Physics 2 First Mid Material

CHAPTER 14
ELECTRIC FIELD
The concept of Electric Field, comes into play on the basis of

Coulomb Force FC. We have dealt with the latter, last week:
Qq
FC = 1 (MKS) ; (1a)
4π ε0 r2
Q and q are electric charges situated at a distance r from each other…
We can evidenty write the above expression as:
Q
FC = 1 2 q . (1b)
4π ε0 r
Looking at it, we can now pose:
Q
E= 1 2 , (2)
4π ε0 r
and write,
FC =Eq , (3)
and, accordingly,
FC
E= . (4)
q
We call E, the electric field created by the charge Q, at r.
Since force is essentially a vectorial quantity, electric field, will
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Prof. T. Yarman, Prof. M. Arık Lectures
essentially be a vectorial quantity, too. Not to complicate our notation,

though, we do not show this property explicitely, be at this stage.
The main idea in defining the electric field concept, is that, instead
of conceiving electric interaction between the charges Q and q, we
come to assume, say Q, already deforms its surrounding, and, as soon
as q senses the given deformation, it interacts with it.
For instance if Mehmet and Ayşe are attraced toward each other; it
is that, already when she is all by herself, Ayşe creates a given change
around herself, and as soon as Mehmet enters in contact, with this
change, he gets attracted toward Ayşe.
We thusly call that chage, “Ayşe’s Field” ☺) … In other words,

according to the “field” conception, Mehmet, does not interact directly
with Ayşe, but with the field Ayşe creates around herself…
We can state the same with regards to Mehmet:
Ayşe, does not directly interact with Mehmet. She interacts with
the change Mehmet creates around himself…
So, when Ayşe and Mehmet come across each other, it is that Ayşe
and Mehmet interact, not directly, with each other, but they sense each
other, through the interaction of the changes they would have created
around themselves ☺) …
It may happen that, in the real World, Mehmet would be attracted

to Ayşe, but Ayşe may not only be attracted to Mehmet, but also may
want to stay away from him. The opposite too, may happen: Ayşe may
run after Mehmet, but Mehmet may not like Ayşe, and would love to
get disappeared :)) … All the same, in our analogy we overlook all of
these options, given that as a Turkish saying puts it, “no analogy can
be erroneous” ☺) ...
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Engineering Physics 2
In any case the main idea, briefly, is this:
Q and q are supposed not to exert a force onto each other,

directly… Suppose q, is near Q; it does not really interact, according
to the present concept with Q, straight; it interacts with the change, Q
creates around itself. This is how the force exerted by Q on q, is
created.
In this context, Eq.(2), expresses the magnitude of the electric field

the charge Q creates, at a distance r.
The field approach, before anything else, should be considered as a

mathematical tool, designed for simplicity, with regards to the
derivation of the electric field, in complicated geometries, as we will
soon exercise.
All the same, you should recall that the measurable quantity is not
the field, but the force…
1. DERIVATION OF ELECTRIC FIELD IN A FEW BASIC

CASES
Now we are going to underatake the derivation of electric field, in a

few basic cases.
Uniformly Charged Belt
Let us consider a uniformy charged belt (Figure 1). Is it a real thing?

Can we produce it? Yes, we can produce it. You can for instance take
a piece of plastic, and cut in the form of a ruler, so you have a plastic
belt at hand. You should make sure that your shoes are isolated. Now,
scrub this piece of plastic up against your jacket. The plastic belt will
extract electrons from the atoms residing on the surface of your jacket,
and will get charged negatively. Now you need to do, two more
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things, supposing your plastic is made of an elastic material: i) Take

the two edges of it, bend it, and glue the edges to each other. So you
have at hand a circular uniformly charged plastic belt. ii) Hang it to
the ceiling. You can further, if you liked, erect it, in accordance with
the configuration, shown in Figure 1.
Note that, had we have the appropriate material to work with, we

could get a belt charged positively, as well.
We propose to derive the electric field magnitude EBelt, the

uniformly charged belt creates at a given altitude, which we represent
by P, from its center.
Figure 1 Uniformly charged belt. Here, O is the center of the belt, a is the
radius of the belt, dQ is the infinitely small charge picked on the
belt, r is distance of dQ to the location P we pick at a distance h
from O on the Ox axis, Q is the total charge of the belt, α is the
angle between Ox and r; the charge dQ creates at P, the infinitely
small electric field vector dE. (Recall that when we underline a
quantity, we mean, this is a vector quantity.) (The figure is picked
from the internet.)
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Based on Eq.(2), we can now write the magnitude dE of the electric

field dE created by the infinitely small charge dQ picked on the
charged belt, at the location P, situated at a distance h from the center
of the belt (cf. Figure 1):
dQ
dE= 1 . (5)
4π ε0 r2
The vector dE, lies on the r direction; if Q is positive, dE is ori-

ented outward; if Q is negative, dE is oriented inward; in Figure 1, Q
is picked to be positive.
Recall that, during this course, a “positive charge” points to a lack

of electrons. And, a “negative charge” points to an excess of electrons.
We can conceive the electric field vector dE created by dQ, as

made of two components: The first one is d E x , and lies along the Ox
direction (cf. Figure 1); it is thusly perpendicular to the belt plane.
The second one, is d E y , and is parallel, to the belt plane…
Because of the symmetry, Figure 1 offers, we now consider the in-

finitely small charge dQ’, as being diametrically opposed to our origi-
nal charge dQ. The electric field that will be created by the charge
dQ’ can also be conceived, just the same way, as made of two compo-
' '
nents, d E x and d E y . It thus becomes clear that the components
'
d E y and d E y parallel to the belt plane, but in opposite direction,
'
will cancel each other; only the x-components d E x and d E x will
count, and will finally get added up, to each other.
Thereby, we will consider just the x-components of the fields cre-
ated at the given location P, by infinitely small charges picked on the
charged belt.
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We can, based on Figure 1, now write this:
dEx = dE cos  . (6)
By definiton, cosα, is
h
cosa = . (7)
r
Next we use the Pythagoras Theorem:
2 2
r= h +a . (8)
Under the given circumstances the magnitude EBelt of the electric

field created by the belt at the location P, will be expressed as,
1 dQ
EBelt =  dEx =  cosa
Belt Belt 4π ε0 r 2
1 dQ h 1 hdQ
= =
4π ε0 r r 0 (h + a )
Belt 2 Belt 4π ε 2 2 3/ 2 . (9)
1 h
=
4π ε0 ( h 2 + a 2 )3/ 2 Belt
dQ
Here, except dQ, all of the quantitites of concern, are constant, and
will be taken out of the integration operation.
Integration, meant summation; and, if we add up, all of the infi-

nitely small charges dQ’, over the belt to each other, we will come out
with the total charge Q of the belt. Therefore, the result of the above
integration is,
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1 hQ
EBelt =
4π ε0 ( h 2 + a 2 )3/ 2
(10)
What this means, is this: If we had brought a unit charge q=1

Coulomb (C) to the location P, it will be subject to an electric force of
magnitude,
FC = EBelt q = EBelt  1Newton . (11)
If the location P is situated far away from the belt, in other words,
if the radius a of the belt, can be overlooked as compared to h, then
Eq.(10), becomes:
1 Q
EBelt = (12)
4π ε0 h 2
In different terms, the belt will, in this condition, behave as a point-

like charge.
This sounds surely fair. All the same, “The magnitude of the elec-
tric field, EBelt created by the belt at infinity is zero” is one thing,
“EBelt behaves as, 1/h2, as h tends to infinity, is something else ☺) …
We will grasp this, better below…
Uniformly Charged Plate
Now we consider a uniformly charged plate. How can we charge a

plate? If you scrub it up against your jacket, then it would pick elec-
trons from the atoms residing on the surface of your jacket and will,
accordingly, be charged negatively. If you scrubbed a plate made of
glass up against jacket, it would land electrons to your jacket and will
get charged positively. So, you see, how you can charge a plate, either
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positively or negatively. Its material, and the material you use to scrab
it, against, will determine how it would get charged, if you ever suc-
ceed to get it charged.
And what the heck, we occupy ourselves, with gadgets like charged
belt, charged plate, and so forth ☺) …
Be patient a bit more ☺) … So much so that, if we do not make

such simple abstractions, we cannot really get advanced in either basic
sciences, or engineering. Abstraction is the foundation of all kinds of
conceptiualization…
We can choose not to get deepened in abstraction, but then instead

of skyscrapers, we can only build, mud brick houses ☺) ... This is no
doubt nice in a rural area. All the same, we better know a little
mathematics to erect a third floor above it ☺) … Not to know mathe-
matics, is a disadvantage, no doubt… There is worse than this: Not
being conscious, we have no knowledge of it, is a catastrophy ☺) ...
Well, you have at the same time to watch that you do not make too
much abstraction, for, you can get detached from the factuality, and
dive into the mathematics of a non-existing world ☺) … You can as
well end up, in a “time tunnel”, driving a super fast locomotive like a
super crazy professor, to land at either the past, or the future…
Doesn’t all this have a meaninig? To us, most likely not. It well has a
meaning in the fantesy world, but not in Engineering Physics ☺) …
Let us get back to our uniformly charged plate… We like to derive

the magnitude of the electric field, it creates at a location P, situated ar
an altitude z, above its center.
For this purpose we consider a circular surface area of radius r’,

and thickness dr’ on the plate. It will act as our previous uniformly
charged belt. The electric charge residing on it, is dQ (Figure 2).
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Next, we write the magnitude of the electric field, it will give rise
to, at the location P, we visualized, situated at an altitude z above the
center of the plate.
Figure 2 Uniformly charged plate. We consider a belt of radius r’ and thickness

dr’, on the plate. The infinitely small charge residing on the surface of the
belt, is dq. Next, we write down the electric field intensity created by the
given belt, at the location P, situated at an altitude z, above the center of
the plate. We further conceive that the plate is made of concentric belts
like the one we sketched in the figure. The summation of the magnitudes
of the electric fields, created by these at P, amounts to the magnitude of
the electric field created by the entire belt at the given location. The total
charge of the plate is Q and its radius is R.
We conceive that the plate is made of concentric belts like the one
we sketched in the above figure.
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Considering separately the magnitudes of the electric fields, all of

these infinitely narrow belts create at P, and summing the said mag-
nitudes up, will yield, the magnitude of the electric field, the charged
plate creates at P.
Because of the symmetry the posed problem delineates, it can be

right away seen that, the electric field vector created by the plate at P,
will be directed alon the z-direction. If the palte is charged positively,
the electric field vector will be oriented outward. If it is charged nega-
tively the electric field vector will be oriented toward the plate. In all
cases it shall be directed perpendicularly to the plate.
Within the given context, we can write down the magnitude dE of

the electric field created by the charge dq, at the said location P, based
on Eq.(10) (cf. Figure 2), as,
zdq
dE= 1
( )
.(13)
4π ε0 z2 +r' 2 3/2
If so, the total electric field magnitude EPlate created by the uni-
formly charged plate, at P, will be written as,
1 zdq
EPlate = 
4π ε0 ( z 2 + r' 2 )3/ 2
Plate
. (14)
We have yet to express the charge dq, in terms of the Radius r’ and
the thickness dr’ of the infinitely narrow belt of concern…
For this purpose, we define the surface charge density σ, as,
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dq
σ= ; (15a)
dA
this means that, on an infinitely small surface area dA of the plate, the
electric charge intensity occurs to be dq; if so, the charge ingtensity per
unit surface area of the plate is dq/dA, which we precisely called, σ…
Given that the plate is charged uniformly, we can write the above
relationship as well, as,
Q
σ= 2 ; (15b)
πR
recall that Q is the total charge of the plate, and R is its radius…
The infinitely small surface area dA, is the surface area of the belt
of radius r’ and thikness dr’; the charge intensity residing on it, is dq.
It is not difficult to show that the surface area dA, of the said belt, can
be written as if, it were a rectangular surface area of length r’, and
width dr’. We can therefore write dA, as,
dA=(2πr’) dr’ (16)
We now use Eqs. (15) and (16), in Eq.(14):
R 1 z (2 r ')dr '

EPlate = 
4  0 ( z 2 + r '2 )
r '= 0 3/2 (17)
This is not a difficult integral. All the same, we bettter not bother to
effectuate it ☺) … The result is indeed:
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  z 
EPlate =  1- . (18)
2 0  z 2 + R2 
This means that, if we had somehow brought a unit charge q=1

Coulomb to P, the electric force intensity the plate would exert on it
this, will be written as,
FC = EPlate q = EPlate  1 Newton . (19)
If the location P remains too far from the given charged plate, then,
just the way we did with regards to the uniformly charged belt, previ-
ously, we can neglect the plate radius, R as compared to z:
σ  z 
EPlate =  1 − =0. (20)
2ε0  z 
2
Here, you can pay attention to the fact that, EPlate at a first strike,
does not behave as 1/z2, with respect to z (unlike what we had previ-
ously for the uniformly charged belt.)
All the same, assuming R/z << 1, and achieving a more sensitive
calculation, via using Eq.(15b), we are to write the following:
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   
   
σ  z  σ  1 
EPlate = 1− = 1−
2ε0  R  2ε0 
2
R 
2
 z 1+ 2   1 1+ 2 
 z   z 
 
 
σ  1  σ   1 R2 
 1−  1 −  1 − 
2ε0   1 R 2   2ε0   2 z 2  ; (21)
 1 + 
  2 z2  
σ   1 R2  σ 1 R 2 σ π R2
= 1 −  1 −  = =
2ε0   2 z 2   2ε0 2 z 2 2π ε0 2 z 2
1 Q
=
4π ε0 z 2
note that here we came to use the equalities,
1+R /z  1+(1/2)R /z and 1/[1+(1/2)R /z ]  1-(1/2)R /z ;

2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
these are called Taylor expansions up to a third order, which are well
acceptable, within the context of the inequality, R/z << 1, we adopted.
As a consequence we well see that, a uniformly charged plate of

total charge Q, acts, as a point-like source, when perceived by an
oberver situated sufficiently far away, i.e.
1 Q
EPlate = ; (22)
4π ε0 z 2
all the same, mathematically speaking, this result was not as trivial as
what was delineated by the previous example of uniformly charged
belt [cf. Eq.(12)].
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Field Created by an Infinite Plane Based on the Field Created by a Plate
Based on the foregoing derivaiton we can easily determine, the elec-

tric field intensity created by a uniformly charge infinite plane at a lo-
cation P above this plane, via extending the radius R of the uniformly
charged plate we have just considered, to infinity. Thereby we can
write the following equation, based on Eq.(18), in the limit where R
tends to infinity,
σ  z  σ  z σ
EPlane  1 −  =  1 − = . (23)
2ε0  R 2  2ε0  R  2ε0
It is of course interesting that the outcome is independent of the alti-

tude z. Everywhere above or below the plane of concern the electric
field intensity is the same. It is though zero, anywhere on the plane
because of the symmetry.
Thereby a charge located anywhere above or below the given uni-

formly charged infinte plane will be submitted to the same electric
force.
Although this outcome may appear as a first strike as an abstract
one, it is still useful, chiefly with regards to the calculaltion of the
electrid field intensity in between the plates of a capacitor. We are
going to undertake capacitors in a few weeks from now. A capacitor is
used to store electric charges. A parallel plate capacitor is made of two
plates. One uses a battery to carry electrons from one plate to the
other, so that one of the plates is charged positively (due to lack of
electrons we call it that way), and the other plate is charged negatively
(which we call it that way due to the excess of electrons, it has). Under
the given circumstances both plates bear the same charge intensity.
Near the center of the plates, both plates behave as if it were a uni-
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formly charged infinite plane, and contribute equally to the creation of

the electric field in any location, in between the plates. Given that
Eq.(23) is valid for both plates in the given location, we can right
away guess that the electric field intensity is constant and twice teh re-
sult furnished by the latter equation, in between the plate of the ca-
pacitor, relatively far from the edges of it. So you see, Eq.(23) turned
out to be a quite useful result ☺) …
2. MEASUREMENT OF THE RATIO OF THE ELECTRON

CHARGE TO ITS MASS – J. J. THOMSON EXPERIMENT
We have talked about the electron a little bit, through the past lesson.
Recall that the atomic size is about 10-8 the size of a nail, which comes
to amount to about 10-10 m. The proton size is a hundred thousand
times smaller than this, i.e. about (10-15 m)… The electron ought to be
many orders smaller than the latter size.
Thomson was yet able to measure, and this in a striking way, the
ratio of the charge e of the electron to its mass m, structured in such a
tiny space. Let us see how.
Experiment Setup
To understand how Thomson achieved his measurement, we consider

Figure 3. eğiliyoruz… You will see there, how he created electrons,
and had sent them in between the plates of a capacitor…
This latter device, which we will study few weeks from now, and
once again here, consists in charged plates. This can be easily
achieved via the use of a power source, which pumps electrons from
one plate to the other, so that the plates of concern come to bear equal
charge intensities, one havig a vacancy of electrons (+), and the other
an excess of electrons (-). The capacitor can be called “deflecting
coils”, in the present case.
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Figure 3 J . J. Thomson Setup (1897). A battery is connected to poles, which we

call cathode (-), and anode (+). The cathode consists in a metallic plate,
which can emit electrons upon heating. The electrons have practically
zero kinetic energy at that stage. However, they are pushed by the nega-
tively charged cathode, and they are further attracted by the positively
charged anode. Thusly, they get accelerated. They traverse the anode,
through a hole driven in the middle of it, and enter the capacitor, while
remaining in the middle plane of the deflecting coils, along the x direc-
tion, at t=0, with the velocity v0. The upper plate is charged positively,
and the lower plate negatively. The electrons happen to get deflected as
much as y(t), at time t. The length of the plates is L, and the distance in
between them is d. Soon after, they exit the deflecting coils, the electrons
strike a fluorescent screen, and give rise to the emission of visible light,
which informs us, quantitatively how much they are deflected, on the
whole. (The figure is picked from the internet.)
As we have seen right above, the electric field intensity in between

the plates will be constant and equal to twice the value provided by
Eq.(23).
Now, we will focus on just one electron. It lands right in between

the deflecting plates at time t=0, with the velocity v0. The upper plate
is charged positively, and the lower plate negatively… We call the in-
tial direction of motion of the electron, x, and the direction it is de-
flected through, y.
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The electron undergoes a deflection y(t), upward through the period

of time t. At the exit, i.e. at time t=T, its deflection amounts to
Y=y(T).
The length of the plates is L, and their separation distance is d.
As the electron exits from the deflecting coils, it strikes a fluores-

cent screen causing the emission of light, thusly making possible
measuring its overall deflection through its passage, in between the
deflecting plates.
Derivation
Thomson, first wrote the electric force FC, the electron is subject to
[Eq.(3)]:
FC=eE . (24)
Let us stress that, e is the electron charge intensity, E is the electric

field strength reigning in between the deflecting plates; as explained
above, we can consider E to be constant, anywhere in between the de-
flecting plates...
Thomson, associated with the above force, Newton’s Second Law

of Motion, i.e.
F=ma , (25)
where m is the electron mass, and a is the acceleration it undergoes

through its deflection, upward, as sketched in Figure 3…
Thomson, thereby wrote the simple equation:
eE=ma . (26)
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The magnitude of the deflection acceleration a, which is directed

upward, thusly becomes:
a= eE . (27)
m
For a strong E, one can neglect the effect of Earth’s acceleration on

the electron.
Under the circumstances, we can write the deflection y(t) the elec-
tron displays until time t in between the deflection coils, based on the
resutls we have derived in Chapter 3 (which we studied in the Past
Fall Term):
y(t)= 1 at
2
. (28)
2
Here, recall that our coordinate system xOy, was located right in
the middle of the deflecting coils, and the center O of it, along with
x=0 and y=0, is situated at the entrance of the deflecting coils; fur-
thermore the electron entered in between the deflecting coils at t=0,
and its velocity component uprward is zero at that instant; the electron
does not further experiences any acceleration along the x direction.
We can write based on Eq.(28), and using Eq.(27), how much the
electron would have deflected through the period of time t=T, i.e. the
period of time it takes to cross the deflecting coils:
y(T)=Y= 1 eE T
2
. (29)
2 m
Thomson, on the other hand, measured in a very elegant way, the

speed v0 of the electron at the moment of its entrance in between the
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deflecting plates; we will see how, when we will come to study the
“magnetic field”, in about four weeks from now. The given velocity,
as conveyed above, is not altered along the x direction. We can
thereby determine the period of time T, the electron spends in between
the deflecting plates:
L
T= . (30)
v0
With this piece of information, we go back to Eq.(29):
1 eE L2
Y= . (31)
2 m v02
Thusly, we get
e 2Yv02
= . (32)
m EL2
This is just excellent… For, we came to express the ratio of the

charge intensity to mass of a such a tiny particle, i.e. the electron, just
in terms of mascroscopic quantites, belonging to our own world.
While the electron is much too small as compared to the size of the
atomic nucleus, already measuring 10-10 m; we could measure L and
Y, with a ruler; we can, on the other hand, connect a voltmeter to the
edges of the deflecting plates, and measure the electric potantial dif-
ference V reigning in between them. We will see in two weeks from
now, that, V can be expressed as Exd, and d, the distance in between
the deflecting plates, can once again be measured with a ruler, which
makes that the electric field intensity E, created in between the de-
flecting plates can be measured in terms of V, and d, i.e. via means,
again, belonging to only our world; as pointed out before, the velocity
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v0, at the entrance of the deflecting plates, can also be measured mac-
roscopically.
All this makes that, we come to be able to measure the ratio, e/m,
via just macroscopic terms ☺) … This is remarkable, for sure.
Note further that with regards to the setup we presented in Figure 3,

once the initial velocity v0 of the electron, is, one way or the other,
determined, one can even have a great cross check of the value of e/m
we disclosed via Eq.(32). This value can indeed be extracted fairly
well from the relationship, Ve=mv02/2, where V is the electric potan-
tial difference reigning in between the anode and the cathode sketched
in Figure 3; it can be measured easly via applying a voltmeter to the
edges of the anode and the cathode; the product Ve, as we will see two
weeks from now, is the kinetic energy acquired by the electron as it
passes through the hole driven in the middle of the anode, i.e. its ki-
netic energy at the entrance of the deflecting coils. This energy, at the
same time, as is well known, is equal to mv02/2. Therefore one can
immediately write, e/m=v02/2V. You see how easy it is, and we have
once again, the value of e/m, in terms of just macroscopic quantites,
and there are only two of them, i.e. and the velocity v0 of the electron
at the entrance of the delecting plates and the electric potential differ-
ence V reigning in between the anode and the cathode.
Nature does not hide herself…
We can draw a philosophical conclusion from the above derivation,

also our subsequent cross check:
- Nature does not hide herself. Those eyes who know how to look,
will reveal her mysteries.
J.J. Thomson received the Nobel Prize in 1906.
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A Great Engineering Application
J. J. Thomson most probably could not think a bit, how the great
measurement of e/m he achieved, will constitute about a century af-
terwards, the basis of inkjet printers. But that happened :)) …
Let us go back to Figure 3. Let us suppose we can send in between

the deflecting plates an ink drop, either charged positively or nega-
tively, meaning, from which we would have extracted an approppriate
number of electrons, or to which we would have added an appropriate
number of electrons. At the exit, suppose we have a A4 sheet instead
of the screen of Figure 3. This is a great idea ☺) … Effectively, if we
can get the ink drop charged, just we wanted it to be, it will get de-
flected accordingly through its passage in between the plates of the
capacitor, and, finally will land at the targetted location of the A4
sheet ☺) … This is how precisely an inkjet printer works.
Recall that we call the “deflecting plates”, synonymously, the “de-

flecting coils”, or the “plates of the given capacitor”, or in short “ca-
pacitor”.
Next, we erect two devices in front of the entrance of the capacitor.

