 ultrasonic acoustic
location sensors in the front and rear bumpers that provide a 360-degree view around the car.[228]
The computer is the Mobileye EyeQ3.[229] This equipment allows suitably-equipped Tesla Model S
and Model X vehicles to detect lane markings, obstacles, and other vehicles, enabling advanced
driver-assistance functions branded Autosteer (automatic lane-keeping), Auto lane change,
Autopark (parallel parking robot), and Side-collision warning.[228]

Auto lane change can be initiated by the driver turning on the lane changing signal when safe (due
to the ultrasonic sensors' 16-foot limited range capability), and then the system completes the lane
change.[182] In 2016 the system did not detect pedestrians or cyclists,[230] and while Autopilot
detects motorcycles,[231] there have been two instances of HW1 cars rear-ending motorcycles.[232]

Tesla released a new version of Autopilot in September 2016 that changed the object detection
algorithm to more fully use the radar sensor; previously, primary obstacle detection
responsibilities fell to the cameras and the radar was used in a secondary role to confirm their
presence, but was not given the authority to initiate emergency braking alone. After the update, the
radar data was given an equal role in object detection and made capable of identifying "dense
obstacles" including "other vehicles, moose, or even alien spaceships", according to Musk. He
added that Tesla "believe it would have" prevented the fatal May 2016 underride accident in
Williston, Florida, in which Autopilot failed to detect a white trailer against the sky.[233]

Mobileye ended its partnership with Tesla in 2016, stating that Tesla was "going to hurt the
interests of [Mobileye] and hurt the interests of an entire industry, if a company of our reputation
will continue to be associated with this type of pushing the envelope in terms of safety".[234] Tesla
responded that Mobileye backed away after learning Tesla was developing its own vision-based
sensor system.[235] Upgrading from Hardware 1 to Hardware 2 is not offered as it would require
substantial work and cost.[236]

Hardware 2

HW2, included in vehicles manufactured after October 2016,

includes an Nvidia Drive PX 2[237] GPU for CUDA based
GPGPU computation.[238][239] Tesla claimed that the hardware
was capable of processing 200 frames per second.[240] Elon
Musk called HW2 "basically a supercomputer in a car",
referring to its capacity of up to 12   trillion operations per
second.[241] The Autopilot computer hardware, housed just Tesla HW2 camera and radar
above the glovebox, is replaceable to allow for future upgrades. coverage as shown on the
[242][243] Tesla claimed the HW2 suite of sensors and company's website
computation provided the necessary equipment to allow FSD at
SAE Level 5.[244]

The hardware includes eight cameras covering an aggregate view of 360° around the car and 12
ultrasonic sensors, in addition to forward-facing radar with enhanced processing capabilities.[244]
The radar is able to observe beneath and ahead of the vehicle in front of the Tesla;[245] the radar

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can see vehicles through heavy rain, fog or dust.[246] The eight cameras are mounted in various
locations around the vehicle: three forward-facing, next to the central rearview mirror mounted on
the windshield; two front/side cameras, one each mounted in the left and right B-pillars; two
rear/side cameras, mounted in the left and right front fender turn-signal repeaters; and one rear
camera, above the license plate.[241]

When "Enhanced Autopilot" was enabled in February 2017 by the v8.0 (17.5.36) software update,
testing showed the system was limited to using one of the eight onboard cameras—the main
forward-facing camera.[247] The v8.1 software update released a month later enabled a second
camera, the narrow-angle forward-facing camera.[248] With all eight cameras enabled, data
extracted from Autopilot in debugging mode showed the cameras provide a black-and-white feed
to the computer, possibly to improve image processing speed.[249]

The Tesla Model 3, introduced in 2017, and related Model Y, introduced in 2019, are equipped with
an additional driver-facing in-cabin camera. This was disabled at launch and was intended to
monitor the cabin remotely while the owner was operating the vehicle as an autonomous
robotaxi,[250] but was activated in May 2021 to monitor driver attentiveness while using Autopilot
in vehicles without radar sensors.[251]

Hardware 2.5

In August 2017, Tesla announced that HW2.5 included a secondary processor node to provide
more computing power and additional wiring redundancy to slightly improve reliability; it also
enabled dashcam and "sentry mode" capabilities.[252] During this time, the supplier for the
system's radar components was changed from Bosch to Continental,[253] using the ARS4-B
unit.[254]

Hardware 3

According to Tesla's director of Artificial Intelligence Andrej Karpathy, Tesla had, as of Q3 2018,
trained large neural networks but they could not be deployed to Tesla vehicles built up to that time
due to insufficient computational resources. HW3 was designed to run these neural networks.[255]
Overall, Tesla claims HW3 has 2.5× improved performance over HW2.5, with 1.25× higher power
and 0.2× lower cost.[256]

HW3 is based on a custom Tesla-designed system on a chip called "FSD Chip",[257] fabricated using
a 14 nm process by Samsung.[258] Jim Keller and Pete Bannon, among other architects, have led
the project since February 2016.[259] FSD Chip features twelve ARM Cortex-A72 CPUs operating at
2.6 GHz, two Neural Network Arrays operating at 2 GHz and a Mali GPU operating at 1 GHz.[256]
Tesla claimed that FSD Chip processes images at 2,300 frames per second (fps), which is a 21×
improvement over the 110 fps image processing capability of HW2.5.[259][260] The firm described
FSD Chip as a "neural network accelerator" custom-designed for Tesla AI processing.[240] Each of
the two neural network arrays on a single FSD Chip are capable of 36   trillion operations per
second,[257] and there are two FSD Chips for redundancy.[261]

Each of the eight cameras supplied with HW3 use the same AR0136A image sensor supplied by
Onsemi, which has a maximum resolution of 1280×960 (1.2-megapixel) and a 3.75   µm pixel
size.[262] Initial versions of HW3 also included a Continental ARS4-B radar module.[262]

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The company claimed that HW3 was necessary for FSD, but not for "enhanced Autopilot"
functions.[263] The first availability of HW3 was April 2019.[264] Customers with HW2 or HW2.5
who purchased the FSD package are eligible for an upgrade to HW3 without cost.[265] The system
board for HW3 is the same physical size as the HW2.5 board, but carries more components.[262]

Tesla Vision

In late May 2021, Elon Musk posted to Twitter

that "Pure Vision Autopilot" was starting to be
implemented.[266] The system, which Tesla
brands "Tesla Vision", eliminates the forward-
facing radar starting in May 2021 from the
Autopilot hardware package on Model 3 and
Model Y vehicles built for the North American
market.[267] The Washington Post reported in
March 2023 the immediate result was "an
uptick in crashes, near misses and other
Tesla Vision camera coverage
embarassing mistakes by Tesla vehicles
suddenly deprived of a critical sensor."[268] For
vehicles without the forward radar, temporary limitations were applied to certain features such as
Autosteer, and other features (Smart Summon and Emergency Lane Departure Avoidance) were
disabled, but Tesla promised to restore the features "in the weeks ahead ... via a series of over-the-
air software updates".[222]

In response, Consumer Reports delisted the Model 3 from its Top Picks, and the Insurance
Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) announced plans to delist the Model 3 as a Top Safety Pick+,
[269][270] but after further testing, both organizations restored those designations.[271] Also,
NHTSA rescinded the agency's check marks for forward collision warning, automatic emergency
braking, lane departure warning, and dynamic brake support, applicable to Model 3 and Model Y
vehicles built on or after April 27, 2021,[272] but as of October 2022, those check marks have been
restored.[273][274]

In December 2021, the New York Times reported that Musk had made a unilateral decision to
pursue the camera-only approach and had "repeatedly told members of the Autopilot team that
humans could drive with only two eyes and that this meant cars should be able to drive with
cameras alone." Several autonomous vehicle experts have denounced the analogy.[63] According to
former employees, Tesla engineers attempted to convince Musk that removing the radar could lead
to crashes if the cameras became obscured, but Musk "was unconvinced and overruled" their
objections.[268] Brad Templeton noted that lidar "will never fail to see a train or truck, even if it
doesn't know what it is. It knows there is an object in front and the vehicle can stop without
knowing more than that."[268] In contrast, Tesla Vision relies on the "Autopilot labeling team",[275]
hundreds of Tesla employees that view short video clips recorded by the cameras to label visible
signs and objects, which trains the machine vision interpreter.[268][276]

Initially, data labeling was handled by a non-profit outsourcing company named Samasource,
which provided 400 workers in Nairobi by 2016, but Andrej Karpathy later stated the "quality [of
their work] was not amazing" and Tesla began hiring employees for data labeling in San Mateo,
California instead.[277] In April 2023, it was revealed that San Mateo Autopilot employees had
shared clips internally amongst themselves, including recordings of privately-owned areas such as

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garages, crashes, road-rage incidents, and meme videos annotated with "amusing captions or
commentary". Former Tesla employees described the San Mateo office atmosphere as "free-
wheeling" and noted "people who got promoted to lead positions shared a lot of these funny [clips]
and gained notoriety for being funny." In one case, the submersible Lotus Esprit prop featured in
the James Bond film The Spy Who Loved Me, which had been purchased by Elon Musk in 2013
and stored in his garage, was recorded and shared by Autopilot data labeling team members.
Because sharing these clips was apparently for entertainment and not related to Autopilot training,
Carlo Plitz, a data privacy lawyer, noted "it would be difficult to find a legal justification" for doing
so.[277] After the San Mateo office was closed in June 2022, the Autopilot data labeling teams
moved to Buffalo, New York,[276] where Tesla employs approximately 675.[277]

Tesla announced in October 2022 they would remove ultrasonic sensors by 2023; vehicles without
the ultrasonic sensors would be shipped without Autopark, Park Assist, Summon, and Smart
Summon features initially. However, Tesla promised these features would be restored in the future
through a software update.[225]

Hardware 4

Samsung will make the processor for Hardware 4 at Hwasung, South Korea, on a 7 nm process.
The custom SoC is called "FSD Computer 2".[278]

In June 2022, Tesla filed an application with the FCC to use a new radar in future vehicles;[279]
based on filings with the Chinese government and a prototype Tesla Model 3 spotted in December
2022 while undergoing testing in Santa Cruz, it is believed that HW4 will include high-resolution
cameras and radar. In addition, fans and/or heaters have been fitted to the cameras to prevent
fogging.[280] The Continental ARS4-B previously used with HW2.5 and HW3 had a total capacity
of eight transmit/receive channels, while updated automotive radars have up to 200 channels,
giving it capabilities similar to lidar.[254] However, an updated filing with the FCC in 2023
indicates any new radar that might be included with HW4 is not likely to be high-resolution.[281]