The first one is the drop generator. It generates ink drops, with known
displacement velocities. The next one is the drop charge unit. It
charges the incoming ink drops, in accordance with the order issued
by your computer.
This way, an ink drop charged appropriately, will get deflected

through its passage in between the plates of the given capacitor, by
just the expected amount, to meet with the given location on A4 sheet,
assigned for it.
Let us not make things difficult. All the same, there are numeorus
engineering problems to be solved over here, since we do not deal
21
with just one ink drop per printed line ☺) …. We do not either have
just one line to print ☺) … Even each letter, will be composed of
many ink drops...
Still, the inkjet printer works, just the way we summarized. It is for
sure, an exceptional engineering product, and it requires decades to
get it work, properly. The subsequent mass production, is a further en-
gineering challenge of course…
3. MEASUREMENT OF THE CHARGE e OF THE

ELECTRON: MILLIKAN OIL DROP EXPERIMENT
(1911-1913)
R. Millikan, was an American scientist… The idea of electron, and

even that of atom, were shaped until he stepped to the scientific world.
So much so that, even the ratio of electron charge to its mass (e/m),
had already been measured by J. J. Thomson (see the previous sub-
section)…
Millikan designed the experiment described in Figure 4, to measure

straight the elecric charge intensity of the electron. Believe us, this is
amazing. For one thing, recall how tiny the size of the electron, we
conjectured, is. Millikan did not directly work with single electrons.
To the contrary, he worked with oil dops. He thought he can get them
bear an excess of electrons, if he sprayed oil drops into the air con-
fined in the tank sketched in Figure 4. Even though the oil drops are
neutral, initially; after he sprayed them in; via collisions they undergo
with air molecules; they either land out electrons, to get charged posi-
tively; or, they would extract electrons, from air moelcules, to get
charged negatively. Although both options, appear to occur, Millikan
22
found out soon that, oil drops via collisions with air molecules, rather
get charged negatively. So, they are left that way, to a free fall, within
the tank sketched in Figure 4. In the upper part of this figure you see
an incoming X ray beam. An X ray beam consists in radiaton, more
energetic than Ultra Violet (which in turn is more energetic than the
visible light is). The X ray beam, via collisons with air molecules
serves to extract electrons, from the atoms of these molecules. The
free electrons created that way, could further captured by the oil
drops, Millikan sprayed into the tank. So we are practically sure that,
oil drops fall with extra electrons on…
Few of the oil drops falling under gravitation, could go through the
hole pierced in the ceiling of the capacitor, taking place in the lower
part of the tank, and enter the electric field reigning there.
This field is directed in the direction opposite to that of the gravita-

tion, and pull upward the falling drops.
Millikan, uses a microscope which is sketched on the right of Fig-

ure 4, to watch the oil drops falling down. He succeeded via adjsuting
the strength of the filed, using a resistance under his hand, to prevent
an oil drop he focussed on, from falling down, and to hold it up, in the
air. Writing the simple equality between the weight of the drop and
the electric force pulling it backward, he came to establish a great way
to the calculation of the electron’s charge. Let us see how…
23
Figure 4 Millikan Oil Drop Experiment Setup. Millikan, sprays in the upper part
of the tank, oil drops. These extract generally electrons via collisions
with air molecules, and get charged negatively. The incoming X ray
beam to the upper part of the tank, serves to ionize air molecules, i.e. to
extract electrons from these molecules, and thusly, helps the oil drops to
tap free electrons and finally get charged negatively. The charged oil
drops fall freely under the effect of gravitation. And getting through the
holes made on the plate, charged positively, and situated right below
them enter the electric field reigning in the lower part of the tank. Note
that this part of the tank consists of a capacitor, sustained by a Battery
which is not shown in the figure, so that the floor of it is charged nega-
tively, whereas the ceiling of it, as said, is charged positively. The elec-
tric field is directed downward, and attracts upward the oil drops, that
went through the hole of the ceiling of the capacitor. Millikan, uses a mi-
croscope which is sketched on the right to watch the oil drops falling
down. He succeeded via adjsuting the strength of the field, using a resis-
tance under his hand, to prevent an oil drop he focussed on, from falling
down, and to hold it up, in the air. Writing the simple equality between
the weight of the drop and the electric force pulling it backward, he came
to establish a unique way to the calculation of the electron’s charge. (The
figure is picked up from the internet.)
24
We make the following definitions.
q: Electric charge intensity of the oil drop.
E: Intensity of the electric field reigning in the lower part of the

tank shown in Figure 4. It can be adjusted, using a resistance to pre-
vent an oil dorp, from falling down.
m: Mass of the oil drop
g: Earth’s acceleration
As soon as Millian succeded to hold up an oil drop he focussed on,

in the lower part of the tank where the electric field E reigns, based on
the foregoing definitions, he could write the following simple equal-
ity:
qE = mg . (33)
The determination of the electric charge intensity of the electron is

hidden in the above equation; it is difficult to believe in, but it is true ☺) …
For one thing, Millikan based on Eq.(33), was able to write down,
the electric charge intensity q of the oil drop as,
mg
q=
E . (34)
He was furthermore able to measure the radius of the oil drop in an

elegant way, which though we will overlook over here, not to get lost
in the details. It is even possible to measure it nowadays, with a mi-
croscope much more developed than what Millikan used.
The density ρ of the oil is kown. We can thus write the mass m of
the oil drop as,
25
4 
m = ρ π r3  ; (35)
3 
Earth’s acceleration g, is known to be 9.81 m/s2; the only other pa-

rameter we have to pin down, is the electric field intensity E reigning
in the lower part of Millikan’s tank…
The electric field intensity E can be determined just the way we

did above with regards to J. J. Thomson Experiment. It is thus suffi-
cient to apply a voltmeter in between the plates of the capacitor, situ-
ated on the bottom of Millikan’s tank, and measure the difference of
potential V coming into play. Therefore E becomes,
V
E= ; (36)
d
here d is the distance in between the plates of the capacitor in consid-

eration.
Now we rewrite Eq.(34), via the help of Eq.(36):
mgd
q= . (37)
V
This is how precisely Millikan succeeded to calcualte q.
He made countless measurements… Most likely, oil spilled on all

over his clothes ☺) … He came our with numerous results: q1, q2, q3,
…, qI, no matter what, some of which were equal to each other.
The results he came out with, in any case, occurred to be an integer

number n=1, 2, 3 times a charge intensity e… In other words, a given
oil drop’s charge intensity qi, along with the integer ni either 1 or 2 or
3, or perhaps 4, became to be:
26
qi=nie . (38)
Under the given circumstances, there is firm reason to believe that,

e in effect, is the electron’s charge intensity.
Millikan received Nobel prize in 1923.…
The value of e Millikan measured turns out, respectively in CGS

and MKS unit systems, to be:
e = 4.8×10-10 esb (electrostatic unit) (39a)
e = 1.6×10-19 Coulomb . (39b)
The value of the electron mass m, accordingly, based on J. J.

Thomson Experiment, in CGS and MKS unit systems, respectively
becomes:
me = 0.9×10-27 g , (40a)
me = 0.9×10-30 kg . (40b)
4. MICROWAVE OWEN
Microwave owen (MO) constitutes another example to the electric

field application. Here again we will witness how basic science and
engineering embrace with each other.
In MO operation, there are two principal elements: i) Dipole, ii) a

field, changing its orientation, along with the application of an alter-
nating current…
Dipole means, a pair of poles. The water molecule (Figure 5), is an
example of it. If there were no dipoles the MO would not work ☺) …
27
Figure 5 The water molecule: H-O-H. We have an oxygen atom (O) in the middle.
It is made of 8 protons coupled with 8 neutrons, in the nucleus, and 8
electrons. Two hydrogen atoms (H) are bound to O. H atom is made of 1
proton and 1 electron. The protons of the O atom attract the H atoms’
electrons toward itself. This is how essentially the H atoms are bound to
the O atom. All the same, the O atom, having attracted two electrons in its
vicnity, comes to be charged negatively; its charge is q -=-2e. Likewise the
H atoms are charged positively, each bearing a charge of e. At the final
stage, the H-O-H molecule appears like a dipole, bearing a charge of q -=-
2e at the level of the O atom, and a charge of q +=2e in total, at the level of
the H atoms. This is this pair of charges which we call dipole. Because
the protons of the H atom repel each other, the H-O-H, molecule delneate
an angle of 104.5 degrees as seen above. (The figure is picked up from the
internet.)
Now let us see, what we mean by “we need an alternating current

to get the Microwave Owen (MO) work”. We will deal with electric
current, in about a month from now. Still we can recall that when we
turn on light, say, in the class room, or anywhere in fact, we come to
apply to the free electrons residing in the electric current carrying
wire, an electric field. This means that the free electrons in the wire
become subject to an electric force, in accordanve with Eq.(3), i.e.
FC = Eq … In general any electric charge facing an electric field,
will be subject to an electric force.
28
Now suppose we place in the MO (Figure 5), a food embodying

water, for example chicken. We push the botton of the owen and get it
work. By doing so, we come to apply the electric field, present in the
current carrying cable behind to the owen. The electric field pushes
the positive chargea and attracts the negavie charges, which makes
rotate the water molecules (cf. Figure 6) present in the piece of
chicken, we placed in our owen.
The electric current we have in our owen, is an alternative current.

From our stand point, this means, that the electric field created by it,
in the owen, changes its direction, alternatingly, in effect about fifty
times a second.
Since the direction of the electric field gets changed, so will do the
direction of rotation of water molecules residing inside the body of
our chicken
So while water molecules will tend to get rotated in both directions

of concern, the chicken body will resist to such a motion, which
makes the chicekn get heated up.
This is how the chiken is heated in the microwave owen. It can

even boil…
There is a Turkish saying, which goes like this:
- What happened to him (anyone), did not ever happen to a

boiled chicken.
But this is older than the Microwave owen ☺) ...
29
Figure 6 We have a dipole, say a water molecule (cf. Figure 5). We apply an
electric field E to it. This repels the positive charge of the dipole, and
conjointly attracts the negative pole of it. Thereby, the dipole rotates. If
allowed that way it will rotate until it get aligned with the electric field
vector. If the electric field is created by an alternatig current, then its
direction will get altered, and this about fifty times a second, which in
ruturn will make rotate the dipole of concern, in one direction, and in the
oppposite direction, and then again in the first direction, and so on. Any
food embodying water inside, is cooked that way, precisely in the
microwave owen. (The figure is picked up from the internet.)
30
QUESTIONS
Question 1
a) In J. J. Thomson experiment (1897), an electron moving

horizontally with a constant speed v0 enters in between the
horizontal plates of a capacitor. The electric field strength between
the plates of length L and distance d, is E. The vertical deviation of
the electron at the moment of exit from the field region is measured
to be Y. Derive the expression giving the electron’s charge to mass
ratio, i.e. e/m to be 2 v 02 Y/(EL 2 ) . (Recall that Thomson received
Nobel Prize for his achievement.)
b) Calculate e/m, knowing the following data. E=1.6x104

Newton/Coulomb, L=10 cm, Y=2.9 cm, v=2.19104 km/s. (Be
careful to use coherent units.)
Question 2
An ink jet printer throws out ink drops bearing the following
properties: The drop mass is m=5.010-8 gram. The drop charge is q=-
610-13 Coulomb. The drops are ejected in a direction perpendicular to
the electric field of the capacitor, which will deflect them. The field
intensity is E=2106 Volt/m. The drop’s initial velocity is v0. The
plate length L of the capacitor is 4 cm. The distance d in between the
plates is 3 mm.
+ + + + + +
m vo Y
q
_ _ _ _ _ _ _
L
31
a) Neglect the drop’s weight under Earth’s gravity. Thus show that
the deflection Y, exhibited by the given drop, at the exit of the
capacitor is given by Y = q EL2 /(2mv 02 ) . (It is exciting to notice
that the technology of concern is developed based on the
experiment J. J. Thomson’un had performed in 1897, to measure
the ratio of the electron’s charge to its mass.)
b) In order to derive the above relationship, we have neglected, the
weight W=mg of the drop. Justify this assumption via comparing
W with the electric force intensity F=|q|E, deflecting it, upward,
through its cruise inside the capacitor. Take Earth’s acceleration g
= 10m/s2.
c) If we wished to have a total deflection Y = 0.5 mm, what should
then be the drop’s initial velocity v0? Make sure that you use
coherent units…
d) What should be the electric potential difference between the plates
of the capacitor, to secure the given electric field.
Question 3
a) Write the equation describing the charge of oil drop which is
written by Millikan during his oil drop experiment. Explain oil
drop experiment clearly.
b) This experiment shows that the electical charge is quantized.
Explain how?
c) By using given quantities calculate the charge of oil drop in terms
of electron charge.
Radius of oil drop R= 2.810-3 mm
Density of oil drop  =0.9 g/cm3
Magnitude of electric field between the plates of the capacitor
E = 1.6106 Newton / Coulomb.
Gravitational acceleration g can be taken as 10 m/s2 .
32
Question 4
a) Find the electric field at the center of the semicircle of radius R

which has uniform charge Q.
b) If a charge q is placed at the point measured by the distance R, what

would be the direction and magnitude of the force acting on the
charge q?
Question 5
A “Dipole”, is composed of two opposite electric charges, but of the

same intensity; the charges are very close to each other. For example
the water molecule H2O delineates a dipole, as follows: H-O-H forms
an angle of 105 degrees. The oxygen atom O bearing 8 protons in its
nucleus, attracts the electrons of the hydrogen atoms. This way a
dipole of 2+ ve 2- at a distance of 1 Angstrom (10-8 cm) is formed. On
the other hand, in a microwave oven, the idea is to apply an
alternating electric field E on a dipole. Anyway you can recall that in
our kitchens, what is used is an alternative current. Now, suppose that
we have a dipole [q+, q-] separated by a distance D from each other,
and displaying an angle  with the electric field E of concern.
a) Draw the electric forces applied by the field on the dipole, along
with their components perpendicular to D and parallel to D. Since
the componetns perpendicular to D are in opposite directions, what
33
would happen to the dipole? Explain. Under these circumstances

how is for instance a chicken cooked in a microwave oven?
b) Consider a ceramic material such as a table plate. How come it is

not heated in a microwave oven? Would it get heated, if it had a
chicken on? Explain.
34
CHAPTER 15
Prof. T. Yarman, Prof. M. Arık
GAUSS LAW
Lectures
Gauss Law, in short, is the elaborated form of Coulomb’s Law, we
dealt with in Chapter 13. Coulomb’s Law, states in effect Coulomb’s
Force (FC).
ENGINEERING
We used to write it, as,
PHYSICS - 2
1 Qq
FC = (MKS) ; (1)
4π ε0 r 2
Tolga Yarman, Metin Arık, Azmi Ali Altıntaş, Nimet Zaim,
here Q and q, are electric charges situated at a distance r from each
Vural Altın, Ahmet Altındal, Şahin Aktaş, Sıddık Yarman,
other; in MKS Unit System they are measured in terms of Coulomb;
Faruk
ε0, is the permittivity of Yarman, Eda Goldenberg
empty space; it relates to the transmittance
capability of electric field, of empty space, such that, in MKS Unit
System, we write, Our Student Assistants:
C. Yeşilyurt, F. G. Arkan, D. Sarıcalar, B. Güngör,
1  9×109B. Doğrul, O. Erer, G. Boztepe, T. Tiryaki,
. (2)
4π ε0 S. Deveci, Ş. Önder, Y. Tokgöz, E. İ. Özer, E. Güven, P. Güvenç
Before we state Gauss Law, first we

January have to understand the “flux”
2021
concept, in general, and then the “electric field flux”.
1. FLUX AND ELECTRIC FIELD FLUX
“Flux”, is related to “flow”. So when something flows, it gives rise to

a flux, pointing to how much of the given quantity, flows through a
ISTANBUL
unit area perpendicular to the OKAN
flow UNIVERSITY
direction, and per second. Any
DEPARTMENT OF ENGINEERING
current has got a flux. For instance a river carries a given amount of
water, through a given cross sectional area of it, per second… This
would be called flux, if we refer to a unit cross sectional area. This is
1
yet a directional flux ☺) , since it has a direction. And flux, is rather

an integrated quantity that embodies, as well reverse currents, if any…
Anyway we leave this detail, aside.
Rain Flux
Consider a rain. The ground receives, a given number of rain per unit
area, per second. We call this, rain flux ϕrain. For example, if we write,
kg
rain = 100 , (3)
m  year
2
this comes to mean, “the ground receives a total of 100 kg of rain, per
square meter, per year”, no matter what direction the rain comes from.
It is evident that to rain drops are to drop, after they break off the
clouds to the ground, under the gravitational pull. So, here, it is
question of a “rain flow”.
If something flows, then it must have a flow speed. Let us

denominate it by the vector v. Recall that when we underline a
quantity, we mean a vector quantity; i.e. this quantity has got a
direction. If the rain is raining with the velocity v; this means the rain
drops move along the direction defined by their velocity v. Let us
suppose the velocity v meters / second, is directed vertically. Let
further A, be a rectangular surface area lying on a ground, supposed to
be horiziontal… The rain drops that will land per second, on the given
surface area, will consist in those drops contained in the volume of
base A, and height v=|v|, if we pictured the whole thing at a given
time t, supposing of course, we have a stationary rain. In other words,
those drops pictured within the volume, V=Axv, will land at A, per
second. Since the rain drops move with the velocity v meters / second,
those drops pictured a the given time t, and situated below the altitude
2
v meters, when measured from A, will indeed land at A, during 1

second; those drops pictured at the given time t, above the height v
meters, still from A, will not be able to attain the ground during the
unit period of time (1 second), we have considered.
Since, under the given circumstances, the rain drops that will fall
during 1 second, on the surface area A, are those contained in the
volume V=A (m2) x v m; the drops that will fall during the same
period of time, but now, on a unit surface area, will be those confined
in the volume 1xv m3, above A.
When we picture a stationary rain at a given time t, we could find

out the specific volume ρ kg of rain drops in a unit volume, say 1 m3.
This information allows us to write down the mass (in kg), of rain that
will fall on the ground in 1 second: 1xvxρ kg.
Mathematical Expression of Rain Flux
Along with the latter piece of information we can then generalize

Eq.(3):
kg
rain = v  . (4)
m  second
2
This is the amount of rain that comes in vertically, with the velocity
v, and falls to an horizontal surface area of 1 m2, during a period of
time of 1 second.
Up to here, we assumed that rain drops fall vertically… We now

consider the general case, where the rain dops fall through an angle θ,
they draw with the vertical. Let us then call n the unit vector, along the
vertical, i.e. directed downward (Figure 1). Thusly, the rain drops fall
velocity v makes an angle θ with n. Under the given circumstances,
3
the rain drops that will fall on the surface area A, lying on the
horizontal plane, are those, which will cross the surface area A’,
obtained via the projection of A on a plane perpendicular to v. In other
words, the number of the rain drops, that actually falls on A, in the
given general case, is smaller as much as as much as cosθ, than the
number of those which used to fall on it, in the previous case where A
was perpendicular to v.
Figure 1: Rain drops falling with the velocity v make an angle θ with the vertical
unit vector n; they strike the surface area A, lying in the horizontal
direction. We can see that the rain drops that will fall on A, are those
which will cross the surface area A’, obtained via the projection of A on
a plane perpendicular to v. One can see further that A’=A cosθ. Note
that, the angle θ between n and v is equal to the angle between A and A’.
Thereby we rewrite Eq.(4), in the general case to read as,
kg
rain = vcosθ ρ . (5)
m  second
2
4
Mathematicians love to get things compact, also quite complex, via

introducing more definitions, and symbols ☺) … Look how they
express vcosθ:
v.n= v  n cosθ=v×1  cosθ =vcosθ . (6)
Here v.n is called the scalar vector product of v and n… After all,
it is not a vectorial quantity, and is straight, a scalar quantity. This
means, we consider the magnitudes of both vectors in consideration,
we multiply them, and further we multiply the resulting product by the
cosine of the angle these two vectors make with each other. Then we
get the final result, i.e. vcosθ. While the scalar vector product v.n
looks surely more easthetic than vcosθ, still it says nothing more than
vcosθ ☺) … One thing to be noticed yet, is that the latter quantity,
means the magnitude of the projection of the velocity v on the
direction of the unit vector n. In other words it is the magnitude of the
component v of along n.
Expression of Flux in Terms of Scalar Vector Product
We further rewrite Eq.(5), with the latter piece of information:
kg
rain = v.n ρ . (7)
m  second
2
This was somewhat lengthy, but we landed finally, at the

expression of the concept of flux, be this, on the basis of rain drops
flux. The main idea is that, the flux concept is nailed to the vector
scalar product, v.n in the case we have just reviewed. …
5
Infinitely Small Flux
We have defined the quantity rain , as referred to a unit surface area.

Thereafter if we wanted to consider the related flux d rain , as referred
to an infintely small surface area dA, then we should write:
drain = v.n  dA . (8)
We can further define a new vector:
U=vρ . (9)
We can thusly rewrite Eq.(8), with this:
d = U.n dA . (10)
Flux of the Vector U
What is primordial over here, is that we define the infinitely small flux
of the vector U through the surface area dA. This is what we call d ,
exactly.
So, we have a surface of area A. The vector U crosses A. We pick a

point on it, which we call P. We delineate an infinitely small surface
area dA, on A, around the location P. We draw the normal unit vector
to A at P, which we call n. The angle between U and n is θ. The scalar
product of the vectors U and n is by definition, Ucosθ [cf. Eq.(6)]. The
latter quantity on the other hand, is by definiton, the magnitude of the
compoent of the projection of the vector U on the direction of n.
So, once again, dϕ, is called the flux of the vector U through the
surface area dA.
We can further call Un, the magnitıde of the component of U along
6
the direction of the unit vector n, and express the infinitely small flux
dϕ, following Eq.(10), as,
d = U n dA . (11)
Both Eqs. (10) and (11) are general, and now we can apply them to
an electric field.
Electric Field Flux
Now we consider the electric field vector E, which pops out of the
above Eq.(1) [Eq.(2), Chapter 14]:
1 Q
E= i; (12)
4π ε0 r 2
here Q is the source charge intensity; E is expressed at a distance r

from the source charge; i is the unit vector along the vector E. If Q is
positive then i is directed outward, and if Q is negative i is directed
inward…
Now consider Figure 2, where we picture an arbitrary surface area

S, through which we have a flow of electric field. The field takes the
value of E at a given location P, on S. We depict an infinitely small
surface area dA, lying on the given surface S, around the given
location P.
Thus the flux d of E, through dA, will be written as
d = E.n dA ; (13)
n, is the unit vector drawn perpendicularly and outward to S, at P.
7
We can further call En, the magnitude of of the projection of the

electric field vector E on n. We can accordingly rewrite Eq.(13) as,
d = En dA . (14)
Figure 2 Electric field flux. We consider an arbitrary surface S, through which we

have a flow of electric field. The field takes the value of E at a given
location P, on S. We depict an infinitely small surface area dA, lying on
the given surface around the given location P. Thus the flux d of E,
through dA, will be written as d = E .n dA ; n, is the unit vector
drawn perpendicularly and outward to S, at the location P.
It might well be that, the electric field occurring at P in Figure 2, is

not created by just one source charge Q, but might be the resultant of
electric fields, each created by a separarate electric charge, such as,
Q1, Q2, … Qj, …, QJ. We wll call the given electric fields, respectively,
E1, E2, … Ej …, EJ. Note that the charges of concern may be positive
or negative. Under the given circumstances the resultant ETotal of all of
the given fields, at the location P will be expressed as,
8
J
EToplam =E1 +E2 +...+E j +...+E J = E j . (15)
j=1
This is a vectorial summation. The way we effectuate this

summation is this: We align the given vectors, created at the location
P, in a particular way. Thusly, we start at P, with the first vector E1;
we add up the next vector E2, to the edge of E1, but caring to lie it
exactly along the direction parallel to its direction at P; we add up
then the next vector E3, to the edge of E2, but here again caring to lie
E3 along the direction parallel to its direction at P; and, we continue
doing the same operation until we add up the vector EJ in the same
manner, to the edge of the previous one, i.e. EJ-1. Finally we join the
point P and the edge of the last vector we operated with, and this
provides us with the resultant vector, both in magnitude and direction.
Let us write further the algebraic summation of electric charges:

J
QTotal = Q1 + Q2 + ... + Q j + ... + QJ =  Q j . (16)
j =1
We have to precise that this an algebraic summation. That is, if we

have at hand, 2 units of + charges, and 5 units of – charges, their
summation will lead –3 units of charges.
We can now rewrite Eq.(13), on the basis of ETotal at the given

location P:
d = E Total . n dA . (17)
9
Let us precise that n, is the unit vector perpendicular to the given

surface S (cf. Figure 2), at the location P, and dA is the infinitely small
surface we picked on S, around P.
Not to load unccessarily our symbols, we will from here on write

E, instead of ETotal. Thus,
d =E.n dA . (18)
Likewise we will call Q, the result of our albraic summation QTotal
of the electric charges, in quesion.
Note that, we can furhter write the above equation, in terms of the
magnitude En of the component of the electric field vector E along the
direction of the unit vector n, as,
d = En dA . (19)
2. GAUSS LAW
Now we consider a volume embodying a number of J positive an

negative charges. We cover up this volume by any closed surface,
which we call Gauss Surface (GS). It is more precisely called “Gaus-
sian Surface”, but we will keep it short and call it straight Gauss Sur-
face. Do not mix GS, with our famous football Club Galatasaray ☺) ...
Gauss Law’s Assertion
Gauss Law says this:
- If we integrate the infinitely small electric field flux, dϕ

[Dk.(18)], over the closed Gauss Surface (GS), we will find the
10
algebraic summation of the charges encompassed by GS,

divided by ε0, i.e. the permittivity.
We call the integral of dϕ over the GS, straight, the flux of the
electric field through the GS.
We can simplify Gauss Law, with this:
- The flux of the electric field, through the GS surface, is equal to

algebraic summation of the charges encompassed by GS,
divided by ε0.
Mathematical Expression of Gauss Law
Here is the mathematical expression of what is asserted above:

J
q j
Q
 = Gauss d =  d =  E.n dA = j =1
= . (20)
Surface
GS GS ε0 ε0
Or, in short:
Q
=  d=  E.n dA = . (21)
GS GS ε0
Or, in effect,
Q
= . (22)
ε0
11
This is Gauss Law.
Figure 3 The closed surface S, which we call Gaussian Surface (GS),

encompasses a number of J electric charges. They create at the location
P on the GS, the electric field E; dA, is an infinitely small surface area
picked up on S, around the location P; n, is the unit vector perpendicular
to the GS at P. The flux of E through dA is d = E.n dA . The
algebraic summation of the J electric charges of concern is Q. Then
Gauss law says this:  = Q / ε0 .
Cross Check of Gauss Law on a Simplest Example
Recall that we have stated in the introduction part of this chapter that
Gauss Law, is the elaborated form of Coulomb’s Law. Whereas
looking at Eq.(21), one comes naturally to question, where does one
see Coulomb’s Law, in here ☺) …
12
While this question is quite righteous, still, we can easily reveal

that we have Coulomb’s Law, deep in Eq.(21). For this purpose we
consider a simple example.
Thus, we consider a charge q situated at the center of a shpere of

radius r. We suppose q is a positive charge, not as a necessity of
course, but as a convenience. The sphere is, in fact, imaginary. It is
there for nothing else but to represent Gauss Surface (GS) (Figure 4).
The reason for which we chose GS to be a sphere is that, the
magnitudes of the electric fields E’s, at a distance r from q, are equal
to each other.
Figure 4 We can discover Coulomb’s Law, via Gauss Law, on the basis of a
sphere of radius r, at the center of which we place the electric charge q.
We suppose q is a positive charge. You can pay attention to the fact that
the unit vector n perpendicular to GS, at a given point P, and the electric
field vector E created at the given point lie in the same direction, so that
the angle in betweeen them is zero, which makes that the cosine of it is
unity.
13
For our purpose we apply Eq.(21) to the problem we formulated.

Because of the spherical symmetry, the magnitue of the electric field
E, is a constant, at any point on the surface of the sphere, and we can
take it out of the integral operation in question. We can thusly write:
q
GS
E.n dA = 
GS
E n cos dA =  E dA = E  dA = E 4r 2 =
GS GS ε0
. (23)
And finally,
q
E 4r 2 = , (24)
ε0
or the same,
1 q
E= ; (25)
4ππ0 r 2
this is nothing else, but the electric field intensity (or the same
magnitude), we had defined [cf. Eq.(12)], starting with Coulomb’s
Law [Eq.(1)], and this was precisely what we wanted to show…
The simple cross check we offered above, is not obviously the

proof of Gauss Law. It is just a justification of it... The fact remains
14
that, no matter how we draw the Guassian Surface (GS) that encloses
the electric charges in the volume of concern, and no matter how the
given charges would be distributed, Eq.(21), holds anyway, i.e. with
regards to any kinf of configuration, valid, and this is for sure
fascinating.
3. APPLICATIONS
Gauss Law, in the case one can depict a convenient Gauss Surface,
can provide us with a quicker solution, as compared to what a
classical approach, would provide us with, which is in turn based, on
Coulomb’s Law. This is what we are going to undertake below.
Electric Field Intensity, Above or Below an Infinite Uniformly

Charged Plane
We have considered and derived the electric field intensity, above or

below a uniformly charged infinite plane, during our past lesson
[Eq.(23), Chapter 14].
The calculations were rather cumbersome. For this reason, in class

we jumped into the outcome (though, you have of course, a full
derivation of it, in the precedent chapter).
Here we will apply Gauss Law, and discover how easily we get to
the solution we look for.
In this context we consider figure 5.
15
Figure 5 We have a uniformly charged plane. For convenience we consider its

charge to be positive. For symmetry reasons, the way we choose the
Gaussian Surface (GS) is the following: We consider a cylinder of base
A, perpendicular to the given plane. The height of the cylinder, as we see
in the text, does not matter. The charge density σ, i.e. the charge
intensity per unit surface area on the plane is a constant; next we
consider a location P on the surface of the cylinder of concern, and an
infinitely small surface area dA, on it; n is the unit vector perpendicular
to dA at P. E is the electric field vector created by the plane at P. Since
E and n are perpendicular to each other on the lateral surface, the cosine
of the angle between them becomes null, and accordingly it will be
sufficient that we work only, on the upper base, and the lower base of
the given cylinder.
Here, we will apply Eq.(21) to the Gaussian Surface (GS) we have

shown in the above figure. For this purpose we consider the upper
base, the lower base and the lateral surface of our cylindrical Gaussian
Surface, separately.
The charge density σ, i.e. the charge intensity per unit surface area
on the plane is supposed to be a constant.
16
Next, we consider a location on the surface of the cylinder of con-

cern, and an infinitely small surface area dA, on it; n is the unit vector
perpendicular to dA at P. E is the electric field vector created at P.
By definition, σA, becomes the charge intensity residing on either

the upper base or the lower base, each bearing a surface area A.
The unit vector n is perpendicular to dA at P. E is the electric field

vector created at P.
E and n are parallel to each other both the upper base and the lower
base. Therefore, the cosine of the angle between them, becomes unity.
On the other hand, E and n are perpendicular to each other, on the

lateral surface. Therefore the cosine of the angle between them
becomes null.
Accordingly it will be sufficient that we work on the upper base,

and the lower base of the given cylinder. We will still show the details
through our derivation, we offer right below.
Recall that the magnitude |n| of the unit vector n is by definition

unity.
We proceed with the set of information to rewrite Eq.(21):
GS
E.n dA = Lower E.n dA + Upper E.n dA + Lateral E.n dA
Base Base Surface
= Lower E n cos dA + Upper E n cos dA + Lateral E n cos dA

Base Base Surface
. (26)
= Lower E n dA + Upper E n dA + Lateral E n x0 dA
Base Base Surface
= E Lower dA + E Upper dA
Base Base
A
= EA + EA = 2 EA =
ε0
Or is short,
17
2EA= σA . (27)
ε0
Thusly:

E= . (28)
2ε0
This is the electric field intensity, above or below a uniformly

charged infinite plane. It is surely inetresting to see that the result does
not depend on the altitude of the location of concern, from the plane,
which we hade discovered already in our precedent lesson (Chapter 14).
You can ask, what is so easy in the above derivation ☺) … The

fact remains that knowing the angle between E and n which takes the
value 0, for the upper base or the lower base, and π/2, for the lateral
surface, it does not take to write long, Eq.(28) ☺) … Try it, you will
see it, on your own!..
Electric Field Intensity Created by a Uniformly Charged Plane,
One Side of Which is Isolated
Above, we assumed that, both sides of the uniformly charged plane

are charged, and transmits electric field. After all, we are not entitled
to conceive an abstract plane of zero thickness, and we better consider
a plate of a finite thickness. It should certainly be made of a given
material.
If the material of concern is conductor, then while we charge it,

both faces of it, will get charged. If yet, not, or one side of it, is made
of an insulator, i.e. does not allow the transmission of electric field,
then we will be able to charge just one side of it.
18
Even though the charges will take place strictly, on the surface of
the given material; they will still transmit electric field, both sides. Let
us explain this a bit.
No matter what the other side, of the plate may be covered by an

insulator, still there will exist an electric field, right below the charged
surface’s frontier of the material of concern.
This is mostly to say, there will still exist a region right below the
surface, regardless how thin it may be, where one can draw the lower
base of the Gaussian Cylindrical Surface of Figure 5, where there will
be transmission of electric field of “surface charges”.
We now go back to Figure 5, where yet, the upper face of the plane
is charged and an insulator is applied to the bottom of it.
Under the given circumstances; via claiming that there is

transmission of electric field just upward, and no transmission of
electric field, downward; most course books, write Eq.(26), in the
following way:
GS
E.n dA = Upper E.n dA + Lower E.n dA + Lateral E.n dA
Base Base Surface
= Upper E n cos dA + 0 + 0 . (29)

Base
A
= E Upper dA = EA =
Base ε0
Therefore,
E= σ . (Inappropriate.) (30)
ε0
19
But this result is inappropriate ☺) … For, as expailend above, no

matter how close to the upper face, we can still draw the Gaussian
Cylindrical Surface’s Lower Base, right below the upper face, but
above the insulator material, and will accordingly land at the result
we derived in Eq.(28).
Thence whether one side of the uniformly charged plane is isolated

or not, the electric field created by its other side, at any altitude above
it, will be given as required by Eq.(28), to be E =  / 2ε0 …
You may ask, “Are all of the books we brought up, report an inad-
missible result, with regards to the electric field created by a uni-
formly charged plane, where one of the faces is electrically shielded.
The answer is, if we happen to have reasoned correctly, yes ☺) …
There is no such rule as to “A course book is free of errors”.
This book, as well can well embody errors ☺) … We do not think

it does, but it may indeed… If anybody points to any of them, we
would definitely be ready and correct it.
Don’t be afraid of committing errors. Be afraid of not being able ot

preceive your errors.
The Electric Field Intensity Within the Plates of a Capacitor
Now we consider a capacitor, which we will deal will two weeks from
now. And then, we will need the information we will derive herein.
The capacitor is composed of two plates, an upper plate which we

will suppose to be charged positively, and a lower plate which is
accordingly charged neagatively. It is that electrons are pumped from
the upper plate to the lower plate, so that the upper plate is charged
positively and the lower plate is charged negatively. The process of
charging a capacitor, requires that both plates are charged with equal
20
charge intensities. On the other hand, the upper side of the upper plate
and the lower part of the lower plate are insulated.
We like to find out the electric field intensity at a given point P in

between the plates.
What happens inside the capacitor is this:
As we saw above [cf. Eq.(28)], the upper plate will create an

electric field of intensity  / 2ε0 ; the field vector will be directed
downward.
Simalarly the lower plate will create an electric field of intensity

 / 2ε0 ; the field vector will be still be directed downward.
The resultant field will be obtained via adding up the two given
fields, which will be directed, obviously downward, and will lead to
the intensity, E =  / 2ε0 +  / 2ε0 =  / ε0 .
Pay attention to the fact that, this result is obtained within the plates
of a capacitor, therefore for two plates, and not just one plate - unlike,
unfortunaely many books’ claim, as to “it happens to be the electric
field intensity created by just one uniformly charge plane, one side of
which is insualted” [cf. the inappropriate Eq.(30)].
As we mentioned, we will use this result when we come to deal

with a parallel plate capacitor. The nice part of it, is that, we are
allowed to consider constant, the intensity of the electric filed,
reigning in between the plates of a capacitor.
One question is left:
- How come an insulator material, can nullify the effect of

charges present on one face of a plate, when the insulator
material is applied to the other?..
21
This is a difficult question, really…
All the same, we can provide an easy answer to it. What happens in
an insulator material is that the value of the permittivity ε0 written in
Dk.(12), valid though only for empty space, becomes huge, which cuts
off drastically the electric field, through the insulator material. But
watch, this happens, only within the insulator material, and even
though an insulator is applied to the lower face of a charged conductor
plate, while its upper face is charged, still because the plate cannot
have a zero thickness, there will exist an electric field inside the plate.
We avoid, for simplicity, the details.
And how does the insulator material cuts drastically the electric
field
The fact is, the more insulator the material at hand is, the greater
will become the permittivity, i.e. the electric field transmission
coefficient, which we call in general ε.
Which makes that the more the electric field created by the charges
around is cut down…
The Electric Field Instensity Created by an Infinitely Long

and Uniformly Charged Cable
As a last application, we now consider an ınfinitely long and

uniformly charged cable. A good example to this, is the electric
energy carring cables, which bring us electricity from power plants
situated at distances which can be as large as thousand kilometers.
Here again, we consider the symmetry of the problem and

conceive a cylindrical Gaussian Surface (GS) encircling the cable of
concern (Figure 6).
22
Figure 6 An ifininitely long cable charged uniformly bears λ Coulomb / meter.

We suppose it is charged positively without though any loss of
generality. Given the symmetry of the problem we further conceive a
cylinder of height H, and base radius r.
The difference, the above figure delineates as comapred to Figure

5, is that the electric field is now perpendicular to the lateral surface.
We will thus write an equation similar to Eq.(26), we had written

based on Figure 5, along with the same symbols. But now, we operate
evidently, within the framework of Figure 6:
23
GS
E.n dA = Lower E.n dA + Upper E.n dA + Lateral E.n dA
Base Base Surface
= Lower E n cos dA + Upper E n cos dA + Lateral E n cos dA

Base Base Surface
. (31)
= Lower E n x0dA + Upper E n x0 dA + Lateral E n dA
Base Base Surface
H
= E Lateral dA = E 2 rH =
Surface ε0
Here those integrals to be carried over the upper base and the lower
base, vanish; only the integral over the lateral surface is left out.
Furthermore, the electric field intensity, all over the lateral surface
is, beacuse of the symmetry, the same, and accordingly, it can be
taken out of the integral operation.
If we opened the lateral surface we would obtain a rectangle of

length 2πr and width H; thereby the surface area of the lateral surface
is 2πrH.
On the other hand, λ being the charge residing on a unit meter of

the cable, the total charge enclosed by the GS of height becomes
λH…
Eq.(31) yields:
H
E 2 rH = . (32)
ε0
Therefore,

E= . (33)
2 ε0 r
24
This is the electric field intensity creaed at a distant r, from a

uniformly charged and infinitely long cable, whose linear charge
density is λ.
4. TWO THEOREMS
In Chapter 13, we had stated two theorems, which we promised to

prove based on Gauss Law. Here we keep our promise ☺) …
First Teorem
The first theorem was this:
- A uniformly disributed spherical charge q, acts toward its

exterior as if the entire charge q is concentrated at the center of
the given sphere.
If you look at this carefully, you would notice that, it constitutes

the same problem as the one we handled at the level of Figure 4.
Indeed whether we consider the charge q, as distributed uniformly

within the sphere of radius r, or located merely at the center of it, as a
point-like charge; the application of Gauss Law along with a GS of
radius, leads to an equation the same as Eq.(24), olmaktadır.
Thereby we came to prove the theorem we recalled above ☺) ...
Is that all? Yes that is all ☺) …
You may like to reread we just wrote, and you will grasp easier the
whole thing…
Previously we had considered the charge q as a point like charge

situated at the center O of the given sphere, and investigated what
25
would happen at a distant r, from O, using Gauss Law, along with a

GS passing by r.
Now q, is distributed uniformly within the sphere of radius r, and

we propose to inquire what would happen, still at r, witin the
framework of Gauss Law…
The fact is the expression of Gauss Law in both cases is the same.
Not to hesitate, you can write down Gauss Law in both cases, and see
for yourself that the outcomes are in effect identical…
Second Theorem
The second thorem of concern was this:
- A uniformly charged spherical shell creates no electric field

inside of its cavity, therefore produces no force on a test charge
that would be placed in there.
Thusly we consider Figure 7, below, consisting in a spherical shell

of radius R. We pick up a test point P inside the cavity, and draw the
Gaussian Surface of radius r, passing by P.
The shell is uniformly charged, and bears a total charge of q.
26
Figure 7 The spherical shell of radius R is uniformly charged with the charge q…
We draw the Gauss Surface passing by the test point P. The electric
field intensity produced at P, is null, since there is no charge inside of
GS.
We now apply Gauss Law, inside to the GS of radius r, passing by
the test point P:
 E.n dA =  E n cosθ dA= 0 =0 . (34)

GS GS ε0
Since there is no electric charge inside the GS, the right hand side
of the above equation indeed must be set to zero; |n| or dA are finite
quantitites, and cannot be null.
Thence the electric field intensity E, at P, is a fortiori zero.
This further means that the shell would exert no electric force on a
test charge that might be placed inside the cavity.
27
QUESTIONS
Question 1
a) We write that, the electric field reigning in between the plates of a

parallel plate capacitor, is constant. Why? Hint: Show, via using
Gauss Law that a uniformly charge infinite plane of surface density
σ, creates at any altitude above or below it, an electric field
intensity E= σ/2ε0 , written n MKS unit system.
b) Despite this result, the electric field intensity between the plates of
a capacitor amounts to E= σ/ε0 Why? Is the outcome valid near the
edges of the plates?
Question 2
A non-conducting sphere of raidus a carries a net charge +q. A

cocentered conducting spherical shell with inner radius b and outer
radiıs c carries a net charge -q. Find the electric field in the regions
a) r<a,
b) a<r<b,
c) b<r<c,
d) r<c
28
Question 3
Suppose we have a non-conducting infinitely long stick. It has a

charge density  Coulomb / meter.
a) Find the electric field produced by the stick at a distance r. To do

that take a very small part of the stick which has length dx and find
the electrick field dE produced by that part. Now, write the electric
filed E as an integral expression and the solution of the integral is
in the form of below expression.
dx x
 (x 2
+a )
2 3/ 2
= 2 2
a ( x + a 2 )1 / 2
.
b) Find E by using Gauss’ Law.
c) Calculate E by taking  = 3.5 Nano Coulomb / meter, r = 2.5 mm,