Comparisons
▪ In 2018, Consumer Reports rated Tesla Autopilot as second best out of four (Cadillac, Tesla,
Nissan, Volvo) "partially automated driving systems".[282] Autopilot scored highly for its
capabilities and ease of use, but was worse at keeping the driver engaged than the other
manufacturers' systems.[282] Consumer Reports also found multiple problems with Autopilot's
automatic lane change function, such as cutting too closely in front of other cars and passing
on the right.[283]
▪ In 2018, the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety compared Tesla, BMW, Mercedes and
Volvo "advanced driver assistance systems" and stated that the Tesla Model 3 experienced the
fewest incidents of crossing over a lane line, touching a lane line, or disengaging.[284]
▪ In February 2020, Car and Driver compared Cadillac Super Cruise, comma.ai and
Autopilot.[285] They called Autopilot "one of the best", highlighting its user interface and
versatility, but criticizing it for swerving abruptly.
▪ In June 2020, Digital Trends compared Cadillac Super Cruise self-driving and Tesla
Autopilot.[286] The conclusion: "Super Cruise is more advanced, while Autopilot is more
comprehensive."
▪ In October 2020, the European New Car Assessment Program gave the Tesla Model 3

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Autopilot a score of "moderate".[287]

▪ Also in October 2020, Consumer Reports evaluated 17 driver assistance systems, and
concluded that Tesla Autopilot was "a distant second" behind Cadillac's Super Cruise, although
Autopilot was ranked first in the "Capabilities and Performance" and "Ease of Use" categories.
[3][288]

▪ In February 2021, a MotorTrend review compared Super Cruise and Autopilot and said Super
Cruise was better, primarily due to safety.[289]
▪ In May 2021, consulting firm Guidehouse Insights ranked Tesla last in strategy and execution
among 15 companies.[156]
▪ In January 2023, Consumer Reports rated 12 active driving assistance systems and ranked
Tesla 7th out of 12.[290]

Safety statistics and concerns

Safety statistics

In April 2016, Elon Musk stated the probability of Millions of miles driven between accidents with
an accident was at least 50% lower when using and without Autopilot[2]
Autopilot without citing any references. At the time,    Autopilot engaged
it was estimated that collectively, Teslas had been    No Autopilot
driven for 47 million miles in Autopilot mode. [291]
After the first widely-publicized fatal Autopilot
crash of May 2016 that occurred in Williston, Florida, NHTSA released a preliminary report in
January 2017 stating "the Tesla vehicles' crash rate dropped by almost 40 percent after Autosteer
installation."[292][293]: 10  NHTSA did not release the data until November 2018. A private company,
Quality Control Systems, released a report in February 2019 analyzing the same data, stating the
NHTSA conclusion was "not well-founded".[294] Part of the data verification included scrutiny of
the 43,781 vehicles NHTSA claimed had Autosteer installed; of those, only 5,714 had an exact
odometer reading at the time that Autosteer was installed and airbag deployment data; collectively,
the data for those 5,714 vehicles showed 32 airbag deployments in the 42,001,217   mi
(67,594,407   km) traveled before installation, and 64 airbag deployments in the 52,842,182   mi
(85,041,249   km) after.[295] That means the crash rate, as measured by the rate of airbag
deployments per million miles of travel, actually increased from 0.76 to 1.21 after the installation of
Autosteer,[296]: 9  an increase of 59%.[295]

Starting in 2018, Tesla began publishing safety statistics on a quarterly basis.[297] The data have
been difficult to interpret, as the actual crash counts, baseline mileage, and basic definition of a
crash are not available.[298]: 3  In February 2020, Andrej Karpathy, Tesla's head of AI and computer
vision, stated that Tesla cars have driven 3 billion miles on Autopilot, of which 1 billion have been
driven using Navigate on Autopilot; Tesla cars have performed 200,000 automated lane changes;
and 1.2 million Smart Summon sessions have been initiated with Tesla cars.[299] He also stated
that Tesla cars are avoiding pedestrian accidents at a rate of tens to hundreds per day.[300] The
company abruptly stopped publishing safety statistics after 2021, leading to speculation that after
NHTSA issued Standing General Order 2021-01 in June 2021, requiring manufacturers to report
detailed crash statistics, the number of reported crashes was growing "far faster than Tesla's sales
growth".[297] Tesla resumed publishing statistics in January 2023.[301] The first comparable safety
statistics using Full Self-Driving were released in March 2023; Tesla stated that vehicles operating

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under FSD experienced a crash that deployed the airbag Tesla accident rates according to
approximately every 3.2   million miles, compared to all its self-published report[2] [hide]
crashes with airbag deployment reported to the police, which
Autopilot
occur approximately every 0.6 M miles.[302] engaged
(Reported as millions of miles
Additionally, a statistical analysis first published as a preprint Year / Quarter driven per accident, so higher
in 2021[298] and in final form in 2023[303] criticized the self- numbers imply a lower rate of
accidents.)
reported Tesla crash rate data, as it failed to account for Q3 3.35 1.92
vehicle owner demographics as well as the types of roads on 2018
which Autopilot was being operated.[298]: 3  While the Q4 2.84 1.23

government baseline crash rate used as a comparison drew Q1 2.88 1.24

from vehicles of all ages, operating on roads ranging from Q2 3.24 1.40
highways, rural roads, and city streets, Tesla vehicles are 2019
Q3 3.85 1.56
relatively newer and Autopilot is limited to operations on
freeways and highways.[297] When adjusted for driver age Q4 3.11 1.48
and road type, Autopilot crash rates were found to be nearly Q1 4.86 1.45
the same as using "active safety features" only.[298]: Fig.4  Q2 5.08 1.63
2020
An MIT study published in September 2021 found that Q3 5.09 1.78
Autopilot is not as safe as Tesla claims, and led to drivers Q4 3.76 1.26
becoming inattentive.[304][305] Q1 4.64 0.984
Q2 4.94 1.36
2021
General concerns Q3 5.54 1.58
Q4 4.35 1.52
The National Transportation Safety Board (NTSB) criticized
Tesla's lack of system safeguards in a fatal 2018 Autopilot Q1 6.57 1.21
crash in California,[306] and for failing to foresee and prevent 2022 Q2 5.10 1.54
"predictable abuse" of Autopilot. [307][308] Following this Q3 6.26 1.71
collective criticism amid increased regulatory scrutiny of
ADAS systems, especially Tesla Autopilot,[309] in June 2021, the NHTSA announced an order
requiring automakers to report crashes involving vehicles equipped with ADAS features in the
United States.[310]

Driver monitoring

Drivers have been found sleeping at the wheel, driving under the influence of alcohol, and doing
other inappropriate tasks with Autopilot engaged.[311][312] Initially, Tesla decided against using
driver monitoring options to limit such activities.[313] It was not until late May 2021 that a new
version of the OTA software turned on inside cameras for new Model 3 and Model Y (i.e. the first
cars as part of the switch to Tesla Vision) to monitor drivers using Autopilot.[314] Model S and
Model X cars made before 2021 do not have an inside camera and therefore physically cannot offer
such capabilities, although the refreshed versions are expected to have one.[315] A review of the in-
cabin camera-based monitoring system by Consumer Reports found that drivers could still use
Autopilot even when looking away from the road or using their phones, and could also enable FSD
beta software "with the camera covered."[316]

Detecting stationary vehicles at speed

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Autopilot may not detect stationary vehicles; the manual states: "Traffic-Aware Cruise Control
cannot detect all objects and may not brake/decelerate for stationary vehicles, especially in
situations when you are driving over 50 mph (80 km/h) and a vehicle you are following moves out
of your driving path and a stationary vehicle or object is in front of you instead."[317] This has led to
numerous crashes with stopped emergency vehicles.[318][319][320][321]

Dangerous and unexpected behavior

In a 2019 Bloomberg survey, hundreds of Tesla owners reported dangerous behaviors with
Autopilot, such as phantom braking, veering out of lane, or failing to stop for road hazards.[322]
Autopilot users have also reported the software crashing and turning off suddenly, collisions with
off ramp barriers, radar failures, unexpected swerving, tailgating, and uneven speed changes.[323]

Ars Technica notes that the brake system tends to initiate later than some drivers expect.[324] One
driver claimed that Tesla's Autopilot failed to brake, resulting in collisions, but Tesla pointed out
that the driver deactivated the cruise control of the car prior to the crash.[325] The automatic
emergency braking (AEB) system also initiates sooner than some drivers expect due to a software
error, which led to a recall in 2021 for false activation of the AEB system.[326]

Ars Technica also noted that while lane changes may be semi-automatic (if Autopilot is on, and the
vehicle detects slow moving cars or if it is required to stay on route, the car may automatically
change lanes without any driver input), the driver must show the car that he or she is paying
attention by touching the steering wheel before the car makes the change.[327] In 2019, Consumer
Reports noted that Tesla's automatic lane-change feature is "far less competent than a human
driver".[328]

Regulatory and legal actions

Regulation

A spokesman for the NHTSA said that "any autonomous vehicle would need to meet applicable
federal motor vehicle safety standards" and the NHTSA "will have the appropriate policies and
regulations in place to ensure the safety of this type of vehicles".[329] On February 1, 2021, Robert
Sumwalt, chair of the NTSB, wrote a letter to NHTSA regarding that agency's "Framework for
Automated Driving System Safety", which had been published for comment in December
2020.[330][331][332] In the letter, Sumwalt recommended that NHTSA include user monitoring as
part of the safety framework and reiterated that "Tesla's lack of appropriate safeguards and
NHTSA's inaction" to act on the NTSB's recommendation "that NHTSA develop a method to verify
that manufacturers of vehicles equipped with Level 2 incorporate system safeguards that limit the
use of automated vehicle control systems to the conditions for which they were designed" was a
contributing cause to a fatal crash of a vehicle in Delray Beach, Florida.[331]: 7 

NHTSA announced Standing General Order 2021-01 on June 29, 2021. Under this General Order,
manufacturers and operators of vehicles equipped with advanced driver assistance systems (ADAS,
SAE J3016 Level 2) or automated driving systems (ADS, SAE Level 3 or higher) are required to
report crashes.[310] An amended order was issued and became effective on August 12.[333]
Reporting is limited to crashes where the ADAS or ADS was engaged within 30 seconds prior to the

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crash that involve a injury that requires hospitalization, a fatality, a vehicle being towed from the
scene, an air bag deployment, or involving a "vulnerable road user" (e.g., pedestrian or bicyclist);
these crashes are required to be reported to NHTSA within one calendar day, and an updated
report is required within 10 calendar days.[334]: 13–14  On August 16, 2021, after reports of 17
injuries and one death in car crashes involving emergency vehicles, the US auto safety regulators
opened a formal safety probe (PE 21-020) into Tesla's driver assistance system Autopilot.[335]

Data from SGO   2021-01 were released in June 2022; 12 manufacturers reported 392 crashes
involving ADAS (Level 2) between July 2021 and May 15, 2022. Of those 392 crashes, 273 were
Tesla vehicles, out of approximately 830,000 Tesla vehicles equipped with ADAS. Honda had the
next highest total, with 90 crashes reported out of approximately 6 million Honda vehicles
equipped with ADAS.[336] The NHTSA said Tesla's numbers may appear high because it has real-
time crash reports, whereas other automakers do not, so their crash reports may be delivered more
slowly or not reported at all.[337] Collectively, five people were killed and six more were seriously
hurt in the 392 ADAS crashes that were reported.[336]

SGO 2021-01 also applied to manufacturers of vehicles equipped with ADS (Levels 3 through 5); 25
ADS manufacturers reported 130 crashes in total over the same period, led by Waymo (62),
Transdev Alternative Services (34), and Cruise LLC (23). In most cases, these crashes involved the
ADS vehicle being struck from the rear; only one serious injury was reported, and 108 of the 130
crashes resulted in no injury.[336]

Court cases

Tesla's Autopilot was the subject of a class action suit brought in 2017 that claimed the second-
generation Enhanced Autopilot system was "dangerously defective".[338] The suit was settled in
2018; owners who in 2016 and 2017 paid $5,000 (equivalent to $5,645 in 2021) to equip their cars
with the updated Autopilot software were compensated between $20 and $280 for the delay in
implementing Autopilot 2.0.[339]

In 2020, a German court ruled in a lawsuit brought in 2019 by The Center for Combating Unfair
Competition that Tesla had violated advertising regulations with its marketing of Autopilot.
[340][341][342] Upon appeal, that decision was reversed in 2021 by a higher court under the
condition that Tesla clarify the capabilities of Autopilot on its website.[343][344]

In July 2022, a German court awarded a plaintiff most of the €112,000 that she had paid for a
Model X, based in part on a technical report that demonstrated Autopilot did not reliably recognize
obstacles and would unnecessarily activate its brakes, which could cause a "massive hazard" in
cities; Tesla's lawyers argued unsuccessfully that Autopilot was not designed for city traffic.[345]

In September 2022, a class action lawsuit was filed in the U.S. District Court (Northern California)
alleging that "for years, Tesla has deceptively and misleading marketed its ADAS technology as
autonomous driving technology under various names, including 'Autopilot,' 'Enhanced Autopilot,'
and 'Full Self-Driving Capability' ", adding that Tesla represented "that it was perpetually on the
cusp of perfecting that technology and finally fulfilling its promise of producing a fully self-driving
car", while "Tesla knew for years its statements regarding its ADAS technology were deceptive and
misleading, but the company made them anyway."[346][347] Tesla filed a motion in November 2022
to dismiss the case, defending the company's actions as "mere failure to realize a long-term,
aspirational goal [of a fully self-driving car] [and] not fraud", basing the motion on the private

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arbitration clause in the purchasing contract signed by each buyer.[348][349]

A second class action lawsuit was filed in the same court by Tesla shareholders in late February
2023.[350] The complaint alleges the defendants "had significantly overstated the efficacy, viability,
and safety of [Tesla's] Autopilot and FSD technologies" and those same systems "created a serious
risk of accident and injury", which "subjected Tesla to an increased risk of regulatory and
governmental scrutiny and enforcement action", linking multiple specific accidents to documented
decreases in share prices.[351]

False or misleading advertising

The Center for Auto Safety and Consumer Watchdog I don't think that something should
wrote to the Federal Trade Commission (FTC) in 2018, be called, for example, an Autopilot,
asking them to open an investigation into the marketing when the fine print says you need to
of Autopilot. The letter stated "the marketing and have your hands on the wheel and
advertising practices of Tesla, combined with Elon eyes on the road at all times.
Musk's public statements, have made it reasonable for
Tesla owners to believe, and act on that belief, that a
Tesla with Autopilot is an autonomous vehicle capable  — Pete Buttigieg, U.S. Sec'y of
of 'self-driving' ".[353] The groups renewed their appeal Transportation, Interview with
to the FTC and added the California DMV in 2019, [354] Associated Press, May 2023[352]
noting that "Tesla continues to be the only automaker to
describe its Level 2 vehicles as 'self-driving' and the
name of its driver assistance suite of features, Autopilot, connotes full autonomy."[355] U.S.
Senators Ed Markey (D-MA) and Richard Blumenthal (D-CT) echoed these concerns to the FTC in
2021.[356]

A 2019 IIHS study showed that the name "Autopilot" causes more drivers to misperceive behaviors
such as texting or taking a nap to be safe, versus similar level 2 driver-assistance systems from
other car companies.[357] In 2020, UK safety experts called Tesla's Autopilot "especially
misleading".[358]

Tesla's use of the terms Autopilot and FSD were criticized in a May 2020 report published on
ScienceDirect titled "Autonowashing: The Greenwashing of Vehicle Automation".[359]

In 2021, following more than a dozen Autopilot crashes (some fatal), the U.S. Department of
Justice (DOJ) started a criminal investigation to determine if Tesla misled consumers, investors,
and regulators about Autopilot.[360] Tesla confirmed the DOJ had requested Autopilot and FSD-
related documents in its 10-K filing for 2023.[361] The Securities and Exchange Commission also
opened an independent civil probe into statements made by Tesla and its executives about
Autopilot.[362][363]

In July 2022, the California DMV filed two complaints with the state Office of Administrative
Hearings that alleged Tesla "made or disseminated statements that are untrue or misleading, and
not based on facts" relating to both "Autopilot and Full Self-Driving technologies".[364][365][366] In
August, Tesla requested a hearing to present its defense.[367] In September 2022, California
governor Gavin Newsom signed state bill SB 1398,[368] which takes effect January 1, 2023 and
prohibits any manufacturer or dealer of cars with partial driver automation features from using
misleading language to advertise their vehicles as autonomous, such as by naming the system "Full

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Self-Driving".[369][370]

NHTSA investigations

According to a document released in June 2021, the NHTSA has initiated at least 30 investigations
into Tesla crashes that were believed to involve the use of Autopilot, with some involving fatalities.
[371][372]

In August 2021, the NHTSA Office of Defects Investigation (ODI) opened a preliminary evaluation
(PE   21-020) and released a list of eleven crashes involving Tesla vehicles striking stationary
emergency vehicles; in each instance, NHTSA confirmed that Autopilot or Traffic Aware Cruise
Control were active during the approach to the crashes. Of the eleven crashes, seven resulted in
seventeen total injuries, and one resulted in one fatality. The scope of the planned evaluation of the
Autopilot system specifically addressed the systems used to monitor and enforce driver
engagement.[373] In September, NHTSA added a twelfth accident in Orlando from August 2021 to
the investigation list.[374]

NHTSA sent a request for information relating to PE 21-020 to Tesla's director of field quality on
August 31, 2021. The response was due by October 22.[375][376] On September 13, NHTSA sent a
request for information to Tesla and other automobile manufacturers for comparative ADAS
data.[377][378][379] After Tesla deployed its Emergency Light Detection Update in September 2021,
NHTSA sent a follow-up letter to Tesla on October 12 asking for "a chronology of events, internal
investigations, and studies" that led to the deployment of the update,[380] as it potentially
addressed a safety defect, which requires a formal recall.[381]

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List of crashes in NHTSA ODI Preliminary Evaluation (PE) 21-020[373]

Date City/County State Notes/Refs

Tesla struck a stationary fire truck on
Jan 22, 2018 Culver City California
southbound I-405.[382]
Tesla struck a stationary patrol vehicle on
Laguna Canyon Road at 11:07 am.[383] Later
May 29, 2018 Laguna Beach California removed from investigation as patrol vehicle
was parked out of right-of-way and emergency
lights were not active.[384]
Tesla struck a stationary police cruiser with its
emergency lights flashing on I-95 near exit 15.
Dec 7, 2019 Norwalk Connecticut Driver stated he had been checking on his dog
in the back seat.[385]
Tesla struck a stationary fire truck on I-70 near
Dec 29, 2019 Cloverdale Indiana mile marker 38; passenger in Tesla was
killed.[386]
Tesla struck a stationary patrol vehicle at 10 pm
West on Route 24. Driver stated that Autopilot was
Jan 22, 2020 Massachusetts
Bridgewater engaged.[387]

Cochise Tesla struck a stationary patrol vehicle at 3 am

Jul 14, 2020 Arizona
County on I-10 near Benson, Arizona.[388]

Tesla struck a stationary patrol vehicle on

Aug 26, 2020 Charlotte North Carolina US-64W near the border of Nash and Franklin
counties. Driver was watching a movie.[389]
Tesla struck a stationary police cruiser at
Montgomery 1:15 am on the Eastex Freeway near East
Feb 27, 2021 Texas
County River Road.[390]
Tesla struck a stationary patrol car at 1:10 am
Mar 17, 2021 Lansing Michigan
on I-96 in Eaton County.[391]
Tesla struck a stationary Florida Department of
May 19, 2021 Miami Florida Transportation road ranger truck at 5:30 am on
I-95 near 103rd St.[392]
Tesla struck a stationary patrol car at 1:45 am
Jul 10, 2021 San Diego California
on State Route 56.[393]

In February 2022, NHTSA ODI opened a second preliminary evaluation (PE 22-002) for "phantom
braking" in 2021–2022 Tesla Model 3 and Model Y vehicles.[394] PE 22-002 was correlated to the
removal of radar hardware from those vehicles in May 2021; at the time PE 22-002 was opened,
the NHTSA was not aware of any crashes or injuries resulting from the complaints.[395] According
to some complaints, while using Autopilot, "rapid deceleration can occur without warning, at
random, and often repeatedly in a single drive cycle."[394] The Washington Post also published an
article detailing the surge in complaints to NHTSA over false positives to its automatic emergency-
braking system.[396] By May 2022, NHTSA had received 758 reports of unexpected braking when
Autopilot was in use and requested that Tesla respond to questions by June 20, 2022.[397][398]

Also in June 2022, NHTSA ODI upgraded PE 21-020 to an engineering analysis (EA 22-002),
covering an estimated 830,000 Tesla vehicles sold between 2014 and 2022.[384] Data for

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PE 21-020 had been supplemented by prior information requests to Tesla (April 19, 2021) and
Standing General Order (SGO) 2021-01,[399] issued June 29, 2021[400] and amended on August 5,
2021,[384] which required manufacturers of advanced driving assistance systems to promptly
report crashes to NHTSA.[401] Data from SGO 2021-01 were released in June 2022; overall, 12
manufacturers reported 392 crashes involving ADAS (Level 2) between July 2021 and May 15,
2022. Of those crashes, 273 were Tesla vehicles, out of approximately 830,000 Tesla vehicles
equipped with ADAS.[336]

List of crashes added in NHTSA ODI Engineering Analysis (EA) 22-002[384]