 0 = 8.85  10 −12 (MKS).
d) If the length of the stick is not infinite, which quantity should be

taken as infinity to get above results?
Question 4
a) Consider a spherical and uniormly distributed charge Q. Using

Gauss Law, show that the electric field created by Q outside of it,
at a location P, is the same as that created by a point-like charge
equal to Q and situated at the center of the given sphere.
b) Like-wise show that, the electric field created by a uniformly

charged spherical shell, inside of its cavity, is null.
c) What is the electric field inensity E created by an uniformly

charged spherical shell at a distance R from the center of the shell?
29
Question 5
The Charge density of a sphere which has Radius R is given as ρ=Ar2.
a) Calculate the electric field inside the sphere (r<R) by using Gauss
Law
b) Calculate the electric field out of sphere (r>R) by using Gauss Law.
(Hint: dq=ρdV and dV=4πr2dr.)
Question 6
a) (10 p) E. Rutherford in a paper he wrote in 1911, notes the

following:
In order to form some idea of the forces required to deflect an 
particle (the helium nucleus, thus charged positively), through a
large angle, consider an atom containing a point positive charge
Ze at its centre and surrounded by a distribution of negative
electricity, -Ze uniformly distributed within a sphere of radius R.
Using Gauss Law, show that the electric field intensity E(r), at a
distance r from the center of the atom and inside it, can be written
as,
Ze  1 r 
E(r ) =  2 − 3 .
40  r R 
30
CHAPTER 16
ELECTRIC POTANTIAL
Let us first write, as established before, the Coulomb Force FC, between two
electric charges Q and q sitting at a distance r, from each other:
1 Qq
FC (r ) = (MKS) . (1)
4π ε0 r 2
For simplicity but without aany loss of generality, let us suppose that i) Q
is positive and bears the mass M, ii) q, is also positive and bears the mass m,
and, iii) M is much greater than m.
Let us further call Q the source charge, and q the test charge, without any
technical reason, really, but just to facilitate our talk about them.
1. ELECTRIC POTANTIAL AND POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

We now suppose we set free the charge q at its original location r. Since Q and q
are conceived to be positive charges, and accordingly, they will repel each other,
q will be pushed out; furthermore, since we supposed M, much greater than m, it
will stay in place, and will keep on pushing q, out. As the test charge q, would
move, from r, as much as dr, it would have, by definition, carry out, of the
original system, the energy (cf. Chapter 8),
dW (r ) = FC (r )dr . (2)
Where does this energy come from? Classically, it is conceived that it is

hidden in the “System” of concern, say, in its vicinity, which is called “field” ☺)
… What vicinity? Where exactly in the vicinity, would it be hidden?
1
The “System” originally consists of the source charge Q, and the test
charge q, sitting at a distance r from each other. Then, where exactly the energy
is hidden, in it? As we said, classically speaking, it is hidden, in what we call
“electric field”, no matter what, this becomes somewhat mysterious. So much so
that, it is the quantity of “force” what one can measure, and not the quantity of
“field intensity”.
According to the approach, your Intructors, Prof. T. Yarman ve Prof. M.
have developed since a while, the given energy, is hidden inside the rest masses,
or, to better coin it, the rest energies of the the given charges… Note that rest
energy E and rest mass m are the same quantity, had we taken the light speed c
in vacuum as unity, based on the famous relationship E=mc2 of Einstein (Chapter
8).
Let us reason within such a framework:
i) Suppose we push from infinity the test charge q, until it approaches
the source charge Q, as much as r. It is like you are moving upward,
on the hill.
ii) The energy you would have to furnish to q, given that M>>m, and
accordingly, Q would stay throughout in place, will be piled up, as an
extra rest energy, inside of its rest mass, m (when weihed at infinity).
iii) Conversely, if we set free the test charge q at r, the extra rest energy
we would have piled in it, through the previous “compression step”,
would now get transformed into the kinetic energy, the test charge q
would acquire on the way out.
iv) Thereby, the test charge q, after having crossed the infinitely small
path dr, while runnig from r to r+dr, would acquire a kinetic energy,
dW, equal to the right hand side of Eq.(2).
2
Eletric Potantial
In any case, there is in effect a (hidden) potential energy somewhere, and we
concentrate precisely on it, in this lesson. The test charge gains kinetic energy in
a way, no different than water, falling from behind a dam, does.
Let us now rewrite Eq.(2), using Eq.(1):
1 Qq
dW (r ) = dr . (3)
4π ε0 r 2
Thence, the test charge q, when set free at r, would carry out of the
initially set system (Q, q, r), the energy
 1 Qq
W (r ) =  dr . (4)
r 4π ε r 2
0
Let us integrate the right hand side:


1 Qq Qq  1 1 
W (r ) = − =− −
4π ε0 r r 4π ε0   r 
. (5)
Qq  1 1 Qq
=− − r  = 4π ε r
4π ε0 0
We can no doubt rewrite it as follows:

1 Q
W (r ) = q . (6)
4π ε0 r
Then we define the following quantity:

1 Q
V (r ) = . (7)
4π ε0 r
We call V(r); the electric potential created by the source charge Q, at a

distance r, from it.
With this definition we can write W(r), as,

W (r ) = V (r )q . (8)
3
And, what was W(r):
- It is, once again, the energy the test charge q would carry out of the
original system made of Q and q sitting at a distance r, from each
other, after q is set free, and eventually reaches an infinite distance, far
away from Q.
Let us call its velocity vꝏ(r), at infinity; we associated with it the
denomination r, to recall that it was released at a distance r from Q. We can write
the energy W(r), accordingly, as:
1 2
W (r ) = mv(r) . (9)
2
We now rewrite Eq.(8), in the light of Eq.(9):

1 2
W (r ) = V (r )q = mv(r) . (10)
2
We thus come to associate, energy and electric potantial, in fact, just like
we had associated force and electric field (cf. Chapter 14).
Eq.(7) tells us immediately that V(r) must come to be null, at infinity. All
the same, many text-book-authors, asserts this, as an assumption. Why? It is
really hard to understand ☺) … It was, that way too, when we were students ☺
…
Units
In MKS Unit System, energy is expressed in terms of Joule, and electric
potantial in terms of Volt…
Under these circumstsances, and based on Eq.(8), if a charge of 1
Coulomb is released from and electric potantial of 1 Volt, it would carry out, of
the system, an energy of 1 Joule, which in other terms, would become its kinetic
energy, at an infinite distance away from the source charge.
4
Electric Potential Difference
Let us now pick up two locations, A and B, on the way, q crosses, once it is
released from r. Let us call rA and rB the respective distances of these locations
to the source charge Q… Let us further call VA and VB, the electric potentials, Q
creates on the given locations. Based on Eq.(7), we can write them as:
1 Q
VA = , (11a)
4π ε0 rA
1 Q
VB = . (11b)
4π ε0 rB
We then define the following quantity:

Q 1 1
V = VA − VB =  −  . (12)
4π ε0  rA rB 
We call it “electric potential difference”. It is defined as a positive

quantity, just the way we did. Wherever you doubt though about the sign of a
difference you would set up, you can take the absolute value of it, which is
always positive ☺) …
Here is an example:
Q 1 1
V = VA − VB =  −  . (13)
4π ε0  rB rA 
Relationship Between V(r) ve E(r)

Now we take the differential of Eq.(7):
1 Q
dV (r ) = (−) dr . (14)
4π ε0 r 2
5
Pay attention to the fact that on the right hand side of the above equation,
we tap, the electric field intensity E(r) created by the source charge Q, at the
location of concern, r (cf. Chapter 14).
Thusly we can write the above equation as,
dV (r ) = −E(r )dr . (15)
This is the equation which relates the electric potential V(r) to the electric
field E(r). We can integrate this equation, between given limits, say from A to B,
to get,
B B
 dV (r ) = − E (r )dr
A A
. (16)
On the left hand side, we have the integral of the differential of the
function V(r), which makes that we come back to the original function V(r).
Therefore:
B
V (r ) A = VB − VA = −  E (r )dr .
B
A
(17)
The negative sign over here, arises from the fact that, V = VA − VB , i.e. the
electric potential difference, is positive by definition, in other terms the
difference VB − VA is negative, and dr, is again by definition, positive; so, the
integral at the right hand side, above, is positive.
B
V =  E (r )dr . (18)
A
We will use this piece of information next week…
6
2. APPLICATION
As an application, we are going to calculate the electric potential created by a

uniformly charged plate at a location P, situated at the altitude z, as measured
from the center of the plate (Figure 1). (In Chapter 14, we have considered the
same figure to calculate the electric field intensity at P. Here, yet, our purpose is
different.)
Figure 1 The plate is uniformly charged. We first pick a belt of radius r’ and
thickness dr’ on the plate; the infinitley small charge residing on this belt
is dq. Next, we consider a location P, at an altitude z from the center of
the given plate, and we propose to write the electric potential created by
the belt at P. We do the same for infinitely narrow belts, picked in the
inner part of the intial belt, as well as for those picked on the outer side
of it, so to cover up, the entire belt. We sum up, the electric potentials
created by of all of them at P, to come out with VPlate. The radius of the
plate is R. The total charge residing on it, is Q. Let us assume Q is a
positive charge… The electric potential VPlate the plate creates at P,
means, the energy that a test charge of q=1 Coulomb, brought to P, when
set free, will carry out of the system, in the form of kinetic energy,
expressed in terms of Joule, in MKS Unit System. (The figure is picked
from internet.)
7
Within this framework, based on Eq.(7), we can write the electric
potential dV created by the belt of charge dq at the location P:
1 dq
dV =
(
4π ε0 z 2 + r' 2 )1/2 , (19)
Thence, the total electric potential VPlate created by the plate at P, will be
composed of all of the infnitely small electric potentials, each, expressed by a
relaltionship similar to Eq.(19), and created at P, thusly by infinitely narrow
belts, we would depict on the plate, so to cover up, the entire plate.
The outcome will be,
1 dq
VPlate =  . (20)
Plate 4π ε0 ( z 2 + r' 2 )1/ 2
Next, let us define σ, as the electric charge intensity residing on a unit

surface area of the plate, thusly, as:
dq
= ; (21)
dA
this means (just like we did, on the basis of Figure 2, of Chapter 14), an ifinitely
small charge dq, resides on the infinitely small surface area dA; or, the other
way around, the charge residing on a unit surface area of the uniformly charged
plate is dq/dA, which we call, σ…
Since the plate is uniformly charged, we can write σ, as well, as,
Q
= ; (22)
 R2
where Q is the total charge of the plate, and R its radius…
8
The infinitely small surface area dA, is, as referred to Figure 1, the surface
area of the belt of radius r’ and thickness dr’, and charge intensity dq. We can
easily show that the given surface area can be written as length (2πr’) x width
(dr’), just like one does, to write down the surface area of a rectangle. Therefore
we write dA (just we did in Chapter 14), as,
dA=(2πr’) dr’ . (23)
We now, return to Eq.(20), in the light of Eq.(21) and (23):

R 1 σ (2π r')dr'
VTabak = 
4π ε0 (z 2 + r' 2 )1/2
r' =0
. (24)
We have over here an nice and easy integral, and the result of it, is:
VTabak =
σ
2ε0
z 2 + R2
R
0
=
σ
2ε0
(z 2
+ R2 − z 2 )
(z )
σ . (25)
= 2
+R −z 2
2ε0
This means the following: If we have a poisitive test charge q at P, and we

would set it free, it would carry out, the energy WP, so that,
WP = VPlate q . (26)
This enegy in MKS Unit System is measured in terms of “Joule”.

If the test charge is q=1 C, then the given energy becomes,
WP = VPlate x1Joule . (27)
9
We can undertake many more exercises… Yet we do not want to spend
time with not so essential electric potential calculations. Different exercises are
still important.
All the same, they would not mean a thing, if one does not grasp
fundamental points we have framed above. You will nevertheless find in the
Questions Section, at the end of this chapter, few more useful exercises…
We prefer at this stage, to jump to Rutherford’s problem, where he
determined for the first time in the history of science the order of magnitude of
the atomic nucleus. We find it much more attractive as compared to many
mambo-jambos ☺) , which we left aside…
10
3. EXPERIMENT WHEREBY RUTHERFORD, DISCOVERED OUR
ACTUAL CONCEPTION ABOUT THE ATOMIC NUCLEUS AND
THE SIZE OF IT
Rutherford, achieved the experiment, the scheme of it, we present in Figure 2.
Figure 2 Rutherford Experiment. In this experiment Lord Rutherford used a very

thin gold foil. Its thickness was about 0.0005 mm. This gold foil is
bombarded with α particles. These are Helium atomic nuclei. A helium
nucleus is represented by 2He4; it has got two protons and two neutrons…
By the time, it was known that, α particle is charged positively… The α
particles, were thrown out by Natural Uranium nuclei sitting inside the
box, we see near us, in the figure. Natural Uranium is made of 92U atoms.
Inside of its nucleus there are 92 protons. It was further known that
Natural Uranium throws out α particles, and nothing more really, was
known… The gold foil at the target, was thusly, bombarded by these
particles. The observational results were astouding: 1) Most of the α
particles could go through the gold foil, as if there were no barrier at all,
which meant that matter is full of voids; it is mostly empty, so to say. 2)
Some of the α particles scattered away, which meant that, atoms must
contain nuclei, and that the atomic nuclei are charged positively. 3) Few α
particles, remarkably backscattered, i.e. they are fired back from the gold
foil, which meant that positive charges are structured densely inside the
nuclei. 4) Because matter must be on the whole neutral, the discovery of
positively charged nuclei, yielded the fact that there must be electrons
charged negatively, which were discovered earlier, taking place in the far
surrounding of atomic nuclei. 5) The backscattered α particles, allowed a
first estimation of the size of the atomic mucleus, first time in the history
of science. (The above figure is picked from the internet.)
11
In the experiment, a very thin gold foil of thickness of 0.0005 mm, was
bombarded by α particles (Figure 2). The gold atom Au, present in Nature, is
represented as, 79Au197. “Aurum”, in Latin, means gold; the symbol “Au”, comes
from this. The natural Au atom bears 79 protons in its nucleus, and 79 electrons
around this. In the Au atomic nucleus, next to 79 protons, there are 197-79=118
neutrons... Rutherford definitely did no know any of these pieces of knowledge
☺) …
On the other hand, the α particle, is the Helium atomic nucleus, which is
represented as 2He4; in other words, it has two protons and two neutrons… By
the time it was known that, the α particle is a positively charged particle, and
that was it… The beam of α particles we see on the above figure, is emitted by
the Natural Uranium situated in the box, sketeched in front of the said figure.
Natural Uranium is made of 92U atoms. In this atom we have a nucleus
encompassing 92 protons, around which an electronic cloud made of 92
electrons takes place. By the time of Rutherford, it was known that, Natural
Uranium atoms in effect, throw out α particles, and nothing more really was
known… The 92U atoms is mostly made of 92U238 atoms…This atom bears 92
protons, and 238-92=146 neutrons, in its nucleus. None of this, were known by
Lord Rutherford’s time.
238
92U atomic nucleus, has got a decay half life of about 5 billion years. It
disintegrates via throwing α particles. This means, if we have 1 kg of Uranium at
hand, half of it, would decay into Thorium (Th), in a period of time of 5 billion
years. The exact decay reaction is this:
238
92U → 90U234+2He4 . (28)
12
4
2He , is in effect, nothing else than the alleged α particle.
If we know how much Uranium we have at hand, we can determine how
many α particles per second would be thrown out, making thusly the beam,
sketched in the above figure.
The gold plate is thence bombarded by the given beam of α particles.
The observations are astounding:
1) Most of the α particles could go through the gold plate, as if there were
no barrier at all, which meant that matter is full of voids; it is mostly
empty, so to say.
2) Some of the α particles scattered away, which meant that, atoms must
contain nuclei, and that the atomic nuclei are charged positively.
3) Few α particles, remarkably backscattered, i.e. they are fired back from
the gold foil, which meant that positive charges are structured densely
inside the nuclei.
4) Because matter must be, on the whole neutral, the discovery of
positively charged nuclei, yielded the fact that there must be electrons
charged negatively, which were discovered earlier, and taking place in
the far surrounding of atomic nuclei.
5) The backscattered α particles, allowed a first estimation of the size of
the atomic nucleus.
Within the given framework, we now take a look at Figure 3. We have a

gold atomic nucleus in the middle. The electronic cloud takes place at a distance
of about 10-8 cm, from the center of the given nucleus. This is a size you would
obtain, if you divided the size of a finger nail into 100 million parts. The size of
the atomic nucleus, is 100 thousand times smaller than this, and we will soon
calculate its order of magnitude. In between the electronic cloud and the
nucleus, there is practically nothing. It is void, emptiness, so to say.
13
The α particles heading the given void, go throughout without
encountering any barrier, and can be detected by detectors placed behing the
gold foil. The α particles which are heading spaces nearer to the nucleus, are
scattered; they can be shown to draw hyperbolic trajectories… Those α’s
heading straight on the nucleus, are backscattered.
Figure 3 We have a gold atomic nucleus in the middle. The electronic cloud takes
place at a distance of about 10-8 cm, from the center of the given nucleus.
This is a size you would obtain, if you divided the size of a finger nail into
100 million parts. The size of the atomic nucleus, is 100 thousand times
smaller than this. In between the electronic cloud and the nucleus, there is
practically nothing. It is void, emptiness, so to say. The α particles
heading the given void, go throughout without encountering any barrier,
and can be detected by detectors placed behing the gold foil. The α
particles which are heading spaces nearer to the nucleus, are scattered;
they can be shown to draw hyperbolic trajectories… Those α’s heading
straight on the nucleus, are backscattered. (The above figure is picked
from the internet.)
An α particle aimed to a head on collision with the gold nucleus, spends

all its energy to overcome the repulsion created by this nucleus, and at a given
close distance to it, it is stopped, and simultameously is fired back…
14
An α particle which would not miss the nucleus, yet not strictly heading
on it, is subject to a mirror-like scattering (cf. the above figüre).
Let us now visualize a perfect head on collision of an α particle with the
nucleus. If we call e the electron charge intensity, the charge intensity of the gold
nucleus would be 79e. The charge intensity of the α (i.e. once again He
nucleus), is, 2e… The kinetic energy Eα of the α when thrown by the Uranium
atomic nucleus is about 4 Mev (i.e. 4 Mega elektron volt). 1 Mev, is 1.6x10-13
Joule…
The mass m of the α particle can be taken as the mass of 4 protons.
The proton, on the other hand, weighs, 2x10-27 kg.
Thusly, the velocity of the α particle, when emitted by the Uranium
nucleus is about 𝑣∞ = 104 𝑘𝑚/𝑠. This amounts to 3% of the speed of light, and
can be treated classically, we mean not relativistically. (All the same, if one
swallows or inhales Uranium, in a Uranium mine, his organs will be bombarded
by α particles, each bearing the said energy, and the likelihood that he would
suffer of cancer is pretty high. All depends of course on the overall amount of
uranium he would take in his body.)
The good news is that, in the air, the range of the said α particles, is no
more than a dozen of centimeters, owing to collisions they would undergo with
air molecules. For this reason, i) it is important that, the gold foil in Rutherford
Experiment is erected near the source of α particles, ii) furthermore, it helps to
increase their energies, before they bombard the gold foil. (Question 1, at the
end of the text, deals precisely with this problem).
Suppose that the an α particle, comes as close as d to the gold nucleus…
Let us write Eq.(10), under the given circumstances:
79e 1
W (d ) = V (r)q = (2e) = E = mv2 (r) . (29)
4π εo d 2
15
The above equation leads to,
158e2
E = , (30)
4π εo d
where the only unknown is d.

Therefore:
158e2
d= . (31)
4π εo E
This is how Lord Rutherford, could have an estimation about the

magnitude of the size of the atomic nucleus. Along with a 2-3 times larger α
energy Eα one could determine exactly the size of the Au nucleus.
You should check Rutherford from an internet encyclopedia. He has had
already received a Nobel Prize based on a former work he had achieved.
Otherwise, the present work of his, would definitely bring to him the Nobel
Prize.
Woks like what Lord Rutherford did, witness the magnificence of human
brain…
16
QUESTIONS
Question 1
One can conceive an atomic nucleus, as a sphere charged uniformly, and

positively. Let the proton number be Z; the charge intensity of either electron
or proton is e =1.6x10-19 Coulomb. Thereby the charge intensity of the nucleus
at hand, becomes Ze. Let its radius be R.
a) Consider a location denoted by the distance r to the center of the nucleus,

such that r>R, and write at r (in MKS unit system), the electric field
intensity E(r) and the electric potential V(r) created by the nucleus.
b) Write the relationship between these two quantitites, and the reason for it.
c) In Rutherford experiment, helium nuclei also known as alpha particles, which

consist of two protons and two neutrons were accelerated through an electric
potential difference, and then directed towards a very thin Gold foil. Although
most of these charged particles passed through the foil, almost unaffectedly,
some were observed to be deflected sharply, almost backwards. Rutherford
(1909 -1911) was thereby led to the conclusion that Gold atoms consist mostly
of void, but have strongly and positively charged central regions, namely
nuclei.
In such an experiment assume that an alpha particle with a positive charge 2e

is accelerated through a potential difference of V and then happens to strike,
head on, a Gold nucleus of positive charge Ze. The energy W it would then
acquire would be (by definition of electric potential) W=2eV. The distance of
closest approach d, in such a special collision is expected to give an
approximate value for the radius of gold nucleus. First, show that the alpha
electric potential energy W, at d (in MKS unit system), becomes
2Ze 2
W= ,
4 o d 0
and thereby, one can write for the closest distance d
Ze
d= .
4 o V
d) Calculate d, in the light of the following data, in terms of the radius R of

the Gold nucleus, which had been afterwards measured.
17
1
= 9  10 9 N m 2 / C 2 (MKS), V = 6 x 106 Volt, Z=79, R=8x10-15 m.
4 o
e) Given that alpha’s mass is m = 6.6 x 10-27 kg, find its velocity in meters/
second.
Question 2
As in figure we have a conducting sphere which has a radius R. It has charge 2q

on its surface. Two spheres one has radius 3R
and the other one has a radius 4R cover the
first conducting sphere. A 3q charge is placed 3R
on the last (4R radius) sphere. For any
distance r find the following electric fields in 4R R
terms of q, R, εo and r. R
a) For r>4R
b) For R<r<3R
c) Find the electric charge inside the sphere
which has 3R radius
d) Find the electric charge outside the sphere which has 4R.
e) Find the electric potential V(r) for R<4R.
f) Find the electric potential V(r) for r<R.
Question 3
a) Assume that; qS is a positive source and qT is a test charge with a unity of
charge. Two charges are stationary and separated with a distance. Find the
electric potential produced by qS Vq (r) on the qT .
S
b) Find the electric field produced by qS in terms of Vq (r).