Date City/County State Notes/Refs

Nov 2020 Houston Texas [402]: Report ID 13781-2451 

Mount South
Jan 2021 Involved crash attenuator truck[384]
Pleasant Carolina
Apr 2021 Belmont California Involved first responder[384]
Tesla struck a stationary patrol car at 5 am on
Aug 28, 2021 Orlando Florida
I-4.[403][402]: Report ID 13781-1140 

Sep 2021 Petaluma California [402]: Report ID 13781-1357 

Jan 2022 Desert Center California [402]: Report ID 13781-2201 

The investigation was expanded to an engineering analysis after NHTSA reviewed data from 191
crashes involving the use of Autopilot or related ADAS Level 2 technologies (Traffic-Aware Cruise
Control, Autosteer, Navigate on Autopilot, or Auto Lane Change).[404] 85 were removed because
other drivers were involved or there was insufficient data.[404] It was found that in approximately
1⁄ of the remaining 106 crashes, the driver was not sufficiently responsive to the driving task, and
2
approximately 1⁄4 of the 106 resulted from operating Autopilot outside of limited-access highways,
or when traction and weather conditions could interfere.[404] Detailed telemetry existed for 43 of
the 106 crashes; of these, data from 37 indicated the driver's hands were on the steering wheel in
the last second prior to collision.[384]

The Laguna Beach incident identified initially in PE 21-020 was removed from EA 22-002 as it was
found "the struck vehicle was parked out of traffic with no lights illuminated."[384] Six incidents
were added, making a total of sixteen accidents where a Tesla struck stationary emergency
vehicle(s), including the August 2021 incident in Orlando.[384] In these 16 incidents, NHTSA found
that a majority resulted in forward collision warnings and approximately half resulted in automatic
emergency braking.[384] On average, when video was available, drivers would have been able to see
a potential impact eight seconds prior to collision, yet Autopilot would abort control "less than one
second prior to the first impact",[405] which may not have been enough time for the driver to
assume full control.[406] In addition, the data suggest that Tesla's requirement for Autopilot drivers
to have their hands on the wheel at all time may not be sufficient to ensure the driver is paying
attention to the driving task.[407][404]

Recalls

Tesla issued an "Emergency Light Detection Update" for Autopilot in September 2021 which was

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intended to detect "flashing emergency vehicle lights in low light conditions and then [respond] to
said detection with driver alerts and changes to the vehicle speed while Autopilot is engaged", after
NHTSA had opened PE 21-020 the previous month. After the update was issued, NHTSA sent a
letter to Tesla asking why the update had not been performed under the recall process, as "any
manufacturer issuing an over-the-air update that mitigates a defect that poses an unreasonable
risk to motor vehicle safety is required to timely file an accompanying recall notice to NHTSA."
[408][409]

Tesla issued a recall of 11,728 vehicles in October 2021 due to a communication error that could
lead to false forward-collision warnings or unexpected activations of the automatic emergency
braking system. The error had been introduced by the Full Self-Driving beta software version 10.3
over-the-air firmware update, and was reversed by another over-the-air update the same
month.[410] The recalled vehicles were reverted to 10.2, then updated to 10.3.1.[326]

FSD 10.3 also was released with different driving profiles to control vehicle behavior, branded
'Chill', 'Average', and 'Assertive'; the 'Assertive' profile attracted negative coverage in January 2022
for advertising that it "may perform rolling stops" (passing through stop signs at up to 5.6 mph),
change lanes frequently, and decrease the following distance.[411][412] On February 1, after the
NHTSA advised Tesla that failing to stop for a stop sign can increase the risk of a crash and
threatened "immediate action" for "intentional design choices that are unsafe",[413] Tesla recalled
nearly 54,000 vehicles to disable the rolling stop behavior,[414] removing the feature with an over-
the-air software update.[415]

On February 16, 2023, Tesla issued a recall notice for all vehicles equipped with the Full Self-
Driving beta software, including 2016–23 Model S and X; 2017–23 Model 3; and 2020–23 Model
Y, covering 362,758 vehicles in total.[76] NHTSA identified four specific traffic situations in a letter
sent to Tesla on January 25,[416][417] and Tesla voluntarily chose to pursue a recall to address those
situations,[76] which include vehicles operating under FSD Beta performing the following
inappropriate actions:[416]

1. Traveling or turning through an intersection on a "stale yellow traffic light"

2. Not stopping perceptibly at stop signs
3. Not adjusting speed appropriately in response to posted speed limit signs
4. Continuing straight while traveling in turn-only lanes

The recall, which covers all versions of FSD Beta,[416] will be performed by pushing out a software
update "in the coming weeks".[76]

Notable crashes

Fatal crashes

As of May 2023, there have been thirty-three verified fatalities from thirty cases involving Tesla's
Autopilot test program, though other deadly incidents involving suspected Autopilot use remain
outstanding.[418] Each of these incidents has received varying degrees of attention from news
publications.

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Handan, Hebei, China (January 20, 2016)

ccident in Handan, Hebei, China

On January 20, 2016, Gao Yaning, the driver of a Tesla Model S in Handan, Hebei, China, was
killed when his car crashed into a stationary truck.[419] The Tesla was following a car in the far left
lane of a multi-lane highway; the car in front moved to the right lane to avoid a truck stopped on
the left shoulder, and the Tesla, which the driver's father believes was in Autopilot mode, did not
slow before colliding with the stopped truck.[420] According to footage captured by a dashboard
camera, the stationary street sweeper on the left side of the expressway partially extended into the
far left lane, and the driver did not appear to respond to the unexpected obstacle.[421]

Initially, Yaning was held responsible for the collision by local traffic police and, in September
2016, his family filed a lawsuit in July against the Tesla dealer who sold the car.[422][423] The
family's lawyer stated the suit was intended "to let the public know that self-driving technology has
some defects. We are hoping Tesla when marketing its products, will be more cautious. Do not just
use self-driving as a selling point for young people."[420] Tesla released a statement which said they
"have no way of knowing whether or not Autopilot was engaged at the time of the crash" since the
car telemetry could not be retrieved remotely due to damage caused by the crash.[420] In 2018, the
lawsuit was stalled because telemetry was recorded locally to a SD card and was not able to be
given to Tesla, who provided a decoding key to a third party for independent review. Tesla stated
that "while the third-party appraisal is not yet complete, we have no reason to believe that
Autopilot on this vehicle ever functioned other than as designed."[424] Chinese media later
reported that the family sent the information from that card to Tesla, which admitted autopilot was
engaged two minutes before the crash.[425] Tesla since then removed the term "Autopilot" from its
Chinese website.[426]

Williston, Florida, USA (May 7, 2016)

On May 7, 2016, a Tesla driver was killed in a crash with an 18-wheel tractor-trailer in Williston,
Florida. By late June 2016, the NHTSA opened a formal investigation into the fatal autonomous
accident, working with the Florida Highway Patrol. According to the NHTSA, preliminary reports
indicate the crash occurred when the tractor-trailer made a left turn in front of the 2015 Tesla
Model S at an intersection on a non-controlled access highway, and the car failed to apply the
brakes. The car continued to travel after passing under the truck's trailer.[427][428][429] The Tesla
was eastbound in the rightmost lane of US 27, and the westbound tractor-trailer was turning left at
the intersection with NE 140th Court, approximately 1 mi (1.6 km) west of Williston; the posted
speed limit is 65 mph (105 km/h).[430]

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ccident in Wllinston, Florida

The diagnostic log of the Tesla indicated it was traveling at a

speed of 74 mi/h (119 km/h) when it collided with and traveled
under the trailer, which was not equipped with a side underrun
protection system.[431]: 12  A reconstruction of the accident
estimated the driver would have had approximately
10.4 seconds to detect the truck and take evasive action.[432]
The underride collision sheared off the Tesla's glasshouse,
destroying everything above the beltline, and caused fatal The model S after it was recovered
injuries to the driver.[431]: 6–7, 13  In the approximately nine from the crash scene in Williston,
seconds after colliding with the trailer, the Tesla traveled Florida
another 886.5 feet (270.2 m) and came to rest after colliding
with two chain-link fences and a utility pole.[431]: 7, 12 

The NHTSA's preliminary evaluation was opened to examine

the design and performance of any automated driving systems
in use at the time of the crash, which involves a population of
an estimated 25,000 Model S cars.[433] On July 8, 2016, the
NHTSA requested Tesla Inc. to hand over to the agency
detailed information about the design, operation and testing of
its Autopilot technology. The agency also requested details of
all design changes and updates to Autopilot since its
introduction, and Tesla's planned updates scheduled for the
next four months.[434] Dr. Deb Bruce, head of the NTSB
investigation team, announces
According to Tesla, "neither autopilot nor the driver noticed the results to the NTSB on September
white side of the tractor-trailer against a brightly lit sky, so the 12, 2017.
brake was not applied." The car attempted to drive full speed
under the trailer, "with the bottom of the trailer impacting the
windshield of the Model S". Tesla also stated that this was Tesla's first known Autopilot-related
death in over 130 million miles (208 million km) driven by its customers while Autopilot was
activated. According to Tesla there is a fatality every 94 million miles (150 million km) among all
type of vehicles in the U.S.[427][428][435] It is estimated that billions of miles will need to be traveled
before Tesla Autopilot can claim to be safer than humans with statistical significance. Researchers

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say that Tesla and others need to release more data on the limitations and performance of
automated driving systems if self-driving cars are to become safe and understood enough for mass-
market use.[436][437]

The truck's driver told the Associated Press that he could hear a Harry Potter movie playing in the
crashed car, and said the car was driving so quickly that "he went so fast through my trailer I didn't
see him. [The film] was still playing when he died and snapped a telephone pole a quarter-mile
down the road." According to the Florida Highway Patrol, they found in the wreckage an
aftermarket portable DVD player. (It is not possible to watch videos on the Model S touchscreen
display while the car is moving.[429][438]) A laptop computer was recovered during the post-crash
examination of the wreck, along with an adjustable vehicle laptop mount attached to the front
passenger's seat frame. The NHTSA concluded the laptop was probably mounted and the driver
may have been distracted at the time of the crash.[431]: 17–19, 21 

In January 2017, the NHTSA Office of Defects

Investigations (ODI) released a preliminary Tesla's manufacture of cars equipped with
evaluation, finding that the driver in the crash Autopilot preceded NHTSA's issuance of its
had seven seconds to see the truck and [Federal Automated Vehicles] Policy [dated
identifying no defects in the Autopilot system; September 2016], and that policy applies to
the ODI also found that the Tesla car crash SAE Levels 3–5 rather than Level 2 automated
rate dropped by 40 percent after Autosteer vehicles, but Tesla clearly understands the
installation,[292][293] but later also clarified [operational design domain] concept and
that it did not assess the effectiveness of this advised drivers to use the Autopilot systems
technology or whether it was engaged in its only on limited-access roadways. Following
crash rate comparison.[440] The NHTSA the crash, Tesla modified its Autopilot
Special Crash Investigation team published its firmware to add a preferred road usage
report in January 2018.[431] According to the constraint, which affects the timing of the
report, for the drive leading up to the crash, hands-off driving alert. But despite these
the driver engaged Autopilot for 37 minutes modifications, a Tesla driver can still operate
and 26 seconds, and the system provided 13 Autopilot on any roads with adequate lane
"hands not detected" alerts, to which the markings.
driver responded after an average delay of 16
seconds.[431]: 24  The report concluded Collision Between a Car Operating With
"Regardless of the operational status of the Automated Vehicle Control Systems and a
Tesla's ADAS technologies, the driver was still Tractor-Semitrailer Truck Near Williston,
responsible for maintaining ultimate control Florida | May 7, 2017 | Accident Report
of the vehicle. All evidence and data gathered
concluded that the driver neglected to NTSB/HAR-17/02 PB2017-102600[439]: 33 
maintain complete control of the Tesla leading
up to the crash."[431]: 25 

In July 2016, the NTSB announced it had opened a formal investigation into the fatal accident
while Autopilot was engaged. The NTSB is an investigative body that only has the power to make
policy recommendations. An agency spokesman said, "It's worth taking a look and seeing what we
can learn from that event, so that as that automation is more widely introduced we can do it in the
safest way possible." The NTSB opens annually about 25 to 30 highway investigations.[441] In
September 2017, the NTSB released its report, determining that "the probable cause of the
Williston, Florida, crash was the truck driver's failure to yield the right of way to the car, combined
with the car driver's inattention due to overreliance on vehicle automation, which resulted in the
car driver's lack of reaction to the presence of the truck. Contributing to the car driver's

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overreliance on the vehicle automation was its operational design, which permitted his prolonged
disengagement from the driving task and his use of the automation in ways inconsistent with
guidance and warnings from the manufacturer."[442]

Mountain View, California, USA (March 23, 2018)

Model X accident in Mountain View, California

On March 23, 2018, a second U.S. Autopilot fatality occurred in Mountain View, California.[443]
The crash occurred just before 9:30 a.m. Pacific Standard Time on southbound US 101 at the
carpool lane exit for southbound Highway 85, at a concrete barrier where the left-hand carpool
lane offramp separates from 101. After the Model X crashed into the narrow concrete barrier, it was
struck by two following vehicles, and then it caught on fire.[444]

Both the NHTSA and NTSB began investigations into the March 2018 crash.[445] Another driver of
a Model S demonstrated that Autopilot appeared to be confused by the road surface marking in
April 2018. The gore ahead of the barrier is marked by diverging solid white lines (a vee-shape) and
the Autosteer feature of the Model S appeared to mistakenly use the left-side white line instead of
the right-side white line as the lane marking for the far left lane, which would have led the Model S
into the same concrete barrier had the driver not taken control.[446] Ars Technica concluded that
"as Autopilot gets better, drivers could become increasingly complacent and pay less and less
attention to the road."[447]

In a corporate blog post, Tesla noted the impact attenuator

separating the offramp from US 101 had been previously
crushed and not replaced prior to the Model X crash on March
23.[443][448] The post also stated that Autopilot was engaged at
the time of the crash, and the driver's hands had not been
detected manipulating the steering wheel for six seconds before
the crash. Vehicle data showed the driver had five seconds and
Post-crash scene on US 101 in a 150 metres (490   ft) "unobstructed view of the concrete
Mountain View, March 23, 2018 divider, ... but the vehicle logs show that no action was
taken."[443] The NTSB investigation had been focused on the
damaged impact attenuator and the vehicle fire after the
collision, but after it was reported the driver had complained about the Autopilot functionality,[449]
the NTSB announced it would also investigate "all aspects of this crash including the driver's
previous concerns about the autopilot".[450] A NTSB spokesman stated the organization "is
unhappy with the release of investigative information by Tesla".[451] Elon Musk dismissed the
criticism, tweeting that NTSB was "an advisory body" and that "Tesla releases critical crash data
affecting public safety immediately & always will. To do otherwise would be unsafe."[452] In

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response, NTSB removed Tesla as a party to the investigation on April 11.[453]

NTSB released a preliminary report on June 7, 2018, which provided the recorded telemetry of the
Model X and other factual details. Autopilot was engaged continuously for almost nineteen
minutes prior to the crash. In the minute before the crash, the driver's hands were detected on the
steering wheel for 34 seconds in total, but his hands were not detected for the six seconds
immediately preceding the crash. Seven seconds before the crash, the Tesla began to steer to the
left and was following a lead vehicle; four seconds before the crash, the Tesla was no longer
following a lead vehicle; and during the three seconds before the crash, the Tesla's speed increased
to 70.8 mi/h (113.9 km/h). The driver was wearing a seatbelt and was pulled from the vehicle
before it was engulfed in flames.[454]

The crash attenuator had been previously damaged on March 12 and had not been replaced at the
time of the Tesla crash.[454] The driver involved in the accident on March 12 collided with the crash
attenuator at more than 75 mph (121 km/h) and was treated for minor injuries; in comparison, the
driver of the Tesla collided with the collapsed attenuator at a slower speed and died from blunt
force trauma. After the accident on March 12, the California Highway Patrol failed to report the
collapsed attenuator to Caltrans as required. Caltrans was not aware of the damage until March 20,
and the attenuator was not replaced until March 26 because a spare was not immediately available.
[455]: 1–4  This specific attenuator had required repair more often than any other crash attenuator in
the Bay Area, and maintenance records indicated that repair of this attenuator was delayed by up
to three months after being damaged.[455]: 4–5  As a result, the NTSB released a Safety
Recommendation Report on September 9, 2019, asking Caltrans to develop and implement a plan
to guarantee timely repair of traffic safety hardware.[456]

At a NTSB meeting held on February 25, 2020, the board concluded the crash was caused by a
combination of the limitations of the Tesla Autopilot system, the driver's over-reliance on
Autopilot, and driver distraction likely from playing a video game on his phone. The vehicle's
ineffective monitoring of driver engagement was cited as a contributing factor, and the
inoperability of the crash attenuator contributed to the driver's injuries.[457] As an advisory agency,
NTSB does not have regulatory power; however, NTSB made several recommendations to two
regulatory agencies. The NTSB recommendations to the NHTSA included: expanding the scope of
the New Car Assessment Program to include testing of forward collision avoidance systems;
determining if "the ability to operate [Tesla Autopilot-equipped vehicles] outside the intended
operational design domain pose[s] an unreasonable risk to safety"; and developing driver
monitoring system performance standards. The NTSB submitted recommendations to the OSHA
relating to distracted driving awareness and regulation. In addition, NTSB issued
recommendations to manufacturers of portable electronic devices (to develop lock-out
mechanisms to prevent driver-distracting functions) and to Apple (banning the nonemergency use
of portable electronic devices while driving).[458]

Several NTSB recommendations previously issued to NHTSA, DOT, and Tesla were reclassified to
"Open—Unacceptable Response". These included H-17-41[459] (recommendation to Tesla to
incorporate system safeguards that limit the use of automated vehicle control systems to design
conditions) and H-17-42[460] (recommendation to Tesla to more effectively sense the driver's level
of engagement).[458]

Kanagawa, Japan (April 29, 2018)

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Model X accident in Kanawaga, Japón

On April 29, 2018, a Tesla Model X operating on Autopilot struck and killed a pedestrian in
Kanagawa, Japan, after the driver had fallen asleep.[461] According to a lawsuit filed against Tesla
in federal court (N.D. Cal.) in April 2020, the Tesla Model X accelerated from 24 to 38 km/h (15 to
24 mph) after the vehicle in front of it changed lanes; it then crashed into a van, motorcycles, and
pedestrians in the far right lane of the expressway, killing a 44-year-old man on the road directing
traffic.[462][463]: 2, 9  The original complaint claims the accident occurred due to flaws in Tesla's
Autopilot system, such as inadequate monitoring to detect inattentive drivers and an inability to
handle traffic situations "that drivers will almost always certainly encounter".[463]: 3–4 [464] In
addition, the original complaint claimed this is the first pedestrian fatality to result from the use of
Autopilot.[463]: 1

According to vehicle data logs, the driver of the Tesla had engaged autopilot at 2:11 p.m. Japan
Standard Time, shortly after entering the Tōmei Expressway.[463]: 11  The driver's hands were
detected on the wheel at 2:22 p.m.[463]: 11  At some point before 2:49 p.m., the driver began to doze
off, and at approximately 2:49 p.m., the vehicle ahead of the Tesla signaled and moved one lane to
the left to avoid the vehicles stopped in the far right lane of the expressway.[463]: 11  While the Tesla
was accelerating to resume its preset speed, it struck the man, killing him.[463]: 11  He belonged to a
motorcycle riding club which had stopped to render aid to a friend that had been involved in an
earlier accident; he specifically had been standing apart from the main group while trying to
redirect traffic away from that earlier accident.[463]: 9–10 

The driver of the Tesla was convicted in a Japanese court of criminal negligence and sentenced to
three years in prison (suspended for five years).[465] The suit against Tesla in California was
dismissed for forum non-conveniens by Judge Susan van Keulen in September 2020 after Tesla
said it would accept a case brought in Japan.[466] The plaintiffs appealed the dismissal to the Ninth
Circuit Court of Appeals in February 2021,[462] which upheld the lower court's dismissal.[467]

Delray Beach, Florida, USA (March 1, 2019)

At approximately 6:17 a.m. Eastern Standard Time on the morning of March 1, 2019, a Tesla Model
3 driving southbound on US 441/SR 7 in Delray Beach, Florida, struck a semi-trailer truck that was
making a left-hand turn to northbound SR 7 out of a private driveway at Pero Family Farms; the
Tesla underrode the trailer, and the force of the impact sheared off the greenhouse of the Model 3,
resulting in the death of the Tesla driver.[468] The driver of the Tesla had engaged Autopilot
approximately 10 seconds before the collision and preliminary telemetry showed the vehicle did

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Model 3 accident in Delray Beach, Florida

not detect the driver's hands on the wheel for the eight seconds immediately preceding the
collision.[469] The driver of the semi-trailer truck was not cited.[470] Both the NHTSA and NTSB
dispatched investigators to the scene.[471][472]

According to telemetry recorded by the Tesla's restraint control module, the Tesla's cruise control
was set to 69 mph (111 km/h) 12.3 seconds prior to the collision and Autopilot was engaged 9.9
seconds prior to the collision; at the moment of impact, the vehicle speed was 68.3   mph
(109.9 km/h).[473] After the crash and underride, the Tesla continued southbound on SR 7 for
approximately 1,680 ft (510 m) before coming to rest in the median between the northbound and
southbound lanes.[474] The car sustained extensive damage to the roof, windshield, and other
surfaces above 3 ft 6 in (1.07 m), the clearance under the trailer. Although the airbags did not
deploy following the collision, the Tesla's driver remained restrained by his seatbelt; emergency
response personnel were able to determine the driver's injuries were incompatible with life upon
arriving at the scene.[475]