S
Question 4
A stick with length L is uniformly charged by charge Q. Linear charge density
is given as λ = dq/dx
18
r
P
X=0 X=L
a) (5 p) Find the electric field at point P.

b) (5 p) Find the electric potential at point P by using the definition ,
dV=k(dq)/(r+x).
c) (5 p) By using the relation between V and E find the electric field at
point P.
Question 5
Consider a uniformly charged belt of radius R. (Its inside is hollow.) Its total
charge is +Q.
a) (10 p) Find the electric field intensity E, at a distance x, from its
center.
b) (10 p) Find the electric potential at the same location. What does
this latter quantity mean, exactly?
c) (10 p) Now we place a charge –q, at x. What is the force it is
submitted to? Describe the motion, –q would undergo, if left to a
free fall. Can you write down a mathematical expression of the
given motion?
19
CHAPTER 17
CAPACITOR (ELECTRIC CHARGE STORAGE), AND CAPACITANCE

(ELECTRIC CHARGE STORING CAPACITY)
The word “capacitor”, comes from “capacity”. Its French verison is condenser”
(condensateur) meaning a “device that condenses”, which makes things “denser”,
what ever is supposed to be “condensed”, or to be made “denser”... In the electric
world it means, “condenser of electric charges”. It piles up them, it stores them...
“Capacitor” in electricity, is the device that delineates the “capacity of piling up
electric charges”…
Why do we have to pile up electric charges? To use them, whenever they are
needed ☺) …
We do the same, with water. We store water in a storage tank, to be able to use
it, whenever we have a water shortage.
In order to have water in our “city water network”, before everything else, we
have already to store water, behind city dams; they accumulate water, from rains.
We do not even have to go that far. In our toilets, we have “water reservoirs”,
just to satisfy the need ☺) … How so? The toilet reservoir gets filled up slowly,
and we need to empty it fast. Otherwise, it would be useless ☺) … Even if we had
a big tank behind, full of water, but it is depleted slowly, it would be useless for
the purpose. We need just an enough quantity, with an appropriate speed to get it
flashed down.
You are engineering students, and you should get accustomed with the
responsibility to bring to your desk, our daily problems, to design solutions which
are to be worked out with the capabilities, you would have developed, on the way.
This includes, definitely, the “toilet problems”. The “toilet engineering”, is not
something simple; believe us ☺) …
Westernes, are good in desigining airplanes, rockets, but still do not know much
about, “toilet faucet” ☺) … They still have a chance to learn about it ☺) …
In engineering, anything we sould be in the need of, is considered, and effort is
spend to better the outcome ceaselessly…
20
Briefly, the Capacitor, we are going to deal with in this lesson, is not any
different than a “toilet reservoir”, along with the exception that, it may both i) get
charged slowly and gets discharged fast, or, ii) get charged fast and get discharged
slowly.
On the other hand, the Capacitor, is no different than an “electric power
source”. For instance, you have capacitors in our PC’s, and whenever the current
is gone out, they are automatically connected with the circuit, and supply the
necessary power, without the necessity you interrupt your work on your PC.
Thereby they provide you with the opportunity to continue to make usage of your
PC for a given while.
In ambulances, there are à fortiori, capacitors, to help, when the case arises,
patients undergoing a heart attack; “ambulance physicians” on the need, apply a
capacitor designed for such a purpose to the heart of the patient, which through
discharge, insures quick electric current going through the heart of the patient, and
in most cases saves his life.
1. CAPACITANCE, OR, THE CHARGE STORING CAPABILITY
In Figure 1 we sketch a parallel plate capacitor. It is charged via the aid of a

Batterie (B). This latter is a power source… It embodies a fascinating
electochemical world… What the battery does over here, is to pump electrons
from the upper plate of the capacitor, to its lower plate. The plate which undergoes
an electron vacancy, is thusly charged positively, and the plate which bears an
excess of electrons, is by definition, charged negatively… Let us call q+ and q-,
the respective charges of the given plates… Because of the mechanism of
charging, the intensity of both charges must be equal.
Therefore:
|q+|= |q-|=q . (1)
We call the electric potential difference between the plates, V…Just remember
that we had defined it, in the past lesson as a positive quantity.
21
Figure 1 The Parallel Plate Capacitor. It is charged via the aid of a batterie (B). This latter is a power source…
It pumps electrons from the upper plate to the lower plate, until the electric potential difference
becomes equal to that reigning between the poles of the batterie. The plate which undergoes an
electron vacancy, is thusly charged positively, and the plate which bears an excess of electrons, is by
definition, charged negatively… We call q+ and q-, the respective charges of the given plates…
Because of the mechanism of charging, the intensity of both charges must be equal to the same
charge intensity, which we call q. The electric potential difference between the plates is V, and, at the
end of the charging process, it becomes equal to the electric potential difference reigning between
the poles of the batterie.
The charge storing capacity, or in short the capacitance C of the capacitor, is

defined, as the total charge intensity q, stored on both plates, per unit electric
potential difference, i.e. q/V.
If we took off the Capacitor, from the circuit, after it is charged, and connect
its plates with each other through a resistance, the electrons would move from the
plate where they are in excess, to the plate where there is a vacancy of electrons,
until full neutrality is insured all over…
If, to start with, we have a difference of potential V between the plates of the
capacitor, through which we would have piled, on each plate, the electric charge
intensity q; for a 1 Volt of electric potential difference, we would then have
accumulated a charge intensity of q/V, on either plate. We define this quantity, as
electric charge storage capacity, C:
22
q
C= . (2)
V
Note that, in MKS Unit System, q is expressed in Coulomb, V in Volt, and C,

then, in Farad. We are going soon see that, C is a constant, i.e. it does not depend,
on either q or V, and depends only on the geometric parameters, the capacitor at
hand, delineates.
2. CALCULATION OF THE CAPACITANCE IN DIFFERENT

GEOMETRIES
Now we are going to calculate, the capacitance C [Eq.(2)], in different geometries.

In order to do so, we have to be able to express the electric potential difference V,
reigining in between the plates. We are going to write it, based on the relationship
we wrote in the past lesson, in terms of the electric field, reigning between the
given plates.
Parallel Plate Capacitor
The parallel plate capacitor, is the one we sketched in Figure 1. We assume that
the plates are infinite planes, charged uniformly.
In Lesson 14 (Electric Field), we have seen that the electric feld intensity E,
above or below such a plane is independent of the altitude, or depth, and is equal
to,
E= σ (3)
2ε0
where, σ is the charge intensity residing on a unit surface area of the given plane.
Let us call A the surface area of the Capacitor’s plates, and q the charge intensity
taking place on either plate. Then, σ becomes,
q
σ= . (4)
A
It is obvious that, the plates are not infinite planes. Still, the above relationship
can be confindently used, in between the plates, provided that, we do not propose
to work too close to the edges of the plates. Therefore, in between the plates, and
far enough from the edges of the plates, the electric field intensity can be
considered to be constant.
23
We can think of the electric field vector E// created in between the plates, to be
composed of two components: i) The component created by the upper plate, and,
ii) The compoment created by the lower plate…
Were the postively charged plate on the upper side, just like the one, we
sketched in Figure 1; the vector E// (given that the upper plate will push downward
a test positive charge that would be placed in between the plates, and the lower
plate would pull it, still downward), will be directed downward. Since both plates
would contribute equally to the creation of E//, this will turn out to be,
σ σ σ
E// = + = . (5)
2ε0 2ε0 ε0
The electric potential V=V+-V-, in between the plates, on the other hand, owing
to what we had derived in Lesson 16, will be written as
−
V =  E ( z )dz . (6)
+
The integration operation, which means nothing else but summation, will be
performed from the upper plate, up to the lower plate, over the space present in
between the plates. Note, first of all that, within the framework of the present
problem, E(z), is constant, between the plates; z is the depth, measured from the
upper plate; dz is the infinitely small depth, from the depth z on. In the given
cicurcumstances, we can write the above integral as,
−
V = E//  dz . (7)
+
The integral says, we are to sum up, all of dz’s picked along the vertical
direction, in between the plates, starting from the upper plate, up to the lower
plate. Let us call d the separation distance of the plates. Therefore:
V = E// d . (8)
Now we rewrite, Eq.(2) via using Eq.(4), Eq.(5) and Eq.(8):
q q q q
C// = = = = , (9)
V E// d σ d q
d
ε0 Aε0
or,
24
Aε0
C// = . (10)
d
As we see, the charge storage capacity C//, or capacitance in short, for a parallel
plate capacitor, is indeed independent of V or q, but is expressed in terms of the
geometrical parameters of the capacitor at hand.
We define the quantity, L bearing length dimension as A/d, and write the above
//
capacitance as:
C// = L/ / ε0 . (11)
Cylindrical Capacitor
Now we will repeat the above exercise for a cylindrical capacitor (Fgure 2)…
We have two concentric cylinders of radii a and b, repectively. Their height is
H. We connect the surfaces of the given cylinders to a batterie (B), and charge
them. B pumps electrons, from the inner cylinder’s surface to the outer cylinder’s
surface. Thereby, the inner cylinder’s surface is charged positively, and the outer
cylinder’s surface is charged negatively.
Following the same approach as the one we followed above, we are first going
to determine the electric field intensity E(r) in between the charged cylindirical
surfaces of concern. We will see that, it is no more a constant, but depends on the
radius r. As soon as we have E(r), we can determine the electric potential
difference between the charged cylindrical surfaces of concern, which will then
yield the capacitance CCylindrical for the cylindrical capacitor at hand…
25
Figure 2 Cylindrical Capacitor. We have two concentric cylinders of radii a and b, repectively. Their height is
H. We connect the surfaces of the given cylinders to a batterie (B), and charge them. B pumps
electrons, from the inner cylinder’s surface to the outer cylinder’s surface. Thereby, the inner
cylinder’s surface is charged positively, and the outer cylinder’s surface is charged negatively.
For our purpose we will suppose that we operate around a space far enough
from the upper base and the lower base of the given cylinders. This means we are
bound to work at the region near the middle of the capacitor ☺) … Otherwise the
calculations would become too cumbersome.
Provided that we are aware of what we do, and how we do it, there is no harm
to achieve approximate calculations ☺) … And you know what, this is what we
do often ☺) … Thank God, because, more precise calculations provide only
second order corrections, approximate calculations, in many cases, furnish pretty
satisfactory results… All the same, you can encounter all of a suddden an
annoying result. And if you do not recall the approximations you would have
made at the beginning, then you would go crazy ☺) … It may even ocur that, you
would get astonished, that the plausible approximation, you would have
undersandbly made, at the first strike, might have caused an unexpectedly off line
result… We have a similar situation with regards to the present problem. So we
better pay attention to the fact that, what we will present below, is valid only for
infinitely long concentric cylinders, which we assume yet to have a finite height
H ☺) … The reason we do this, is that we will assume the electric field intensity E(r)
to be constant at any height, which is yet, as we point to, not true. …
26
Otherwise, the electric field vector, delineates a maximum in the middle of the
capacitor. It gets decreased as we get closer to the upper base or lower base.
Moreover, in the midlle, it is directed only along the radial direction, whereas,
elsewhere it will have, next to its radial component, a vertical component.
The search for more precision, is always, tiring, and in most cases require the
demolishment of a precedent grasp and the remaking of it. What is important yet,
is to be able to reflect the essential, just like caricaturists do. Reflect the character,
overlooking details, and do this, with as few lines as possible, or the same as little
mathematics as possible ☺) …
Under the given circumstances, we consider a point P, picked up in between a
and b, and situated at the mid plane of the cylinder, at a distance r to the central
axis.
We will first calculate E(r) at the location P.
Now recall Gauss Law (Chapter 15), we have applied to a charged sphere’s
empty inside. The electric field turned out to be null, in the inside. Similarly if we
consider an infinitly long charged cylinder, the electric field created by this, in its
inner part, will again be null. Therefore, the outer charged cylinder has no effect
on the creation of the electric field reigning in between the cylinders; only the
inner cylinder’s surface charge contribute to the creation of the electric field E(r),
at P, situated in between the cylinders.
Under the given circumsances, the electric field at the given location P, will
be due only to the inner cylinder’s surface charges.
This electric field intensity E(r), based on Gauss Law, will be nothing else, but
that created by the charge q residing on a piece of height H, of an infinitely long
and uniformly charged wire, at a distance r, from this, which we have dealt with
in Chapter 15:
q
E (r ) = . (12)
2π ε0 Hr
We have to recall that the above equation can be considered valid only around
the midplane of the cylindric capacitor…
Now we write the electric potential difference V, between the given concentric
cylinders, still close to the midplane of these, just the way we did at the level of
Eq.(6):
27
b
− −q q
V =  E (r )dr =  dr = lnr
+ + 2π ε Hr 2π ε H
0 0 a
. (13)
=
q
(lnb − lna ) = q ln b
2π ε0 H 2π ε0 H a
You see, right here, had b been considered farther and farther away from a; V,
becomes greater and greater ☺) …
What was V: It was the energy that a test charge of 1 Coulomb placed at a
distance r=a from the center, would acquire, as it runs from a to b, when set free at
a. The farther away b is from a, the larger will be V, and it will become infinite, if
b, were infinitely far from a ☺) …
This is nonsense, since we should not be able to get an infinite amount of energy,
out of the given configuration.
And where did such a fallacy come from? The answer is, what we did is valid,
for an infinitely long charged wire ☺) , and is not obviously valid for a finite
height capacitor.
In other words, Eq.(13), is incapable to reflect the radial symmetry break down,
near the upper base and the lower base of the capacitor.
Otherwise, an appropriate calculation, would lead as expectedly, a finite V, as b
tends to an infinte distance from a ☺) ...
Anyway, via Eq.(13) we can calculate the charge strorage capacity, or in short
the capacitance CCylinderical of the cylindrical capacitor at hand [Eq.(2)], as,
q q 2π ε0 H
CCylinderical = = =
V q b b . (14)
ln ln
2π ε0 H a a
Next we define the quantity,
2π H
LCylindrical = ; (15)
b
ln
a
bearing the dimension of length, and this way, we write, Eq.(14), as,
CCylindrical = LCylindrical ε0 . (16)
28
Recall the following. Since the way we explained above, V, cannot be infinite,
ln(b/a), cannot become infinite either, for a finite height capacitor, and
accordingly, CCylinderical will not be null, no matter how far away b is taken from a.
In other words, and contrary to the widespread writings, a charged cylinder, alone,
can well work as a capacitor. And it has really got no difference from a charged
sphere alone, which we will undertake below.
In effect, yourself can act as a charged capacitor, if the air conditions allow, and
you are somewhat charged, wearing charge insulating shoes. Then, as soon as you
touch someone, you get discharged ☺) … You will be surprized, but you would
have worked as a single surface charged capacitor, throughout ☺) …
Spherical Capacitor
Now we undertake a spherical capacitor, we sketch in Figure 3, just the way we

handled a cylindrical capacitor.
Figure 3 Spherical Capacitor. We have two concentric spheres of radii a and b, repectively. We connect the
surfaces of the given cylinders to a Batterie (B), and charge them. B pumps electrons, from the inner
sphere’s surface to the outer sphere’s surface. Thereby, the inner sphere’s surface is charged
positively, and the outer sphere’s surface is charged negatively.
29
Therefore, we consider two concentric spheres of radii a and b, repectively. We
connect the surfaces of the given cylinders to a batterie (B), and charged them. B
pumps electrons, from the inner sphere’s surface to the outer sphere’s surface.
Thereby, the inner sphere’s surface is charged positively, and the outer sphere’s
surface is charged negatively.
Below, we will first calculate the electric field intensity E(r) reigning in
between the spheres of concern. Then, we will calculate the electric potential
difference V between these spheres… This will lead us to the electric charge stroge
capacity, i.e. the capacitance of the spherical capacitor, at hand…
We thusly pick up a point P, between a and b, at a distance r from the center of
the shperes. Recall that here, just like we reasoned with regards to the cylindrical
capacitor, and owing to Gaus Law, the outer sphere’s charges have no contribution
to the creation of the electric field in between the shperes.
Therefore, the electric field E(r) at the chosen location, will be due to just
electric charges residing on the inner shpere’s surface. We can write E(r) based on
Gauss Law (cf. Chapter 15), visualizing a Gauss Spherical Surface passing by the
location P, we have cosnidered, as,
1 q
E (r) = ; (17)
4π ε0 r 2
here q, is the charge intenstiy of the inner sphere; but, at the same time, it is the
charge intensity of the outer sphere too.
Now, we calculate the electric potential difference between the inner and outer
spherical surfaces of the capacitor at hand, in full similarity with Eq.(13):
b
− −q q
V =  E(r)dr =  dr = −
+ + 4π ε r
0
2
2π ε0 r a
. (18)
q 1 1 q  1 1
=−  − =  − 
4π ε0  b a  4π ε0 a b
Note that over here, we needed no approximation whatsoever ☺) …
If we had to do a calculation for a chicken geometry, we can approximate it,
with a spherical geometry ☺) …
But when we undertake calculations in a spherical geometry, given that there is
no further ideal geometry, we have accordingly to make no approximations, and
confidently believe that our results reflect the reality rigorously ☺) …
30
True…
Now, we write the the charge storage capacity or in short, the Capacitance
CSpherical [cf. Eq.(2)] of our spherical capacitor, following Eq.(18), as,
q q 4π ε0 ab
CSpherical = = =
V q  1 1 b−a . (19)
 − 
4π ε0  a b 
Further on, we introduce the following definition, bearing the dimension of

length:
4π a . (20)
LSpherical =
a
1−
b
Then, we can write:
CSpherical = LSpherical ε0 .
31
Summary Table
It would be useful to summarize our results in the following table.
Table 1 Capacitance in Different Geometries

Geometry Capacitance L Notes
A: Plate
Parallel C/ / = L/ / ε0 L/ / =
A Surface
Plate d Area
d:
Distance
Between
the Plate
H: Height
a: Inner
Cylindrical CCylindrical = LCylindrical ε0 2π H Cy-
LCylindrical =
b clinder’s
ln
a Radius
b: Outer
Cy-
clinder’s
Radius
4π a a: Inner
LSpherical =
Spherical CSpherical = LSpherical ε0 a Sphere’s
1−
b Radius
b: Outer
Sphere’s
Radius
We can state different propeties poping out from the above table, as follows:
o In a cylindrical capacitor, the longer the heigh H, and the closer the radii a
and b, the greater is the capacitance CCylinderical .
o In such a capacitor, because the logarithm function tends to zero as b tends
to a, the closer b to a, the greater is the capacitance CCylinderical .
o The capacitance CCylindrical , decreases with an increasing b, but never vanishes,
in reality.
o In other words, a charged cylinder alone, would well behave as a capacitor.
32
o In a spherical capacitor, the closer b to a, the greater is the capacitance,
CSpherical . As b tends to infinity, CSpherical tends to 4π ε0 a [Eq.(19)], which means
a charged sphere along, can work as a capacitor, as well.
3. EQUIVALENT CAPACITOR OF CAPACIORS CONNECTED IN