In May 2019 the NTSB issued a preliminary report that determined that neither the driver of the
Tesla or the Autopilot system executed evasive maneuvers.[476] The circumstances of this crash
were similar to the fatal underride crash of a Tesla Model S in 2016 near Williston, Florida; in its
2017 report detailing the investigation of that earlier crash, NTSB recommended that Autopilot be
used only on limited-access roads (i.e., freeway),[439]: 33  which Tesla did not implement.[477]

The NTSB issued its final report in March 2020.[478] The probable cause of the collision was the
truck driver's failure to yield the right of way to the Tesla; however, the report also concluded that
"[a]t no time before the crash did the car driver brake or initiate an evasive steering action. In
addition, no driver-applied steering wheel torque was detected for 7.7 seconds before impact,
indicating driver disengagement, likely due to overreliance on the Autopilot system." In addition,
the NTSB concluded the operational design of the Tesla Autopilot system "permitted
disengagement by the driver" and Tesla failed to "limit the use of the system to the conditions for
which it was designed"; the NHTSA also failed to develop a method of verifying that manufacturers
had safeguards in place to limit the use of ADAS to design conditions.[474]: 14–15 

Key Largo, Florida, USA (April 25, 2019)

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While driving on Card Sound Road, a 2019 Model S ran through a stop sign and flashing red stop
light at the T-intersection with County Road 905, then struck a parked Chevrolet Tahoe which then
spun and hit two pedestrians, killing one. A New York Times article later confirmed Autopilot was
engaged at the time of the accident.[479] The driver of the Tesla, who was commuting to his home
in Key Largo from his office in Boca Raton, dropped his phone while on a call to make flight
reservations and bent down to pick it up, failing to stop at the intersection: "I looked down, and I
ran the stop sign and hit the guy's car ... When I popped up and I looked and saw a black truck — it
happened so fast", later telling the responding police officers that Autopilot was "stupid cruise
control".[479]

When the driver of the Tesla called authorities to respond, he spotted only one injured man, who
was unconscious and bleeding from the mouth. He told police at the scene that he was driving in
"cruise" and was allowed to leave without receiving a citation.[479][480][481] Emergency medical
personnel saw a woman's shoe under the Tahoe, prompting a search for the second victim, who
was found approximately 25 yd (23 m) away from the scene, where she had been thrown from the
impact.[479]

The decedent's family filed separate lawsuits against Tesla and the driver; the suit against the
driver was settled out of court.[479] The lawsuit against Tesla alleges the company marketed a
vehicle with "defective and unsafe characteristics, such as the failure to adequately determine
stationary objects in front of the vehicle, which resulted in the death of [the victim]".[482]

Fremont, California, USA (August 24, 2019)

In Fremont, California on I-880, while driving north of Stevenson Boulevard, a Ford Explorer
pickup was rear-ended by a Tesla Model 3 using Autopilot, causing the pickup's driver to lose
control. The pickup overturned and a 15-year-old passenger in the Ford, who was not seat-belted,
was jettisoned from the pickup and killed.[483][484][485] The deceased's parents sued Tesla and
claimed in their filing that "Autopilot contains defects and failed to react to traffic conditions."[486]
In response, a lawyer for Tesla noted the police had cited the driver of the Tesla for inattention and
operating the car at an unsafe speed.[487] The incident has not been investigated by the
NHTSA.[483]

Cloverdale, Indiana, USA (December 29, 2019)

An eastbound Tesla Model 3 rear-

ended a fire truck parked along I-70
near mile marker 38 in Putnam
County, Indiana at approximately
8   am;[488][489] both the driver and
passenger in the Tesla, a married Tesla crash in Cloverdale, Indiana
couple, were injured and taken to
Terre Haute Regional Hospital, where
the passenger later died from her injuries. The driver stated he regularly uses Autopilot mode, but
could not recall if it was engaged when the Tesla hit the fire truck.[490]

The NHTSA announced it was investigating the crash on January 9[491] and later confirmed the use
of Autopilot at the time of the crash.[373] The driver filed a civil lawsuit against Tesla in November

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2021;[492] it was moved to federal court in February 2022.[493]

Gardena, California, USA (December 29, 2019)

Shortly before 12:39   a.m. on

December 29, 2019, a westbound
Tesla Model S exited the freeway
section of SR 91, failed to stop for a
red light, and crashed into the driver's
side of Honda Civic in Gardena,
California, killing the driver and
passenger in the Civic and injuring
the driver and passenger in the
Tesla.[494] The freeway section of
SR   91 ends just east of the
intersection with Vermont Ave and
continues as Artesia Blvd. The Tesla
was proceeding west on Artesia
against the red light when it struck
the Civic, which was turning left from
Vermont onto Artesia.[495] The
occupants of the Tesla were taken to
the hospital with non life-threatening
injuries.[496]
Tesla crash in Gardena, California
The NHTSA initiated an investigation
of the crash,[497] which was
considered unusual for a two-vehicle
collision,[496] and later confirmed in January 2022 that Autopilot was engaged during the crash.
The driver of the Tesla was charged in October 2021 with vehicular manslaughter in Los Angeles
County Superior Court.[498][499] The families of the two killed also have filed separate civil lawsuits
against the driver of the Tesla, for his negligence, and Tesla, for selling defective vehicles.[500]

In May 2022, a preliminary court hearing was held to determine if there was probable cause to
proceed with a trial; a Tesla engineer testified the driver of the Tesla had engaged the Autopilot
system approximately 20 minutes prior to the crash, setting the speed at 78 mph (126 km/h). The
Tesla was traveling at 74 mph (119 km/h) when it collided with the Honda. The judge ordered the
driver of the Tesla to stand trial on two counts of vehicular manslaughter.[501] Telemetry data
indicated the driver had a hand on the steering wheel, but no brake inputs were detected in the six
minutes preceding the crash, despite multiple signs at the end of the freeway warning drivers to
slow down.[502] The driver of the Tesla pleaded not guilty in June.[503] The trial, scheduled for
November 15, was postponed to late February 2023.[504]

Arendal, Norway (May 29, 2020)

After being notified that some straps on his trailer had come loose, on May 29, 2020, at
approximately 11:00   a.m., a solo truck driver parked a tractor-trailer on the hard shoulder of
northbound E18, 181   m (594   ft) northeast of the Torsbuås tunnel exit, just outside Arendal.

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illed a pedestrian in Arendal, Norway

Because of the restricted shoulder width, part of the truck was protruding into the right lane of
E18.[505] While fixing the loose strap that was securing the load, he was struck and killed by a
northbound Tesla Model S.[506] The Tesla driver had engaged Autopilot approximately 4   km
(2.5 mi) south of the accident site; as he exited the tunnel and approached the parked truck, he
observed there were no warning lights on the truck or a warning triangle on the ground and he
assumed the truck was abandoned.[505] He then "heard a loud bang, and the car's windscreen
cracked"; after pulling over to the shoulder, he walked back towards the parked truck and saw the
truck driver's body.[505]

The Tesla's driver was charged with negligent homicide. Early in the trial, an expert witness
testified that the car's computer indicated Autopilot was engaged at the time of the incident.[506] A
forensic scientist said the victim was less visible because he was in the shadow of the trailer.[507]
The driver said he had both hands on the wheel,[507] and that he was vigilant.[506] He was
sentenced to three months' imprisonment in December 2020.[508]

The Accident Investigation Board Norway investigated the crash[506][509][510] and published its
report in June 2022.[505] According to the investigation report, the truck driver had failed to report
his stop to fix the strap to the Traffic Control Centre, and no passing motorists reported the parked
truck; consequently, the driver of the Tesla was not notified there was a truck parked outside the
tunnel. The Tesla's driver believed there was sufficient room to pass the parked truck while
remaining in the right lane. Because the truck driver was next to the trailer in the shadow cast by
the truck, the Tesla driver's view of the truck driver may have been compromised.[508]

In addition, the company responsible for planning and constructing the road, Nye Veier AS, was
faulted by the investigators. During the planning phase, Nye Veier proposed a narrower shoulder of
2.0 m (6 ft 7 in) rather than 3.0 m (9.8 ft) as originally designed; this variance was approved by the
Norwegian Public Roads Administration contingent on Nye Veier implementing mitigations. Nye
Veier did not implement the proposed mitigations.[508]

The Woodlands, Texas, USA (April 17, 2021)

A Tesla Model S P100D[511] crashed and caught fire after departing Hammock Dunes Place in The
Woodlands, Texas, a suburb of Houston, at 9:07 p.m. CDT on April 17, 2021, killing the driver and
passenger.[512] According to a police spokesperson, the vehicle was traveling at a high speed and
after failing to negotiate a curve, departed the roadway, crashed into a tree, and burst into

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rash in The Woodlands, Texas

flames.[513] Autopsies showed both the driver and passenger died from blunt-force trauma and
smoke inhalation.[512] Initially, law enforcement authorities suspected that Autopilot was involved,
based on the position of the bodies as found after the crash,[513] but subsequent investigations
determined that Autopilot was not used.[512]

Security footage from the point of departure at the owner's residence showed that when the car left,
the two men were occupying the driver's seat and the front passenger seat.[514] Witnesses stated
the two men wanted to test drive the vehicle without a driver.[515] One man was found in the front
passenger seat, and the other was in the back seat.[513][515] Because the responding personnel
found neither man behind the wheel of the Tesla, authorities initially were "100 percent certain
that no one was in the driver seat driving that vehicle at the time of impact",[513] which the
subsequent investigation found to be false, as the NTSB determined the driver, who was wearing a
seatbelt, was "moved into the rear seat" by the deployment of the airbag.[516]

The resulting fire took four hours and more than 30,000   US   gal (113,600   L) of water to
extinguish.[513] The chief of The Woodlands fire department later clarified the fire had been
extinguished within a few minutes of arriving on the scene, but could not be fully extinguished
because of the presence of bodies, the ongoing investigation, and possibility of being a crime scene,
so a steady stream of water was required to keep the battery cool.[517][518]

Investigators from both NHTSA and NTSB were dispatched.[519] Although the post-crash fire
destroyed the car's onboard telemetry storage, the restraint control module/event data recorder
(EDR), while damaged, was evaluated at the NTSB's recorder laboratory.[514] Based on data
recovered from the EDR, the highest recorded speed in the five seconds leading up to the crash was
67 mph (108 km/h).[520] According to interviews, that afternoon the driver and his wife had hosted
two friends at their house, going out for dinner and returning to the house on the cul-de-sac of
Hammock Dunes Place around 8:30 PM. Alcohol had been consumed. The driver was showing the
car to his friend; after they entered the street, the driver failed to negotiate the left hand turn along
Hammock Dunes Place, departing the road and striking a storm sewer inlet, an elevated manhole
cover, sideswiping a tree, and came to rest after colliding with a second tree at 57   mph
(92 km/h).[512] The Woodlands Fire Department was notified of a "small outside fire" via 9-1-1 at
9:24 PM.[512]