PARALLEL, AND THAT OF CAPACITORS CONNECTED IN SERIES
Now we are going to consider separately capacitors, connected in parallel, and

then in series, and propose to determine the equivalent capacitor, for each set.
Equivalent Capacitor of Capacitors Connected in Parellel With Each Other
We propose to connect three capacitors in parallel, to a power source B; Their
capacitance are respectively C1, C2 and C3 (Figure 4). We search for the equivalent
capacitor, keeping B the same.
Figure 4 The Batterie (B), charges three capacitors connected to it, in parallel. In this case, the electric
potential difference reigning between the plates of the given capacitor, would be the same, and,
following a full charging process, equal to the electric potential difference V, reigining between the
poles of B. Similarly the electric potential difference reigning between the plates of the equivalent
capacitor, following a full charging process, will also be V. The total charge intensity, accumulated
by the three capacitors, of concern, will further amount to the charge intensity of either plate of the
equivalent capacitor.
We call V+-V-, or in short V, the electric potential difference between the poles
of the batterie, B…
Let us see how the capacitors will get charged when connected to B.
33
What B does, is to pump electrons from the upper plates of the capacitors to
their lower plates… This way, upper plates will be charged positivey and the lower
plates negatively.
The process will keep on going, until, the electric potential difference between
the plates gets equal to that reigning in between the poles of B.
From Eq.(2) (C=q/V), we can write with regards to our capacitors this:
q1
C1 =
V , (22a)
q2
C2 =
V , (22b)
q3
C3 =
V . (22c)
With regards to our equivalent capacitor’s capacitance, we can similarly write
this:
qEq
CEq =
V . (23)
We call respectively, q1, q2 and q3, the charge intensity of either plate of the
corresponding capacitors. We can thereby write:
qEq = q1 + q2 + q3 . (24)
Via the above equations, we can further write:
qEq = CEqV = C1V + C2V + C3V . (25)
Or:
CEq = C1 + C2 + C3 . (26)
We can easily generalize this relationship to establish the following rule:
- The equivalent capacitance of capacitors connected to each other in
parallel, is made of the sum of the capacitances of the given capacitors.
Euivalent Capacitance of Capacitors Connected in Series
Now we connect, the parallel plate capacitors of capacitances, repectively, C1, C2

and C3 to the Batterie B, in series (Figure 5). And we purpose to determine the
capacitor bearing an equivalent capacitance, where B should remain in place.
34
Figure 5 The Batterie (B), charges three capacitors, connected in series with each other. In this case you can
pay attention to the fact that, the charge intensity on the plates of all three capacitors, is the same; we
call it q. Likewise, the charge intensity of the equivalent capacitor, will also be q. The sum of the
electric potentials of the capacitors, amount to the electric potential of the Battery, had the charging
process been complete.
We call again V+-V-, or in short V, the electric potential difference reigning

between the poles of B.
Let us review how the capacitors in question are charged exactly.
What the Batterie does, as usual, is to pump electrons from the upper plates of
the capacitors, to the lower plates of these. This way, upper plates are charged
positively, and the lower plates negatively. But, there is emptiness in between the
plates. Then, how can the plates situated in between the upper plate of the first
capacitor, and the lower plate of the third capacitor of Figure 5, be charged really?
The answer is this: The Batterie, pumps electrons, from the upper plate of the
first capacitor, to the lower plate of the third capacitor. But, once the upper plate
of the first capacitor is charged positively, it attracts electrons from the current
carrying cable situated right below the lower plate of this capacitor; the electrons
then come to occupy the latter plate to balance the positive charges that took place
on the upper plate. This means the lower plate of the first capacitor is accordingly
charged negatively.
This induces automatically that the upper plate of the second capacitor is
charged positively.
This (just the same way we explained with regards to the lower plate of the first
capacitor), makes that the lower plate of the second capacitor too, gets charged
negatively. This leads to the consequence that the upper plate of the third
capacitor is getting charged postiviely.
35
Note that we can well tell the same story, getting started, at the lower plate of
the third capacitor, charged negatively. Thereby, we can affirm that, the steps of
the analysis we have furnished above, all take place simultaneously ☺) …
And ultimately, upper plates are charged positively and the lower plates are
charged negatively.
The process keeps on going until the sum of the electric potential differences
taking place between the plates of the given capacitors, gets equal to the electric
potential difference reigning in between the poles of the Batterie, at hand.
You should pay attention to the fact that, the electric charge intensity on all of
the plates will the same; we call it q. The electric potential differences between
the pairs of plates of the given capacitors, will yet in general be different from
each other.
Based on Eq.(2) (C=q/V), we can write the following relationships:
q
C1 =
V1 , (27a)
q
C2 =
V2 , (27b)
q
C3 =
V3 . (27c)
We can simiarly write for the equivalent capacitor’s capacitance this:

q
CEq =
V . (28)
Given that the sum of the electric potential differences taking place between
the plates of the given capacitors, shoud be equal to the electric potential
difference V, reigning in between the poles of the Battery, we are to write:
V = V1 + V2 + V3 . (29)
Via using the above relationships we land at,
q q q q
V= = + + . (30)
CEş C1 C2 C2
And we have finally,

1 1 1 1
= + + . (31)
CEş C1 C2 C2
36
This relationship too, can be easily generalized, and we can establish the
following next rule:
- The inverse of the capacitance of the capacitor, equivalent to capacitors
mounted in series, is equal to the summation of the inverses of the
capacitances, of the given capacitors.
Note that, the cast of the rule that we will tap in the near future, for the
equivalent resistance of resistors mounted in parallel, will turn out to be the same
as that we have written above, for capacitors mounted in series; likewise, the cast
of the rule that we will write for the equivalent resistance of resistors mounted in
series, will turn out the same as that we have written above, for capacitors,
mounted in parallel (cf. Chapter 19, which we will undertake, two weeks from
now).
We thusly find the equivalent capacitance of capacitors mounted in parallel,
just the same way we find the equivalent resisatance of resistors mounted in series.
And we find the equivalent capacitance of capacitors mounted in series, the
same way we find the equivalent resistnce of resistors mounted in parallel.
This, somewhat looks like shcizofrenia ☺) , but this is the way it is…
4. CAPACITOR’S CHARGING ENERY
We go back to Figure 1. We particularly focus on the process of charging. By now,

we know that the capacitance, no matter what its definition is Q (charge intensity)
/ V(electric potential difference betweeen the plates), is given just by the
geometrical parameters of the problem at hand, and is thereby a constant (cf. Table
1).
If so, we can write the capacitance C, at any time t, of the charging process, as,
q(t)
C= ; (32)
V(t)
here q(t) is the electric charge intensity of either plate at time t, and V(t), is the
electric potential difference reigning in between the plates at the given time…
Let us call dW(t), the infintey small energy the Batterie (B), has to spend in
order to carry the infinitely small charge dq(t), from one plate to the other. The
electric potential difference reigning begtween the plates at this moment being,
V(t), the infintely small energy dW(t), becomes (cf. Chapter 16),
37
dW(t)=V(t)dq(t) . (33)
Let us then find the energy W necessary to charge completely the capacitor at
hand; thereby we have to start at t=0, where the electric potential between the
plates of the capacitor is null, i.e. V(0)=0, and we charge it, until this potential
attains the value of V( )=V, at mathematically, t= , which would amount to a
finite charging period of time, practically, anyway. The energy we would
throughout pull out of B, then becomes,
t =
W = V (t )dq (t ) . (34)
t =0
Let us use over here, Eq.(32):

t = q(t ) =Q
t = q (t ) q 2(t) q 2(t) Q2
W = dq (t ) = = = , (35)
t =0 C 2C t =0 2C q(t) =0 2C
or in short,
Q2
W= . (36)
2C
This is the energy, B has to spend in order to store the charge intensity Q, in
either plate of the capacitor of concern.
We can use the definition, C=Q/V, over here, to write W, to write as well,
1
W= CV 2 . (37)
2
5. DIELEKTRIC
Up to this point we assumed there was emptiness in between the plates of the
capacitor at hand. Whereas, this is not really possible. At best, we have air, which
is not emptiness at all…
In fact, if there is something in between the plates of the capacitor in
consideration and not emptiness, this would be an advantage, for, as we will see
below, we can, in a real case, store more charges per unit difference of potential,
than we can, in the case we would have just emptiness in between the plates of it
☺) …
We will deal with this, in what follows.
38
There is a material type we call “dielectric”, such as water…
We saw in Chapter 14 (Figure 5) that, the water molecule consists in a dipole,
i.e. it is made of a pair of oppositely charged elements, and the intensity of each
is 2e, where e is the electron charge intensity; they are separated by a distance of
about the atomic size, i.e. 10-8 cm.
Let see, how this occurs… The nucleus of the oxygen atom, O, in a water
molecule, H-O-H, pulls the electrons of the neighboring Hydrogen (H) atoms.
Note that the angle between O and the two H atoms, is about 105 degrees. Thereby
the O atom is charged negatively, by -2e. Conversely the H atoms are charged
positively, each by +e, each having landed out one electron. Thence the water
molecule can be shown to be a pair of electric charges each bearing the intensity
2+
of 2e, or in short, as, 2II− … As just pointed out, the lines joining the pair of charges
bears a length of about 10-8 cm.
In the case the capacitor is not charged, had there been water molecules in
between the plates of it, they would get configured randomly. But as soon as the
plates are charged, then, the positively charged plate will attract water molecules’
negative poles, and the negatively charged plate will attract water molecules’
positive poles. All of the molecules residing in between the plates will get aligned
accordingly. We call such a material, a “dielectric”. This means, if there is no
electric field around, it behaves ordinarily. But in the case an electric field is
applied, then, the consitutents of it, are ordered accordingly.
☺) …
We sketch what we just explained, in Figure 6, below…
39
Figure 6 A capacitor, which hosts water molecules in between its plates, before and after, it is charged. Water
molecules are configured randomly in between the plates, when the capacitor at hand is not charged.
After it is charged, the water molecules are ordered, owing to the fact that the positively charged
upper plate attracts water molecules’ negative poles, and the negatively charged lower plate attracts
water molecules’ positive poles. Eveything is accordingly reconfigured. The charge intensity Q, say,
of the upper plate that would be piled up after charging, in the case there is emptiness in between the
plates; will get diminished, had there been now, water molecules in between the plates, by a charge
intensity qD, which amounts, in the given conditions, to the total charge intensity delineated by the
negative poles of water molecules, facing Q.
Now we propose to calculate the electric field intensity ED, reigning in between
the plates of a capacitor, where the space is filled with water molecules. We can
suppose, just the way we have elaborated at the beginning of this chapter, that ED
is constant. Witin the given framework, we write Eq.(6), as,
σD
ED // = ; (38)
ε0
here σD, is the effective charge density reigning on the given plates.
The charge density, A, being the surface area of the given plate, ordinarily was
σ=Q/A. Yet now the charge intensity Q, of either plate is diminished by qD.
Therefore, for the effective charge density, we are to write,
40
Q − qD
D = . (39)
A
Now let us define the following quantity:
Q
= ; (40)
Q − qD
We call χ, “dielectric constant”. It is evidently greater than unity…

Within this context the effective electric field in between the plates becomes,
Q-qD Q
ED// = = , (41)
Aε0 Aχε0
or,
E//
ED // = . (42)

Under the given circumstances, the electric field intensity reigning between the
plates, is reduced by χ when comapred to the original outcome.
Let us next write the electric potential difference, VD created in between the
plates, under the presence of a dielectric, in between the plates, following Eq.(8):
E//
VD = d. (43)

Recall that d was the distance separating the two given plates…
The electric potential difference, thence, is reduced by the dielectric constant χ.
Therefore the new capacitance CD//, i.e. under the presence of a dielectric,
becomes,
Q Q
CD // = = . (44)
V V

This leads to,
CD // = C// . (45)
The capacitance in the presence of a dielectric, then comes to be increased by
χ.
41
QUESTIONS
Question 1
a) Prove that, the electric field reigning in between the plates of a parallel plate
capacitor, is constant. Hint: Show, via using Gauss Law that a uniformly
charged infinite plane of surface density σ, creates at any altitude above or
below it, an electric field intensity E= σ/2ε0 , written n MKS unit system.
b) Despite this result, the electric field intensity between the plates of a
capacitor amounts to E= σ/ε0 Why? Is the outcome valid near the edges of
the plates?
c) The width between the plates is d. The electric potential between them
amounts to, V=Ed. Why?
d) Suppose the surface area of each plate is S, and the intensity of the stored
charge is q. Show that the capacitance C=q/V, can be expressed as C=Sε0/d.
e) The MKS unit for C’nin is Farad (Coulomb/Volt). Suppose C=1x10-12 Farad,
and V=1Volt. How many electrons under the given circumstnaces are moved
form one plate to the other? The electron charge intensity is
e=1.6x10-19 Coulomb.
Question 2
Suppose that there is a spherical capacitor with inner radius a and outer radius b.
a) Find the capacitance of this conductor in terms of a and b.
b) When the outer radius b goes to infinity, show that
C= 4 C = Vq a ,
c) While we are charging a capacitor, infinitesimal small charges are moved
from one plate to the other one, under a potential difference V(t), at time t. As
we move the charge dq throughout, we spend the energy dW(t). By definition,
dW(t)=V(t)dq(t).
In shorthand notation,
dW=Vdq .
Since the capacitance of capacitor is C=Q/V, when the total charge intensity at
both plates is Q, show that the total energy of the capacitor is
42
Q2
U= .
2C
d) For a spherical capacitor of inner radius a, and outer radius b= , show that,
σ=
q
A
Q2
U=
8 0 a
e) Calculate U by using the given quantities: a=10 cm, Q=2 10-9 C.
Question 3
A capacitor contains a dielectric material. Dielectric materials consist of two

electrically polarized elements, like water. Indeed water molecule is an
electrically dipolarized molecule with an oxygen atom and two Hydrogen atoms
which are seperated from each other with a distance 10-8 cm. And they consist of
2+ and 2- charges. But when water is placed between the plates of a charged
capacitor, they become polarized, the charges of water molecule is facing the
charges of capacitor plates. Let each plate contain the charge intensity Q.
Indicate a Gaussian surface which is very close to the upper plate. Then Q’ is the
opposite charge of dielectric material which is on the bottom of the Gaussian
surface. The dielectric constant χ is
Q
Q -Q' =

a) Let E be the magnitude of the electric field between the plates of capacitor. If
there is a dielectric material betwen the plates, by using Gauss’ law show that,
the electric field can be written in terms of the electric field E0 with no
dielectric material and the dielectric constant χ, as,
E0
E= .

b) The dielectric constant of water is approximately 80. Does the capacitance C,

namely the charge stored per unit voltage, increase or decrease? By which
factor?
Question 4
A parallel plate capacitor is made of two parallel plates. Each plate bears a surface
area of A; the distance betwen the plates is d. The capacitor, is filled by two
different dielectric materials K1 ve K2 placed next to each other, as shown in the
figure below. Find the capacitance of the capacitor.
43
Question 5
a) Consider a spherical capacitor, consisting in two concentric spheres of inner
radius a, and outer radius b. Using Gauss Law, show that the capacitance C
ab
of it, can be written as C = 4 0 . (C, as you will recall is the charge
b−a
intensity q that would have been piled up on either (inner or outer) spherical
surface area / The electric potential difference between the surface areas in
question. Thus the unit of C, in MKS unit system becomes Coulomb/Volt,
which is called “Farad”.)
b) Starting with the above relationship, show that, for just one spherical surface
area, the capacitance is C = 4 0 a .
c) Consider a capacitor of capacitance C=10 microfarad (that is 10-6 farad). It is
connected to a battery of V=12 Volts. What is the energy it would have piled
up after it is charged? Derive the relationship for the stored energy, and
calcualte this latter quantity in terms of Joules.
d) Suppose we have a dielectric material of dielectric constant C = Aεd , in between
//
0
the surfaces of the capacitor at hand. How the capacitance would be affected,
accordingly? Would the energy stored for each volt of potential energy
difference, smaller or greater, and by how much?
44
CHAPTER 18
ELECTRIC CURRENT, RESISTANCE, RESISTIVITY
In this lesson, we are going to deal with electric current, and resistance, together
with related concepts, that we will shape, along the way.
1. ELECTRIC CURRENT
We consider a circuit presented in Figure 1. The batterie (B) (power source),
pumps an electric current to the circuit, through the resistance R. We have
defined neither elctric currrent nor resistance ☺) … It is all right, though…
What is a Batterie?
Let us first understand what a “batterie” (B) is about, and how it pumps electric
current to the circuit… We show one of the two poles of B with the positive sign
(+), and the other with the negative sign (-).
This means, the following:
- There is a vacancy of electrons at the positive pole of B, and an excess
of electrons at the negative pole of it...
Throughout this course, positive and negative does not mean anything
else, but what we just stated…
The inside of the Batterie is very complex. In order to understand it, one
has to be acquainted with a high knowledege of electrochemistry and
physicochemistry… We will not deal with any of these over here ☺) … All we
have to know is that, as soon as we close the circuit swtich (A), there will occur
an electronic slope, and the electrons will start to move from the negative pole
1
of B, toward its positive pole. We call the motion delineated by the electrons,
electric current, and it will keep on going until the poles neutralize each other.
Figure 1 The electric current intensity is i. We suppose that the entire resistance
of the circuit, is put together, under R. The electric potential between the
poles of the Batterie, is V. This, as well, becomes the electric potential
difference between the edges of the resistance R. We are going to see
how the current intensity i can be measured via the aid of an Ammeter to
be connected in series to the circuit. Like-wise the electric potential
difference between the edges of R, will be measured via the aid of a
Voltmeter, to be connected in pareallel to the circuit. Under the
circumstances R, becomes just a definition, expressed as V/i; whereas i is
the charge intensity that, in a stationary regime, go through any cross-
sectional area perpendicular to the circuit per unit period of time. A is the
switch, that interrupts the current, or that makes it go on…
Don’t you think that, the circuit consists in an empty tube, and the
electrons go through, freely. No!.. We have to pump them against the resistance
of the circuit.
We can think of the circuit as a pipe bringing home water. As soon as we
turn on the robinet, if there is enough pressure to pump water in the pipe, water
will flow out. When one turns on the robinet, water present right behind the exit
2
of this latter, will flow out. Otherwise it is obvious that, water at the city water
source will not flow from your robinet, immediatelyafter you turn it on ☺) ...
In other words, there is, yes, a slope of electrons between the poles of the
Batterie. We can associate this slope with the pressure of the water pipe.
All the same, there are free electrons, inside the current carrying cable
(mostly made of copper), in fact at any time, whether there is a current or not, in
the circuit... And when the slope of concern is set up, the free electrons are
pumped to drift in the circuit.
You see, we have further to know about atomic physics, in order to
undestand how an electric current is esablished and flows in the cable, when the
swtich is turned on ☺) …
Circuit Cable
We can briefly say this: The circuit cable is madde of copper wire. The copper
atom (Cu), is made of a nucleus bearing 29 protons and an electronic cloud
structured around this, and made of 29 electrons. The copper nucleus, cannot
bind robustly all of the 29 electrons residing in the electronic cloud of it. More
rigorously speaking the binding energy of the 29th electron around the nucleus
is relatively low. This electron, kind of “hesitates” to choose the copper nucleus
to which it will be bound ☺) … Instead, it hangs around ☺) … It moves from
here to there, with a rather high velocity (1000 km / s). This is what we call a
free electron. It is there even before the switch A is off (Figure 1).
When we close the switch; the electron slope reigning in between the
poles of the Batterie, creating an electric field, pushes the free electrons, along
the direction of the slope. An electric current takes place in the cable, being
superimposed with the already existing chaotic motion of the free electrons. This
is thusly not any different than the flow of water from our robinet when we turn
it on; water is being carried, owing to the existing pressure, and those water
drops residing close to the robinet, flow out…
3
Red Pole, Blue Pole
When the electric current was discovered by 1800’s, noone knew anything about
electrons, or even further, free electrons, the flow of which makes in effect, the
electric current when the swith is turned on… All the same, human intelligence
is fascinating… The scientists starting by Alessandro Volta (read about him
from an internet encyclopedia), observed that something is moving ☺) … They
colored one of the poles of the Battery with red, and the other with blue. And
they called them, respectively positive pole and negative pole. They thought,
“electric current” is flowing from the positive pole of B, toward the negative
pole of it. The opposite occurs, yet ☺) … Free electrons already residing in the
cable, move from the blue pole toward the red pole, when the switch is closed.
Nevertheless, it is, at the same time, as if positive charges move from the
positivve pole of B toward its negative pole…
Scientists called, the flow they discovered, “electric current”.
Not to bother with signs, recall that we would choose to proceed, with the
magnitudes of the quantities at hand, rather than their algebraic values.
Because it was done that way, historically, we represent the electric
current as if it takes place from the positive pole of the Batterie, toward its
negative pole. All the same, from here on, when we will say charge, we will not
bother with whether it is positive or negative, but consider just the intensity of it,
which is by definition positive.
Electric Current
We consider a current carrying cable in a “stationary regime”. This means the
properties that will be question of, are fixed in time, no matter what, obviously,
there is something getting moved. We focus on a cross-sectional area K of the
circuit, perpendicular to the circuit. Suppose the infinitely small charge dq go
thorugh it, in an infintely small period of time dt.
4
If the charge dq goes though K in the period of time dt, then the charge
dq/dt goes through it, through a unit period of time. We call this quantity,
electric current intensity i:
𝑑𝑞
𝑖= . (1)
𝑑𝑡
The dimension of it, in MKS unit system is

𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑜𝑚𝑏
𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒 = . (2)
𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑
Electric means, what pertains to electrons…

As a matter of fact, electron, was not even known when one said electric.
From this view point, “electron” came to be defined as the elementary particle
that gives rise to electric current ☺) …
What really happened in the history, will not constitute our topic here, and
we will just state that “electric” means, in short, “what pertains to the
electrons” ☺) … That is it…
The electric current, can be measured via the aid of an ammeter to be
connected in series to the circuit, as we will see next week.
2. RESISTANCE, RESISTIVITY
Up against the passage of the electric current in the circuit, there will occur a
resistance, both inside the current carrying cable, and the resistance (R) (Figure
1). Recall, we had assumed above that all resistances residing inside the cable is
put together in R.
How is the resistance developed?
Here it is question of the force exerted by the copper atomic nuclei to the
free electrons. We called them free, and in effect we meant that they are sort of
hanging around, inside the copper cable (which as we supposed, the circuit
material consists in). All the same, they not not that free after all ☺) … They are
5
still attracted by the copper nuclei… This way, they collide with the electronic
clouds of the copper atoms making the cable, and each collision, should be
considered as a stop, slowing down the electric current flow, inside the cable.
And this is precisely why we have a Batterie. It is there, to surmount the
resistance of the circuit to the passage of the electrons; we will deal with this,
pretty soon.
We have still not formally defined the resistance R ☺) … Furthermore,
and for simplicity we will call R, both the device “resistance” and the reaction R,
the device of concern develops to the passage of the current… (R, in Fgure 1,
represents, as we have assumed, the total resistance of the circuit.)
We can measure the difference of potential V, existing between the poles
of the Batterie, via connecting them to the edges of a Voltmeter (and, we will
deal with this, next week). You can pay attention to the fact that the electric
potential difference that intercepts the edges of R, in Figure 1, is precisely V…
Definition of Resistance
We define R, as follows:
𝑉
𝑅= . (3)
𝑖
This is just a definition. It says, the resistance is the electric potential

difference, between the edges of the device, which we called R, per unit electric
current intensity, going through it.
The dimension of R, in MKS unit system is,
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡
𝑂ℎ𝑚 [𝛺] = . (4)
𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒
Ohm’s Law
Now we propose to take off B from Figure 1, and replace it with B1 bearing the
electric potential difference V1, between the poles. What we observe is that an
6
new electric current i1 is established in the circuit. The new electric potential
difference between the edges of the resistance will be V1 (cf. Figure 1). So along
with B1, we have the pair of [i1, V1] established in the circuit… Next we
propose to replace B1 by another Batterie B2; accordingly the newer pair of
[i2, V2], will be established in the circuit. What we observe in many cases, is that
the ratios, V1/ i1 and V2/ i2 turn out the same and equal to the original ratio V/i:
𝑉 𝑉1 𝑉2
𝑅= = = =⋯ . (5)
𝑖 𝑖1 𝑖2
This is, in general only an approximate relationship, and cannot be applied

to, say, transistors, or integrated circuits…
All the same, Eq.(5) constitutes a useful relaitonship in most cases. It was
first observed by the German scientist Georg Simon Ohm, in early 1800’s,
which led to Ohm’s Law:
V=Ri . (6)
As we will soon see, the definition of R in Eq.(3), is related to the cross-

sectional area of the cable at hand, and its length, rather than its intrinsic
properties…This necessitate going deeper, and this is what we will undertake
below.
The Electric Current Intensity Going Through the Unit Cross-Sectional Area
of the Current Carrying Cable
Within the framework, we set in Figure 1, next to the electric current intensity, i,
going though the entire cross-sectional area S of the cable; we propose now to
define, J, the electric current intensity going through just a unit cross-sectional
area of the cable. Since i goes through S, J will be written as:
𝑖 𝐴𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑒
𝐽= . (7)
𝑆 𝑚2
7
Let us further call E the elctric field vector, the Batterie exerts on the free
electrons present in the cable. This vector is directed in the direction opposite to
the direction of motion of the electrons… We can think of it, to consist in a
vector, pulling the electrons, in the direction of motion. We call E, the
magnitude of E…
Definition of Resistivity
Along with the new definitions of E and J, we just introduced, and similar to
Eq.(3), we now write:
𝐸
𝜌= . (8)
𝐽
We call this quantity, resistivity. As we will soon see, this quantity

depends solely on the intrinsic microscopic properties of R, and not on its
macroscopic geometrical properties..
Here, calling L the length of the resistance R, we will make use of the
relationship,
V=EL . (9)
which, we have established in Chapter 16.