In response to the incorrect early assertions that Autopilot was involved, Elon Musk stated on
Twitter that data logs indicated that Autopilot was not enabled, and the FSD package had not been
purchased for that car.[521][522] During an earnings call in April 2021, Tesla's vice president of

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vehicle engineering pushed back on the news coverage of the incident and added that Tesla
representatives had studied the crash and reported the steering wheel was "deformed", which
could indicate "someone was in the driver's seat at the time of the crash".[523][524] The same Tesla
officer noted a test car's adaptive cruise control had accelerated the car to only 30 mph (48 km/h)
at the crash site.[525][526] On a closed course, Consumer Reports demonstrated that Autopilot
would stay engaged after a person climbed out of the driver's seat by using a weight to apply torque
to the steering wheel and leaving the driver's seatbelt buckled.[527] The NTSB tested an exemplar
car at the site and found that Autosteer was not available on that part of Hammock Dunes.[514]

In an update published in October 2021, the NTSB concluded that Autopilot was not engaged and
both the driver and front passenger seats were occupied at the time of the crash, based on the
deformation of the steering wheel and data recovered from the car's EDR.[520] The frontal collision
disabled the car's low-voltage (12 V) electrical system, which includes the power supply for normal
rear seat door handles. In the event of power loss, rear seat passengers are expected to use a
mechanical release tab in the carpet beneath the rear seat cushions; investigators were unable to
determine if the mechanical release had been used due to damage from the postcrash fire.[512] The
final investigation report, published in February 2023, determined the driver was operating the
vehicle with a blood alcohol concentration of 0.151 g/dL, almost twice the legal limit in Texas
(0.08 g/dL), concluding "the probable cause of the Spring, Texas, electric vehicle crash was the
driver's excessive speed and failure to control his car, due to impairment from alcohol intoxication
in combination with the effects of two sedating antihistamines".[512]

Fontana, California, USA (May 5, 2021)

At 2:35 a.m. PDT on May 5, 2021, a Tesla Model 3 crashed into an overturned tractor-trailer on the
westbound Foothill Freeway (I-210) in Fontana, California. The driver of the Tesla was killed, and
a man who had stopped to assist the driver of the truck was struck and injured by the Tesla.[528]
California Highway Patrol (CHP) officials announced on May 13 that Autopilot "was engaged" prior
to the crash, but added a day later that "a final determination [has not been] made as to what
driving mode the Tesla was in or if it was a contributing factor to the crash".[529] The CHP and
NHTSA are investigating the crash.[530][531]

Queens, New York, USA (July 26, 2021)

On July 26, 2021, just after midnight, a man was hit and killed by a driver in a Tesla Model Y SUV.
The victim had parked his vehicle on the left shoulder of the westbound Long Island Expressway
(I-495), just east of the College Point Boulevard exit in Flushing, Queens, New York, to change a
flat tire.[532][533] The NHTSA later determined Autopilot was active during the collision and sent a
team to further investigate.[534][402]: Report ID 13781-21 

Evergreen, Colorado, USA (May 16, 2022)

In the evening of May 16, 2022, the driver of a Tesla Model 3 left Upper Bear Creek Road in
Evergreen, Colorado and collided with a tree. After the car caught on fire, a passenger was able to
exit, but the driver was unable to leave the car and died at the scene.[535] Law enforcement suspect
that the Tesla was operating in Autopilot.[402]: Report ID 13781-3074 

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Mission Viejo, California, USA (May 17, 2022)

At 10:51 p.m. PDT on May 17, 2022, a pedestrian walking on southbound I-5 near Crown Valley
Parkway in Mission Viejo, California was struck and killed by a driver operating a Tesla Model 3.
After the pedestrian was hit, the driver of the Tesla parked the car and exited it to stand on the
right shoulder of the freeway; an impaired driver then crashed their car into the Tesla, and a third
driver crashed into the two-car wreck, which was in a construction zone.[536] Field report data
confirmed the Tesla was operating in Autopilot when the pedestrian was killed.
[402]: Report ID 13781-3279 

Gainesville, Florida, USA (July 6, 2022)

At approximately 2:00   p.m. EDT on July 7, 2022, the driver of a Tesla Model S traveling
southbound on I-75 exited at a rest area just south of Gainesville, Florida, near Paynes Prairie
Preserve State Park, and smashed into the rear of a parked Walmart tractor-trailer. Both the driver
and passenger of the Tesla, a married couple from Lompoc, California, were killed.[537] A
spokesperson for the Florida Highway Patrol noted "[The vehicle] came off the exit ramp to the rest
area, continued south for a short period, and turned into an easterly direction and that's at what
time we had the collision where the Tesla struck the rear of the tractor-trailer."[538] The NHTSA
confirmed it had sent an investigation team to the site.[539] Data reported by Tesla under NHTSA
SGO-2021-01 confirm that Autopilot was engaged during the crash.[402]: Report ID 13781-3327 

Riverside, California, USA (July 7, 2022)

It was initially (and incorrectly) reported that at 4:47 a.m. PDT on July 7, 2022, a driver in a Tesla
Model Y approached from behind, and then struck a motorcyclist on a Yamaha V-Star. Both
vehicles were traveling eastbound in the high-occupancy vehicle lane of SR 91, west of Magnolia
Avenue in Riverside, California. The motorcyclist was ejected from his vehicle and died at the
scene, while the driver of the Tesla was uninjured after the Model Y went off the road.[540] The
driver of the Tesla was not arrested.[541]

Subsequent CHP investigation showed the motorcyclist struck the dividing wall and fell off his
motorcycle; the Tesla Model Y following behind struck the motorcycle (which was already lying on
its side) but not the motorcyclist. Telemetry data from Tesla later confirmed the Model Y driver
was using Autopilot.[542] Data reported by Tesla under NHTSA SGO-2021-01 also confirmed that
Autopilot was engaged during the crash.[402]: Report ID 13781-3332 

Draper, Utah, USA (July 24, 2022)

A motorcycle rider was struck from behind by a driver using Autopilot in a Tesla Model 3 on
southbound Interstate 15 near 15000 S in Draper, Utah, at 1:09 a.m. MDT on July 24, 2022. The
collision threw the motorcycle rider from his Harley-Davidson to the ground, killing him.[543][544]
The driver told police he did not see the motorcyclist and he was using Autopilot at the time of the
crash. Telemetric data submitted to NHTSA later confirmed his statements.
[542][402]: Report ID 13781-3488 

Michael Brooks, the acting executive director of the Center for Auto Safety commented "It's pretty
clear to me, and it should be to a lot of Tesla owners by now, this stuff isn't working properly and

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it's not going to live up to the expectations, and it is putting innocent people in danger on the roads
... Drivers are being lured into thinking this protects them and others on the roads, and it's just not
working."[545]

Boca Raton, Florida, USA (August 26, 2022)

On August 26, 2022 at 2:11 a.m. EDT, a motorcycle rider on a Kawasaki Vulcan was struck from
behind by a driver in a Tesla Model 3 while both vehicles were traveling westbound on SW 18th
Street approaching Boca Rio Road in Sandalfoot Cove, a census-designated place in
unincorporated Palm Beach County, just outside the city of Boca Raton, Florida. The motorcycle
rider was thrown from her motorcycle into the windshield of the Tesla; the rider was transported to
a hospital, where she later died from the injuries she sustained in the collision. The driver of the
Tesla was suspected of driving under the influence of alcohol and/or prescription drugs.[546]

The Palm Beach County Sheriff's Office later confirmed the driver of the Tesla was using
Autopilot.[542] Data reported by Tesla under NHTSA SGO-2021-01 also confirm that Autopilot was
engaged during the crash.[402]: Report ID 13781-3713 

There have been multiple fatal collisions in the United States during 2022 in which a Tesla
operating with Autopilot struck a motorcycle from the rear; in each instance, the motorcyclist was
killed.[547][548] One theory is that because Tesla has shifted to exclusively visual sensors, the
Autopilot logic to set the gap between the Tesla and a leading vehicle assumes the distance to a
vehicle in front is inversely proportional to the spacing between that leading vehicle's taillights.
Because motorcycle taillights are close-set, Tesla Autopilot may assume incorrectly the motorcycle
is a distant car or truck.[549]

Walnut Creek, California, USA (February 18, 2023)

The driver of a 2014 Tesla Model S was killed after the vehicle he was driving crashed into a Contra
Costa County fire truck parked across several lanes of northbound I-680 south of the Treat
Boulevard offramp in Walnut Creek, California, at 4 a.m. on February 18, 2023.[550][551] The truck
was parked with its lights on to protect the scene of an earlier accident that did not result in any
injuries.[552] The Tesla had to be cut open to extricate the passenger, who was taken to the hospital
to treat their injuries;[553] four firefighters in the fire truck also were injured and taken to the
hospital.[554]

Initially, the California Highway Patrol stated it was not clear if the driver was intoxicated or
operating the car with assistance features,[553] but NHTSA confirmed in March they suspected that
an "automated driving system" was being used when the Tesla crashed into the fire truck, and had
sent a special crash investigation team as part of a larger probe (EA 22-002) involving multiple
incidents in which Teslas operating with Autopilot have crashed into stationary emergency
response vehicles.[555] Tesla confirmed in April the car was operating under Autopilot at the time
of the crash.[556]

Non-fatal crashes

Culver City, California, USA (January 22, 2018)

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On January 22, 2018, a 2014 Tesla Model S crashed into a fire truck parked on the side of the I-405
freeway in Culver City, California, while traveling at a speed exceeding 50 mph (80 km/h) and the
driver survived with no injuries.[557] The driver told the Culver City Fire Department that he was
using Autopilot. The fire truck and a California Highway Patrol vehicle were parked diagonally
across the left emergency lane and high-occupancy vehicle lane of the southbound I-405, blocking
off the scene of an earlier accident, with emergency lights flashing.[558]

According to a post-accident interview, the driver stated he was drinking coffee, eating a bagel, and
maintaining contact with the steering wheel while resting his hand on his knee.[559]: 3  During the
30-mile (48 km) trip, which lasted 66 minutes, the Autopilot system was engaged for slightly more
than 29 minutes; of the 29 minutes, hands were detected on the steering wheel for only 78 seconds
in total. Hands were detected applying torque to the steering wheel for only 51 seconds over the
nearly 14 minutes immediately preceding the crash.[559]: 9  The Tesla had been following a lead
vehicle in the high-occupancy vehicle lane at approximately 21 mph (34 km/h); when the lead
vehicle moved to the right to avoid the fire truck, approximately three or four seconds prior to
impact, the Tesla's traffic-aware cruise control system began to accelerate the Tesla to its preset
speed of 80 mph (130 km/h). When the impact occurred, the Tesla had accelerated to 31 mph
(50 km/h).[559]: 10  The Autopilot system issued a forward collision warning half a second before the
impact, but did not engage the automatic emergency braking (AEB) system, and the driver did not
manually intervene by braking or steering. Because Autopilot requires agreement between the
radar and visual cameras to initiate AEB, the system was challenged due to the specific scenario
(where a lead vehicle detours around a stationary object) and the limited time available after the
forward collision warning.[559]: 11 