Therefore:
𝑉
𝐿
𝜌= 𝑖 . (10)
𝐴
Using Eq.(3), we land at,

𝐿
𝑅=𝜌 . (11)
𝑆
This is a relationship, you knew froom your highschool knowledge, but

you did not know how to derive.
8
3. EXPRESSION OF J, THE ELECTRIC CURRENT GOING THROUGH A
UNIT SURFACE AREA
Now we propose to take a picture of the free electrons, residing inside the
current carrying cable under a stationary regime, at time t. As a matter of fact,
the picture will be the same, no matter what time it is taken at, provided that the
regime of concern is stationary.
Suppose we have n free electrons inside the cable in a unit volume of this.
We call vd the drift velocity of the electrons upon the passage of the electric
current…
We visualize a cylinder of height |vd| and base area S, on the given cable
(Figure 2). (We have written the modulus |vd| of the drift velocity, for, it
represents a height.)
The volume of the cylinder in consideration is |vd|x S… The number of
free electrons residing inside this cylinder at time t, will then be, n x (|vs|x S).
These electrons in their entirity, will go through S, in a unit period of time.
Let e be as usual the charge intensity of the electron. Then, the charge
intensity of free electrons going through S, in a unit period of time, will be
|e x n x vs S| Coulomb, which we already called electric current i, on the basis of
Eq.(1). Thereby we are to write,
𝑖
𝐽 = = 𝑛𝑒𝑣𝑑 . (12)
𝑆
9
Figure 2 We visualize a cylinder of helght |vd| and base area S, on the
given cable (We have written the modulus |vd| of the drift
velocity, for, it represents a height.) The volume of the cylinder
in consideration is |vd|x S… We call n the number of free
electrons in a unit volume of the cable material. The number of
free electrons residing inside the above cylinder at the given
time, through a statioanry regime, will then be, n x (|vs|x S).
These electrons in their entirity, will go through S, in a unit
period of time. Let e be the charge intensity of the electron.
Then, the charge intensity of free electrons going through S, in
a unit period of time, will be |e x n x vs S| Coulomb, which we
already called electric current i, on the basis of Eq.(1). Thereby,
we are to write, J=i/S=envs.
4. EXPRESSION OF THE RESISTIVITY IN TERMS OF THE FREE

ELECTRON DENSITY, AND TIME IN BETWEEN TWO COLLISIONS:
CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS, ACCORDINGLY
Now, we consider Figure 3. Here we focus to a piece of current carrying cable,
to a very high resolution degree. This way we propose to be able to see free
electrons, and to track their collisions with the the electronic clouds of copper
atoms. Further, we particularly focus to just one free electron, and track its
random, and high speed (1000 km/s), quantum mechanical motion, before an
electric current takes place in the given medium.
We represent copper atoms as little circles.
A speed of 1000 km’s, means that, the free electron moves to Van from
here, in one second. Through another second it will land at Tehran. Bouncing
10
backward, it would arrive at Damascus. One more bouncing, would bring it to
Cairo ☺ … Its random quantum mechanical velocity is, that high…
Once an electric field E (from the right toward the left, in Figure 3), is
turned on, the free electrons, next to their said motion, would further be drifted
away, in a direction opposite to the given electric field… Their drift velocity is,
in our daily applications, around 10-3 mm /s (and, even smaller than this, in
some cases)... In the Figure 3 set up, the free electrons will drift toward the
electric field vector, i.e. from left toward right.
The dotted zigzags we drew in Figure 3 represent the itinerary a free
electron delineates before the current is turned on. Whereas the continuous
zigzags represent the itinerary the given free electron delineates after the current
is turned on…
The Acceleration Delineated by the Drifted Free Eelectron

The electron, in between two collisions with the electronic clouds of the copper
atoms, would acquire the rightward velocity v=vd, having started with the
velocity v=0, in the same direction, rihgt after, its alleged first collision. We call
τ the period of time that elapses between the two subsequent collisions. The
related acceleration a, by definition, becomes,
𝛥𝑣 𝑣𝑑−0 𝑣𝑑
𝑎= = = . (13)
𝛥𝑡 𝜏 𝜏
Normally, acceleration, is a vector quantity; it has got a direction. Above

we wrote its magnitude. Its direction is the same as that of the drift velcoity,
vd… It is directed from left toward right in Figure 3…
11
Figure 3 Here we focus to a piece of current carrying cable, to a very high
resolution degree. This way we propose to be able to see free
electrons, and to track their collisions with the the electronic clouds of
copper atoms. Further, we particularly focus to just one free electron,
and track its random, and high speed (1000 km/s), quantum
mechanical motion, before an electric current takes place in the given
medium. Once an electric field E (from the right toward the left, in
Figure 3), is turned on, the free electrons, next to their said motion,
would further be drifted away, in a direction opposite to the given
electric field… Their drift velocity is, in our daily applications,
around 10-3 mm /s … In the Figure 3 set up, the free electrons will
drift toward the electric field vector, i.e. from left toward right. The
dotted zigzags represent the itinerary, a free electron delineates, before
the current is turned on. Whereas the continuous zigzags represent the
itinerary the given free electron delineates after the current is turned
on…
The force Fe exerted on the free electron in consideration, will be written as,
Fe=eE ; (14)
e, is the charge intensity of the free electron, and E is the intensity of the electric
field vector exerted on it…
We can express the same force based on Newton’s Law of Motion (cf.
Chapter 6):
F=ma , (15)
12
where m, is the mass of the electron.
We equate the two forces:
ma=eE . (16)
Therefore:
𝑒𝐸
𝑎= . (17)
𝑚
Resistivity
We go back to Eq.(13), with this piece of information, to write,
𝑣𝑑 𝑒𝐸
= . (18)
𝜏 𝑚
Let us extract the drift velocity vd, from Eq.(12), and plug it, above:
𝐽 𝑒𝐸
= . (19)
𝑛𝑒𝜏 𝑚
We had defined the resistivity, ρ, as E/J [Eq.(8)]. Thusly:

𝑚
𝜌= . (20)
𝑒 2 𝑛𝜏
As we had conjectured, above, we could finally express the resistivity, in

terms of just the microscopic, i.e. atomistic quantities of the material at hand.
Classification of Materials
Let us sum up briefly: The number n, is the number of free electrons, ready to
carry the electric current upon the application of an electric field, say, via a
Batterie, and residing inside the material of concern, per unit volume. On the
other hand, τ is the time taken by a free electron through two subsequent
collisions, it would undergo with the electronic clouds of atoms, the material of
concern, is made of. On the other hand, m and e are respectively the mass and
13
the charge intensity of the electron. Since, the latter two quantitites are constant,
the only two quantitites that affect the resistivity, are n and τ.
All this means, the greater n and τ; the smaller will become ρ; and, the
smaller will be resistance that the material will develop up against the passage of
the electric current. The material in consideration, is then called conductor.
Conversely, the smaller n and τ; the greater will become ρ; and, the
greater will be resistance that the material will develop up against the passage of
the electric current. Such a material is then called insulator.
The quantitites n and τ can depend on the temperature, in some materials,
and can particularly get increased with temperature. We call such materials,
semi-sonductors.
In metallic conductors, such as copper, you can pay attention to the fact
that, temperature will increase the resistivity. Conversely, lowering the
temperature would decrease the resistivity. The closer the temperature to
absolute 0, i.e. by definition, -273 degree Celsius’e, the lower becomes its
resistivity, under which circumstances the material at hand is called super-
conductor.
This is a deep topic, and we better leave it, right here ☺) …
5. ENERGY NECESSARY TO CARRY CHARGES THROUGH THE

RESISTANCE
To turn on electricity, or the same, the electric current in the circuit, means,
pumping free electrons, or in general electric charges through the circuit, and
more precisely through the resistance of it. Let us go back to Figure 1. Recall we
assume the entire resistance of the circuit, put in R, shown, in here.
Energy Necessary to Furnish to Carry the Charge dq Through the Circuit

The energy dW we have to furnish to pump through the circuit the infinitely
small charge dq, is (cf. Chapter 16),
14
dW=Vdq ; (21)
V, is the electric potential difference reigning in between the edges of the

resistance; further recall that dq, is throughout adopted, as a positive charge...
Power
We now divide both sides of Eq.(21), by dt, the period of time, dq takes to cross
the resistance R:
𝑑𝑊 𝑑𝑞
=𝑉 . (22)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
By the same token, we mean that we tap from the Batterie, the energy dW
through the period of time dt.
This means the Batterie consumes the energy dW/dt, per unit period of
time. We call this quantity, power or P, which via Eq.(22) becomes:
P=Vi . (23)
The unit of P, in MKS Unit System is, Joule/saniye, or in short, Watt...

Via using the right hand side of Eq.(6) in Eq.(23), we land at:
P=Ri2 . (24)
Let us stress that P, is the energy spent by the Batterie, per second, to
create the electric current of intensity i, which goes through R. This means R
resists to the passage of the current; by doing so, it gets heated up…
The electric owen, works precisely that way. R gets heated, and
accordingly radiates. Radiation, is energy, and heats up the surrounding air.
Furthermore, the air molecules that touch directly the heated wire, get heated up
via conduction. They fly away, and via colliding with other air molecules, bring
heat to the latter molecules. This is called heating via convection. This is how
15
energy produced in R is transferred to the surrounding… Let us restate the heat
transfer mechanisms we just explained: i) Radiation, ii) Conduction, iii)
Covection.
QUESTIONS
Question 1
a) In a closed circuit, an electric current of intensity i goes through a resistor of

resistance R. The electric potential at the edges of R is measured to be V . If
now we write
V
R= ,
i
would this generally be the definition of the resistance quantity R, or the

expression of Ohm’s Law? Explain.
b) We define the resistivity (via the familiar notation) as

E
= ,
J
Thus show that the resistance R can be written as

L
R = ;
A
here L is the length of the resistor, and A is the cross-sectional area of it.
c) Let J the current density (i/A). Express J in terms of the electron density n
(electrons/m3), the electron drift velocity vd, and the electron charge e.
d) Show that the resistivity can be expressed (via the familiar notation) as,
m
= ;
ne 2 
16
here m is the electron mass;  is the period of time that elapses between two
subsequent collisions, the electron undergoes with copper nuclei throughout
its chaotic motion in the body of copper (supposing that the current carrying
cable is made of copper). Hint: Write F=eE, i.e. the electric force reigning on
the electron. Write also the acceleration a=F/m, an electron is subject to,
based on the Newton’s law of motion.
e) Following the above relationship how would you classify materials as

conductor, isolator, or semiconductor. Explain.
f) (5 p) We have the following data; m=0.9x10-30 kg, e=1.6x10-19 Coulomb, 

=1.7x10-8 xm , n=9x1028 (electrons/m3). Calculate  .
Question 2
a) Consider a bulb of P=100 Watts. It functions under V= 220 Volts. What is

the current intensity i, which goes through it?
b) What is the resistance R of the bulb?
c) Consider a bulb of P=100 Watts. It functions under V= 220 Volts. What is
the current intensity i, which goes through it?
d) Suppose this entire energy is absorbed in a mass of 1 kg of water. How
much the temperature of this would increase in a periof of time of 1 hour?
(Recall that one need about 4 Joules of energy to heat up 1 gram of water,
about 1 degree Celsius.)
17
CHAPTER 19
CIRCUITS: KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS,

DECRIPTION OF CHARGING AND DISCHARGING
PROCESSES OF A CAPACITOR
In this lesson we will undertake circuits along with their basic properties.
1. ELECTROMOTIVE FORCE
The first quantity we will deal with here, is the electromotive force ξ. First of all,
it is not really a force ☺) … It is precisely the electric potential difference V+-V-
between the poles of the Baterie (B) we sketch in Figure 1, with the condition
that, the internal resistance of B is supposed to be encompassed by the overall
resistance R of the circuit. Thus we write,
ξ= V+-V- ; (1)
the unit of it, no matter what, it is called force ☺) , is Volt. This is of course, a
bit, kind of schizofrenia. But for historical reasons, it is still called electromotive
force. (Whereas, let us stress, it is an electric potentail difference…)
Figure 1 The electric potential difference V+-V- between the poles of the Baterie (B) is
called electromotive force ξ=V+-V-, with the condition that the internal resistance of
B, is supposed to be encompassed by the circuit overall resistance R. The electric
current i carried by the circuit, then, becomes i=ξ/R…
1
The ancient scientists thought that, there must be a force behind the
electric current i pumped to the circuit, by the Baterie (B), and have associated
with it, a force. There is certainly a force, characterized by the electric field E
reigning on the free electrons of the circuit, the drift of which, makes the electric
current i. The fact remains that, it is the length L of the resistor of resistance R,
representing the overall resistance of the circuit, multiplied by E, i.e. EL, under
the given circumstances, which is equal to V+-V-, therefore to ξ (cf. Chapter 18 ).
Expression of the Electric Current in Terms of the Electromotive Force

Let us call a and b, repectively the edges of the resistance R. The electric
potential difference V, between a and b, will be written as,
V=Va-Vb. (2)
Since we assumed all resistances existing in the circuit to be taken care of,
by R, including the internal resistance of the Baterie, we can write
V+=Va , (3a)
V- =Vb , (3b)
thereby, we have,
V+-V- =Va-Vb , (4)
which we will call V, in short. Thence, following Eq.(1), we can write,

ξ =V . (5)
That is all really ☺) …

Now we apply Ohm’s Law to the edges of R:
V=Ri . (6)
Therefore,
2
i= ξ . (7)
R
If we have a Baterie of, for instance, 12 Volts, and it is connected to an

overall resistance of 6 Ohms, the electric currect that will go through the circuit,
will be i=12 V/6 Ω=2 Ampere.
The essence of ξ is nothing else, but the quantity that determines the
electric current intensity that will go through a given circuit, as soon as the
Baterie is connected to the circuit.
If we are to conceive separetely the internal resistance r of B, from the
resistance R of the rest of the circuit, then Eq.(7) should read as,
i= ξ . (8)
R+r
What this says, is nothing more than the following assertion:

- You can always conceive the internal resistance r of B, encompassed by
the rest of the resistance of the circuit ☺) …
And this was what we did, right at the beginning.
The Definition of ξ, in Terms of Energy

Eq.(5) says that ξ turns out to be the electric potential difference that intercepts
the edges of the the resistance R, provided that this includes the internal
resistance r of the Baterie B.
Under the given circumstances, the energy dW needed, and to be tapped
from B, to get the infinitely small charge dq through the circuit, by definition
(Chapter 18), becomes:
dW=ξdq . (9)
Thereby, we can write,
3
ξ = dW . (10)
dq
If we have to spend to energy dW, to get the charge dq through the circuit,
then the energy to be spent to get a charge of 1 Coulomb, through the circuit,
will become dW/dq, which is precisely, the primary definition of ξ.
2. KIRCKHHOFF’S LAWS:
RESISTANCES CONNECTED IN SERIES AND IN PARALLEL
Kirchhoff, was a scientist doing mathematics and physics around 1850. After he
announced his laws, he asserted that he had landed at the end of physics
knowledge ☺) … This is a famous story told about him. Sometime, even most
of the time, even great minds can talk nonsense ☺) …
What is in fact common is, talking nonsense… What is exceptional is not
talking nonsense ☺ … Believe us…
In order to state Kirchhoff’s Laws, we will first consider resistances
connected in series, and then in parallel, with each other.
Resistances Mounted in Series

In Figure 2a, we sketch three resistances mounted in series. They are, R1, R2 and
R3. The current intensity pumped from the Baterie B, to the circuit is i… The
internal resistance of B, is null, or is supposed to be taken care of, by the
resistances of concern. The edges of the resistors of concern, along the direction
of the current, are defined respectively, as [a,b], [c,d] and [e,f]… Under the
circumstances we can write the electric potential difference between the poles of
B, as [cf. Eq.(1)]:
ξ= V+-V-=Va-Vf . (11)
4
Figure 2a Three resistances connected in series… The current intensity is i… The internal
resistance of B, is null, or is supposed to be taken care of, by the resistances of
concern... The edges of the resistors of concern, along the direction of the current, are
defined respectively, as [a,b], [c,d] and [e,f]… We can write the electric potential
difference between the poles of B, as [cf. Eq.(1)]: ξ= V+-V-=Va-Vf .
Note that the potential V+ and the potential Va are the same. Likewise the
potential V- and the potential Vb are the same. Afterall each of these pairs
corresponds essentially to the same location, in the circuit…
Now we are going to add to the right hand side of the above equation, Vb,
Vc, Vd and Ve, and, at the same time we are going to substract them, from this
side. Therefore we well preserve the equality:
ξ= (Va-Vb)+(Vb-Vc)+(Vc-Vd)+(Vd-Ve)+(Ve-Vf) . (12)
Let us note that, the locations b and c, and the locations d and e, each
points in essence, to the same locations of the circuit. Therefore,
Vb-Vc=0 , (13a)
Vd-Ve=0 . (13b)
Thence:
ξ= (Va-Vb)+(Vc -Vd)+(Ve-Vf) . (14)
5
Kirchhoff’s First Law
The latter equation is the mathematical expression of Kirchhoff’s First Law. In
other words:
- “The electric potential difference between the poles of the Baterie (B) is
equal to the summation of the electric potential differences delineated by
the circuit, along the direction of the eletric current.
This is in effect nothing else but elementary algebra, just the way we have
achieved it…
Many authors like to make things difficult ☺) , and state Eq.(14), as this:
(Va-Vb)+(Vc -Vd)+(Ve-Vf)+(- ξ)=0. (15)
And, they announce Kirchhoff’s First Law as this:

- The summation of the electric potential differences through the circuit
is null.
This, then becomes somewhat mysterious. Whereas, in Kirchhoff’s First

Law there is nothing more than the expression of an elementary algebra, the
way we have jsut practiced…
Therefore, we better stick to Eq.(14), yet this time supposing that Ohm’s
Law, holds throughout:
ξ=R1 i+R2 i+R3 i . (16)
So, this is, Kirchhoff’s First Law, elaborated on, based on Ohm’s Law.
6
The Eqivalent Resistance of Resistances Mounted in Series
Now we propose to determine the equivalent resistance of resistances mounted
in series. Thereby we consider Figure 2b, where we have the same Baterie B as
the one feeding the circuit we presented above, in Figure 2a; it pumps the same
current i, as the one we had there, yet at this stage through the equivalent
resistance Req…
Figure 2b The resistance Req, which is equivalent to the resistances mounted in series, in the
previous figure. ξ=Req i. Req=R1+R2+R3.
With regards to the above circuit, Eq.(16) will be written as:

ξ=Req i . (17)
Thereby:
Req=R1+R2+R3 . (18)
This is how the equivalent resistance of the resistances connected in

series, is expressed… It can obviously be generalized to any number of
resistances connected in series.
Resistances Mounted in Parallel

In Figure 3a, below, we show three resistances R1, R2 and R3 mounted in parallel.
The Baterie B pumps in, an electric current, i… We assume again that the
internal resistance of B is null, or taken care of, by the given resistances.
7
Figure 3a We skectch three resistances R1, R2 and R3 mounted in parallel. The Baterie
B pumps in an electric current, i, at the outlet of B… We assume again that
the internal resistance of B is null, or taken care of, by the given
resistances. The edges of the given resistances are respectively [a,b], [c,d]
and [e,f]… Here the locations [a, c, e] occur to be the same and reside at
the electric potential V+. Likewise, the points [b, d, f] occur to be the same
and reside at the electric ppotential V-.
The edges of the given resistances are respectively [a,b], [c,d] and [e,f]…
Here, the points [a, c, e] occur to be the same and reside at the electric potential
V+. Likewise, the points [b, d, f] occur to be the same and reside at the electric
ppotential V-.
Therefore and based on Eq.(1), we can write,
ξ= V+-V-=Va-Vb =Vc -Vd=Ve-Vf . (19)
Stationary Regime
It is important to emphasize that, so far we assumed a stationary regime. This
does not mean that everything stays still. No! It means, there occurs definitely
something, but the dynamic properties of it, throughout time, stay the same…
When we turn on light, or we turn it off, it is question of a transitory
regime. We pass from darkness to lightening, or vice versa… At the end of this
lesson, we will deal with transitory regimes, when we come to charge a
capacitor, or discharge it.
All the same, at this stage, we assume a stationary regime. Particularly the
electric current intensity is constant, throughout…
8
In reality, as the Baterie, is depleted the electric current intensity would
change.
In any case, since the beginning of this chapter we assumed, statioanarily
behaving circuits, and we will do so, until we deal with charging and
discharging a capacitor, that is, by the end of this lesson...
Kirchhoff’s Second Law