Several news outlets started reporting that Autopilot may not detect stationary vehicles at highway
speeds and it cannot detect some objects.[560] Raj Rajkumar, who studies autonomous driving
systems at Carnegie Mellon University, believes the radars used for Autopilot are designed to
detect moving objects, but are "not very good in detecting stationary objects".[561] Both NTSB and
NHTSA dispatched teams to investigate the crash.[562] Hod Lipson, director of Columbia
University's Creative Machines Lab, faulted the diffusion of responsibility concept: "If you give the
same responsibility to two people, they each will feel safe to drop the ball. Nobody has to be 100%,
and that's a dangerous thing."[563]

In August 2019, the NTSB released its accident brief for the accident. HAB-19-07 concluded the
driver of the Tesla was at fault due to "inattention and overreliance on the vehicle's advanced
driver assistance system", but added the design of the Tesla Autopilot system "permitted the driver
to disengage from the driving task".[559]:13–14 After the earlier crash in Williston, the NTSB issued
a safety recommendation to "[d]evelop applications to more effectively sense the driver's level of
engagement and alert the driver when engagement is lacking while automated vehicle control
systems are in use." Among the manufacturers that the recommendation was issued to, only Tesla
has failed to issue a response.[559]: 12–13 

South Jordan, Utah, USA (May 11, 2018)

In the evening of May 11, 2018, a 2016 Tesla Model S with Autopilot engaged crashed into the rear
of a fire truck that was stopped in the southbound lane at a red light in South Jordan, Utah, at the
intersection of SR-154 and SR-151.[564][565] The Tesla was moving at an estimated 60   mi/h
(97 km/h) and did not appear to brake or attempt to avoid the impact, according to witnesses.
[566][567] The driver of the Tesla, who survived the impact with a broken foot, admitted she was

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looking at her phone before the crash.[564][568] The NHTSA dispatched investigators to South
Jordan.[569] According to telemetry data recovered after the crash, the driver repeatedly did not
touch the wheel, including during the 80 seconds immediately preceding the crash, and only
touched the brake pedal "fractions of a second" before the crash. The driver was cited by police for
"failure to keep proper lookout".[564][570] The Tesla had slowed to 55 mi/h (89 km/h) to match a
vehicle ahead of it, and after that vehicle changed lanes, accelerated to 60 mi/h (97 km/h) in the
3.5 seconds preceding the crash.[571]

Tesla CEO Elon Musk criticized news coverage of the South Jordan crash, tweeting that "a Tesla
crash resulting in a broken ankle is front page news and the ~40,000 people who died in US auto
accidents alone in [the] past year get almost no coverage", additionally pointing out that "[a]n
impact at that speed usually results in severe injury or death", but later conceding that Autopilot
"certainly needs to be better & we work to improve it every day".[569] In September 2018, the driver
of the Tesla sued the manufacturer, alleging the safety features designed to "ensure the vehicle
would stop on its own in the event of an obstacle being present in the path ... failed to engage as
advertised."[572] According to the driver, the Tesla failed to provide an audible or visual warning
before the crash.[571]

Moscow, Russia (August 10, 2019)

On the night of August 10, 2019, a Tesla Model 3 driving in the left-hand lane on the Moscow Ring
Road in Moscow, Russia, crashed into a parked tow truck with a corner protruding into the lane
and subsequently burst into flames.[573] According to the driver, the vehicle was traveling at the
speed limit of 100 km/h (62 mph) with Autopilot activated; he also claimed his hands were on the
wheel, but was not paying attention at the time of the crash. All occupants were able to exit the
vehicle before it caught on fire; they were transported to the hospital. Injuries included a broken
leg (driver) and bruises (his children).[574][575]

The force of the collision was enough to push the tow truck forward into the central dividing wall,
as recorded by a surveillance camera. Passersby also captured several videos of the fire and
explosions after the accident, these videos also show the tow truck that the Tesla crashed into had
been moved, suggesting the explosions of the Model 3 happened later.[576][577]

Chiayi, Taiwan (June 1, 2020)

Traffic cameras captured the moment when a Tesla Model 3 slammed into an overturned cargo
truck in Taiwan on June 1, 2020.[578] The crash occurred at 6:40 a.m. National Standard Time on
the southbound National Freeway 1 in Chiayi, Taiwan, at approximately the south 268.4   km
marker.[579] The truck had been involved in a traffic accident at 6:35 a.m. and overturned with its
roof facing oncoming traffic; the driver of the truck got out to warn other cars away.[580]

The driver of the Tesla was uninjured and told emergency responders that the car was in Autopilot
mode,[578] traveling at 110 km/h (68 mph).[580] The driver told authorities that he saw the truck
and thought the Tesla would brake automatically upon encountering an obstacle; when he realized
it would not, he manually applied the brakes,[580] although it was too late to avoid the crash, which
is apparently indicated on the video by a puff of white smoke coming from the tires.[578][581]

Arlington Heights, Washington, USA (May 15, 2021)

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A Tesla Model S crashed into a stopped Snohomish County, Washington, sheriff's patrol car at
6:40 p.m. PDT on May 15, 2021, shortly after the deputy parked it while responding to an earlier
crash which had broken a utility pole near the intersection of SR 530 and 103rd Ave NE in
Arlington Heights, Washington. The patrol car was parked to partially block the roadway and
protect the collision scene, and the patrol car's overhead emergency lights were activated.[582]
Neither the deputy nor the driver of the Tesla were injured. The driver of the Tesla assumed his car
would slow and move over on its own because it was in "Auto-Pilot mode".[583]

Brea, California, USA (November 3, 2021)

The driver of a Tesla Model Y reported a crash to the NHTSA that occurred on November 3, 2021
while operating in FSD Beta.[584] The incident was described as a "severe" crash after "the car by
itself took control and forced itself into the incorrect lane" during a left turn.[585] It is likely this is
the first complaint filed with NHTSA that alleges FSD caused a crash; NHTSA requested further
information from Tesla, but other details of the crash, such as the driver's identity and location of
the crash, were not released.[586]

Armadale, Victoria, Australia (March 22, 2022)

On March 22, 2022 at approximately 6:30 a.m., the driver of a Tesla Model 3 struck a woman
boarding an city-bound tram on Wattletree Road in Armadale, an inner suburb of Melbourne in
the Australian state of Victoria. After being struck, the victim was dragged for approximately
15–20 m (49–66 ft). She was taken to the hospital with life-threatening injuries.[587] The driver of
the Tesla fled the scene initially, then turned herself in to police two hours later.[588] According to
the official report, the driver stated her Tesla 3 was on autopilot when she struck the
pedestrian.[589]

The driver pleaded not guilty to four charges in April 2023, including dangerous driving causing
serious injury, and was ordered to stand trial after the magistrate heard testimony from five
witnesses. The tram operator testified he saw a woman rise from a seat at the tram stop and start
walking toward the tram before she was struck: "I hear a thud, a whoosh, a car went passed [sic]".
The chief safety officer of Yarra Trams testified that "once the tram has stopped... there are big
flashing lights (at the rear of the vehicle), we call them school lights", adding the tram could not
have opened its doors before the crash.[590]

Maumee, Ohio, USA (November 18, 2022)

On November 18, 2022 at 8:21 a.m., a Tesla Model 3 collided with the rear end of a stationary Ohio
State Highway Patrol cruiser in the left lane of eastbound U.S. 24 near milepost 64, where it passes
over Waterville–Monclova Road near Maumee, Ohio, a suburb of Toledo. The cruiser was parked
with its emergency lights flashing to protect the vehicle involved in an earlier single-car accident at
the scene.[591] The OSHP officer and the driver from the earlier accident were sitting in the cruiser;
both sustained minor injuries from the impact.[592]

In December, the NHTSA confirmed they were investigating the crash, which may have involved
Autopilot.[593] Telemetry data indicate that Autopilot was active.[402]: Report ID 13781–4293 

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San Francisco–Oakland Bay Bridge, California, USA (November 24, 2022)

The driver of a 2021 Tesla Model S told the California Highway Patrol that while driving eastbound
on "Full Self-Driving" mode in the Yerba Buena Tunnel portion of the San Francisco–Oakland Bay
Bridge near Treasure Island, at approximately noon on November 24, 2022,[594] the vehicle cut
across several lanes of traffic to the far left lane and abruptly slowed from 55 to 20 mph (89 to
32 km/h), causing a chain-reaction collision involving eight vehicles. Nine were treated for injuries,
and two lanes of traffic were closed for 90 minutes.[595] Surveillance footage acquired by The
Intercept corroborated the vehicle's sudden movements.[596][597]

NHTSA confirmed they would send a team to investigate the crash.[593] Telemetry data indicate
that an automated driving system was in use at the time of the crash.[402]: Report ID 13781–4338 

Halifax County, North Carolina, USA (March 15, 2023)

On Wednesday, March 15, 2023, in Halifax County, North Carolina, a 17-year-old high school
student attending the Haliwa-Saponi Tribal School was struck by a driver in a 2022 Tesla Model Y.
The student had just exited a school bus and was crossing the road to his house when he was struck
by the Tesla. The bus was stopped with flashing lights and its stop arm deployed; the North
Carolina State Highway Patrol initially attributed the cause of the injury to "distracted
driving".[598] The student's father rendered first aid after witnessing the collision, which left the
teenager with a broken neck and internal bleeding. He was flown to WakeMed and placed on a
ventilator.[599]

It is unclear whether the car was in autopilot during the accident, but it is being investigated by the
State Highway Patrol. NHTSA have dispatched a team to investigate.[600]

See also
▪ Advanced driver-assistance systems
▪ Self-driving car
▪ Elon Musk's Crash Course

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External links
▪ "Testing (Semi) Autonomous Cars With Tesla, Cadillac, Hyundai, and Mercedes" (https://www.
motortrend.com/news/testing-semi-autonomous-cars-tesla-cadillac-hyundai-mercedes/). Motor
Trend. July 5, 2016.
▪ "The New York Times Presents: Elon Musk's Crash Course" (https://www.hulu.com/series/the-n
ew-york-times-presents-f22278d1-ef56-40e8-9227-af3a029ca6f4). FX Networks. May 20,
2022. Video documentary.

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tesla_Autopilot&oldid=1156148292"

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