“We have a stationary regime”, would mean, “an amount of electric charges
arriving at any location of the circuit, during a given period of time, will go
through, the same period of time, without any loss, or increase in the given
amount”… The same is to occur evidently at a junction of the crcuit, if any, as
well, and this is precisely the expression of the Kirchhoff’s Second Law:
- In a stationary regime the electric current intensity arriving at a
junction is equal to the sum of the electric currents, departing from
there, in different possible directions.
For the given reason, out of the current intensity i (pumped by B), in
Figure 3a, the current i1 goes through R1. The remaining current intensity i-
i1=i-i2-i3, will continue its way in the other possible direction, out of which the
current intensity i2 will go through R2, and the remaining current intensity i3 will
finally land at R3. In other words:
i=i1+i2+i3 . (20)
Under the given circumstances, and based on Ohm’s Law, Eq.(19) will be
written as,
ξ= R1 i1=R2 i2=R3 i3 . (21)
9
The Equivalent Resistance of Resistances Mounted in Parallel
We now consider the same Baterie B, as the one we had in Figure 3a. It will
pump out the same current intensity i to a circuit whose resistance is Req which
represents the previous three resistances mounted in parallel (cf. Figure 3b,
below).
For the latter circuit, the current intensity i [cf. Eq.(7)], will be written as
follows:
i= ξ . (22)
Req
Figure 3b The equivalent resistance Req of resistances mounted in parallel, with the Baterie, in
the previous Figure 3a: ξ=Req i. 1/Req=1/R1+1/R2+1/R3.
We can use Eq.(21), to write:

i1 = ξ , (23a)
R1
i2 = ξ , (23b)
R2
i3 = ξ . (23c)
R3
Let us now use Eq.(20) together with Eq.(22):
i= ξ = ξ + ξ + ξ . (24)
Req R1 R2 R3
10
Therefore:
ξ = ξ + ξ + ξ . (25)
Req R1 R2 R3
This is precisely how we determine the equivalent resistance of

resistances mounted in pareallel with each other. It is clear that the above
relationship can be generalized to any number of resistances connected in
parallel.
3. MEASUREMENT OF ELECTRIC CURRENT INTENSI TY AND

ELECTRIC POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE: AMMETER AND
VOLTMETER
Measurement is a vital process of all branches of science, and likewise,
engineering sciences. In this lesson, we have talked about, electromotive force,
electric current, electric potential difference. We have now to be able to measure
all of them neatly.
When you propose to measure a quantity, there is really no way out from
doing it, without perturbing it, no matter how little ☺) … So much so that, what
you measure, is no more what you proposed to measure ☺) …
For this reason one has to design ways of measuring what he proposes to
measure, without altering it, as much as he can.
Here, we will particularly undertake the measurement of electric current
intensity, and electric potential difference.
The electric current intensity is measured via an ammeter, and electric
potential difference is measured via a voltmeter.
For our purpose we consider Figure 4. Here we havea Baterie (B),
cınnected to R1, R2 and R3 mounted in series; B pumps in the current i.
11
The equivalent resistance RT of the circuit is [cf. Eq.(18)]:
RT=R1+ R2+R3 . (26)
We suppose that the internal resistance r of the Baterie, is taken case of by

the given equvalent resistance.
Figure 4 Three resistances R1, R2 and R3 mounted in series and fed by the Batterie (B). The
internal resistance r of the B, is supposed to be taken care by the sum,
RT=R1+ R2+R3 .
Ammeter
As we connect an ammeter (A) to the above circuit, to measure the current
intensity i, we have to make sure that we do not perturb it, annoyingly.
A priori, we have two options: 1) Connect the ammeter A, in parallel to
the circuit. 2) Connect it, in series. But you see, if you connected it in parallel,
then the current will be divided in two different routes, and you would not
measure what you propose to measure ☺) ... So we are left out with just the
second option. Thereby we consider Figure 5 where we connect, A in series
with the circuit; its internal resistance is RA.
12
Figure 5 The Amneter (A) must bear a low resistance, and it must be connected to the circuit in
series.
Before A is connected to the circuit, the electric current intensity i,

according to Eqs. (7) and (8), is,
i= ξ . (27)
RT
After we connect A to the circuit, the electric current intensity i’, will
similarly become,
i' = ξ . (28)
RT + RA
This clearly means that, the smaller RA, the closer will be i’ to i.
Therefore:
- The Ammeter is connected to the circuit in series, and its internal
resistance must be as low as possible.
Voltmeter
It is imperative that we connect the Voltmeter, in between the edges we propose
to measure the electric potential difference of. This means we are to connet the
Voltmeter, in parallel to the circuit.
13
Suppose we propose to measure the electric potential difference in
between the edges of the resistance R3 of Figure 6; thusly we connect the
Voltmeter to the edges of it. The electric potential difference V3 we propose to
measure is, owing to Ohm’s Law, is normally,
V3=R3 i. (29)
Let RV, the internal resistance of the Voltmeter…

In order to secure that, V3 is kept within a secure band, after the Voltmeter
is connected to the circuit, it is thusly important not to alter much, both R3 and i.
As soon as the Voltmeter is connected to the circuit, Eq.(29) should be read as
follows:
V3’=R3eq i’ ; (30)
here, R3eq is the equivalent resistance of, R3 and the internal resistance RV of the
Voltmeter, mounted in parallel to the circuit; i’ on the other hand is the new
current intensity going through the circuit.
Figure 6 The Voltmeter is to be connected in parallel to the circuit, and is expected to bear a
resistance as high as possible.
The new current i’ will be expressed, following Eq.(27), as follows:

ξ
i= , (30a)
R1 + R2 + R3eq
14
Thereby we see that, the closer R3eq to R3; the lesser will be the divergence
between the original electric current intensity i [cf. Dk.(27)], and the new
current i’.
Henceforth, the condition that we measure with the Voltmeter, after it is
connected to the circuit, the electric potential difference originally reigning in
between the edges of the resistance R3, is merely to secure that R3eq is as close to
R3 as possible.
On the other hand, following Eq.(31), we can write R3eq, as,
1 1 1
= + . (30b)
R3eq R2 RV
Thusly, it becomes clear that, the smaller 1/RV, the closer will R3eq to
R3;this means, RV must be kept as high as possible.
In summary:
- The Voltmeter is to be connected to the circuit in parallel, and its
internal resistance must be as high as possible.
4. DESCRIPTION OF THE CHARGING AND DISCHARGING

PROCESSES OF A CAPACITOR
Now we consider a Baterie B, whose electromotive force is ξ; we use it, to
charge the capacitor C over the resistance R (Figure 7).
This means the following (cf. Chapter 17):
- The Baterie, pumps the electrons from the upper plate of the capacitor,
to the lower plate of it. The upper plate then is charged postively and the
lower plate negatively…(Recall that a vacancy of electrons means a
positive charge, and an excess of electrons means a negative charge, and
all of this, by definition...)
15
Figure 7 We consider a Baterie, whose electromotive force is V+-V-=ξ; we use it to charge the
capacitor C over the resistance. The current intensity at time t, in the circuit, is i(t);
the charges accumulated on the plates are respectively q+(t) and q-(t), at time t; their
magnitudes is the same, and equal to q(t); the electric potential difference in between
the plates at the given time is V(t).
The regime in question, is now a transitory regime. The reason is simply

that, the electric current intensity, the charges piled up on the plates and the
electric potential difference between the plates, are all functions of time. We call
them respectively, i(t), |q+(t)|=|q-(t)|=q(t), and V(t).
The Charging Process of the Capacitor

We can describe the capacitor’s charging process via writing the summation of
the electric potential differences, intercepted by ξ:
ξ=Ri(t)+V(t) . (31)
This is, in efect nothing else but the Kirchhoff’s First Law.
At this stage recall that the capacitance C of the Capacitor, is a constant
quantity, depending only on the geometric parameters of the capacitor at hand
(Chapter 17). Therefore it will stay constant throughout, no matter what q(t) and
V(t) are functions of time:
q(t)
C= . (32)
V(t)
16
We extract V(t) from here, and along with the definition of i(t)=dq(t)/dt
(Chapetr 18), we go back to Eq.(31):
dq(t) q(t)
ξ=R + . (33)
dt C
This constitutes a first order linear differential equation. [That is, if we

pose X=dq(t)/dt and Y=q(t), we can write, AX+BY=Constant, along with the
following definitions: A=R, B=1/C and Constant=ξ…]
We are going to retreive q(t) form Eq.(33)… Its derivative with respect
time, will furnish i(t). We can conjointy retrieve V(t) from Eq.(32). Thusly we
can sketch the given quantities with respecdt time.
The solution of Eq.(33) is rather cumbersome, but can still be achieved.
All the same, let us do something more intelligent ☺) …
Let us take off the Capacitor off the circuit. Since it is after all, fully
charged, it can be used, apart... Let us discharge it, through a resitance the same
as R… You may ask, we just charged it, why do we have to get it discharged,
now ☺) … You are perfectly correct. We do this, to solve Eq.(33) ☺) … All the
more there is no such rule, as to, a newly charged capacitor, cannot be
discharged right afterwards ☺) … True…
The Capacitor’s Discharging Process

So, we sketch our charged capacitor, in Figure 8. It will start getting discharged
through the resistance R, as soon as we close the switch S. Suppose we start with
an electric charge intensity Q, on either plate; more precisely the electric charge
is Q+ on the upper plate and Q- on the lower plate, following the capacitor’s
previous charging process. The electric potential difference between the plates
is ξ, i.e. the electromotive force of the previous Baterie B, and, the reason for
this, is simple: At the end of the charging process, the electric current intensity
will vanish, making the electric potential difference between the edges of the
17
resistance R null, which will make in turn that the poles of B, will intercept
directly the plates of the capacitor, thereby the electric potential difference
between the given plates will become ξ, at the end of the charging process. The
final charge intensity Q piled up on either plate, based on Eq.(32), will be
Q=Cξ . (34)
Figure 8 We discharge our capacitor C, through the resistance R. The initial charge intensity
on either plate is Q. The initial electric potential difference between the plates is
V+-V-=ξ. The electric current intensity in the circuit, at time t, is i(t). At this time, the
charge intensity on either plate is q(t), and the electric potential between the plates is
V(t).
Now, we close the switch of Figure 8. At this moment, we have V(0)=ξ,

q(0)=Q. The electric current intensity i(0), that will go through, at t=0, can be
calculated easily, given that the electric potential difference between the edges
of R, at this time, will be V(0)=ξ, and Ohm’s Law allows us to write (Chapter
18),
i(0) = ξ . (35)
R
Since the plates of C, intercept the edges of the resistance R, at any time,
throughout the discharge process, V(t), between the plates, at a time t, will be the
same as the electric potential difference between the edges of R. Or, again via
Ohm’s Law,
18
Ri(t)=V(t) ; (36)
i(t), is the electric current intensity at time t, and is equal, by definition, to
dq(t)/dt; yet, here we have to recall that, dq(t), still by definition is to be written
as,
dq(t)=q(t+dt)-q(t) . (37)
During the discharge process, the charge intensity q(t+dt), at a time later than t,
is thusly smaller than q(t), and the above equantity turns out to be negative. All
the same, we like to have, by definition, positive currents. Thereby, we define
the electric current through the discharge process as,
dq(t)
i(t) = - . (38)
dt
With this definition and Eq.(32), now, we go back to Eq.(36):

dq(t) q(t)
-R = . (39)
dt C
Let us rearrange:
dq(t)
- = dt . (40a)
q(t) RC
We integrate from t=0 to t:

t t
dq(t)
- =  dt , (40b)
0
q(t) 0 RC
or,
- lnq(t) - lnq(0) = 1 t-0  . (40c)
RC
We will now use, our initial condition q(0)=Q:

- lnq(t) - lnQ  = t . (40d)
RC
19
We sum up:
 q(t) 
- ln  = t . (40e)
 Q  RC
Therefore:
q(t)=Qexp(-t/RC) . (41a)
Via using Eq.(34), we can write:

q(t)=Cξexp(-t/RC) . (41b)
The time derivative of this, will lead to the electric current intensity i(t)
[cf. Eq.(38)]:
𝜉
i(t)= exp(-t/RC) . (42)
𝑅
Via Eq.(32), we can further write V(t), as,

V(t)=ξexp(-t/RC) . (43)
We sketch in Figures 9a, 9b and 9c’de, q(t), i(t) and V(t).
Figure 9a The behavior of q(t) versus t, through the discharge process of the capacitor C… It
was charged via the aid of a Baterie B of electromotive force ξ. Each plate of C,
would have acquired the charge intensity Q. The electric potential difference between
the plates at the end, reached the value ξ. The capacitance by definition is
C=q(t)/V(t). Therefore at the end, we had Q=Cξ. As C gets now discharged, the
initial charge intensity of either plate is thereby, Q=Cξ.
20
Figure 9b The behavior of the electric current intensity verus time, during the Capacitor’s (C)
discharge process. We had charged C, via the use of a Baterie B of electromotive
force ξ, over the resistance R. Given that, at the end of he process the current intensity
is null, the electric potential difference ξ between the poles of B, came to intercept
the electric potential difference between the plates of C. Now that C, is getting
discharged, the current intensity at time t=0, owing to Ohm’s Law, is to be i(0)=ξ/R.
Figure 9c The behavior of the electric potential difference V(t) between the plates, versus time t,
through the discharge process of the Capacitor (C)… We had charged C, via the use
of the Baterie B of electromotive force ξ. Since the electric current will be null at the
end of the charging process, the electric potential difference reigining at this stage,
between the plates of C, will be ξ. This, is return, will constitute the initial conditon
for V(0) through the Capacitor’s discharge process...
21
The Solution of the Description Capacitor’s Charging Process
Along with the information we retreived above based on the Capacitor’s
discharge process; we can now go back and get an elegant solution of Eq.(33),
pertaining to the Capacitor’s charging process.
It becomes evident that the dolution will embody the time dependent
kernel exp(-t/RC), we came out with, regarding the discharging process of the
Capacitor. It is further trivial that at the beginning of the charging process
q(0)=0. And, at the end of it, i.e. at t=ꝏ, we will have asymptotically
q(ꝏ)= Q=Cξ [cf. Eq.(34)].
Therefore, we can write the behavior of charge intensity q(t) reigining on
either plate of the capacitor, throgh the charging process of it, versus time t, as,
q(t)=Cξ [1-exp(-t/RC)] . (44)
We can right away check that, at t=0, because the exponantial term
becomes unity, q(0), in effect is null. As time t goes to ꝏ, the exponantial term
vanishes, and q(t) tends to Q=Cξ.
We can go back with Eq.(44), to Eq.(33), and have a cross check...
You see, we have already solved Eq.(33) describing the charging process
of the capacitor, without much pain, really ☺)…
The derivative with respect time of Eq.(44), will furnish, by definition, the
electric current intensity:
ξ
i(t) = exp( − t/RC) . (45)
R
This, interestingly, turns out to be the same current intensity behavior as

the one we had derived with regards to the discharging process of the capacitor
[cf. Eq.(42)]. Think, why this is so ☺) …
22
Recall just that at t=0, i.e. at the beginning of the charging process,
because the electric potential difference between the plates of the Capacitor is
V(0)=0, at this particular moment, we can in effect, write,
ξ=Ri(0) , (46)
which thusly provides us with the initial condion i(0), based on Eq.(45).
As to pinning down, the behavior of the electric potential difference V(t),
between the plates of the Capacitor (C), with respect time, through the charging
process, we depart from Eq.(32), and the framework of Eq.(44), which in turn
pertains to the discharging process of C… Hence, we can easily write:
V(t)=ξ [1-exp(-t/RC)] . (47)
We can at once check that, at t=0, we have indeed V(0)=0; and, as t tends
to ꝏ, the exponantial term above, tends to zero, and V(t) becomes ξ.
We present the behavior of q(t), i(t) and V(t) pertaining to the charging
process of the Capacitor, in Figures 10a, 10b and 10c.
Figure 10a Behavior of the charge intensity q(t) of either plate with respect time, as the
capacitor (C), is getting charged. We are thusly charging C, via the aid of a Baterie
(B), whose electromotive force is ξ. What B does, is to pump electrons from the
upper plate of C to its lower plate. This way, the upper plate is charged positively
and the lower plate, negatively. At the end of the process, the charge intensity on
either plate is Q. Given that the electric current will vanish at the end, the electric
potential difference of the plates will, at this stage, assume the electric potential
difference between the poles of B, i.e. ξ. The capacitdance C, by definition, is
C=q(t)/V(t); thereby the charge intensity at the end on either plate willl be Q=Cξ…
23
Figure 10b The current intensity i(t) versus time, as the capacitor (C) is getting charged. We
charge C, via the aid of a Baterie (B) whose electromotive force is ξ, over the
resistance R. At the beginning, the electric potential difference between the plates of
C, is null; therefore, the electric potential difference between the edges of R, at the
beginning, is ξ ; hence, owing to Ohm’s Law ξ=Ri(0), which leads to i(0)=ξ/R.
Under the given circumstances, we can conclude that the behavior of i(t) versus time,
is the same, through both the charging and the discharging processes of C.
Figure 10c The Behavior of the Electric Potential Difference V(t) Between the Plates of the
Capacitor (C) with respect time t, during its charging process… The final electric
potential difference between the plates will be equal to the electromotive force ξ of
the Baterie B, used to charge C.
24
QUESTIONS
Question 1
Consider the circuit below. Here we have ε1=3.0 Volt, ε2=6.0 Volt, R1=R2=R4=R5=2.0 Ω,
R3=4.0 Ω. Determine the intesities and directions of the currents going through R2, R3 ve R4.
Take the internal resistances of the batteries zero. Thereby, calculate the electric potential
differences in between the edges of the given resistances. (Hint: R1 and R2, also R4 and R5 are
connected in series. Their equivalent resistances are the same. Under the circumstances, the
currents created by the batteries of electromotorforce ε2 are counteracting each other. If so, the
current going through them, is the same as the current going through R2.)
R2 R4
ε2
R3
ε1 R5
ε2
R1
Question 2
A parallel plate capacitor of capacitance C, is getting charged through a resistor of resistance
R, via the use of a battery of  Volts. C is defined as follows: C = q(t) /V(t) ; here q(t), is the
charge intensity of either plate at time t , and V(t) is the electric potential difference between
the plates at time t.
25
a) Sketch the circuit, and write the differential equation describing the charging process.
b) Now, we would like to write the solution of this differential equation, without even solving
it. We suppose we know that the time dependent function, that will take place within the
expressions of different quantities of interest, and this is exp[-t/(RC)]. [Note that the
quantity RC bears the dimension of time, thus the ratio t/(RC) is a dimensionless quantity.]
You are asked to furnish, via a simple reasoning, answer to the following quantities.
Explain however very briefly, how you write your answers.
q(0)=
i(0)=
V(0)=
c) What would you write for the following quantities?

Q =q(  )=
i(  )=
V =V(  )=
d) And what would you write for these quantities?

q(t)=
i(t)=
V(t)=
e) Sketch q(t), i(t) ve V(t) versus t.
f) Where does the energy go, as the capacitor gets discharged? Sketch the power of the
circuit, through the discharge process.
Question 3
We consider the discharge process of a parallel plate capacitor of Capacitance C, through a
resistor of resistance R. C is defined as ususal, as C = q(t) /V(t) ; note that no matter what the
numerator and the denominator over here, are time dependent; C remains constant throughout;
q(t), is the charge instensity at either plate at time t; its value at t=0 is then q(0); V(t) is the
electrci potential difference between the plates of the capacitor at hand at time t; its value at
t=0, is then V(0).
a) Sketch the circuit. Write the differential equation describing the discharge. Show that
q(t) = q(0) exp(− t/RC) , thus, i(t) = i(0)exp( − t/RC) . Express i(0) in terms of V(0) and R.
Note that here, you should write i(t)=–dq(t)/dt. Why? Sketch, V(t), i(t) ve q(t), with
respect to t.
26
b) As the capacitor gets discharged, it throws its energy through R. The enery discharged
per unit time is by definition dE/dt; this is, on the other hand, given by Ri2(t). Show then
that, the total energy E thrown at R, as the capacitor gets discharged, is (1/2)CV2(0).
(Note that this is after all, the “potential energy” stored in the capacitor.)
c) The amount of energy you just calculated, should as well be discharged from the resistor
R, through the charging process, while the same amount of energy, is stored in the
capacitor, through this latter process. Under these circumstances, how many units of
energy one should tap at the source, while charging the capacitor, to store, 1 unit of
enegy on the capacitor?
d) Calculate E for C=1 mikrofarad and V(0)=10 volt.
27

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CHAPTER 14

The concept of Electric Field, comes into play on the basis of

Q and q are electric charges situated at a distance r from each other…

We can evidenty write the above expression as:

Looking at it, we can now pose:

Since force is essentially a vectorial quantity, electric field, will

essentially be a vectorial quantity, too. Not to complicate our notation,

We thusly call that chage, “Ayşe’s Field” ☺) … In other words,

We can state the same with regards to Mehmet:

It may happen that, in the real World, Mehmet would be attracted

In any case the main idea, briefly, is this:

Q and q are supposed not to exert a force onto each other,

In this context, Eq.(2), expresses the magnitude of the electric field

The field approach, before anything else, should be considered as a

1. DERIVATION OF ELECTRIC FIELD IN A FEW BASIC

Now we are going to underatake the derivation of electric field, in a

Uniformly Charged Belt

Let us consider a uniformy charged belt (Figure 1). Is it a real thing?

things, supposing your plastic is made of an elastic material: i) Take

Note that, had we have the appropriate material to work with, we

We propose to derive the electric field magnitude EBelt, the

Based on Eq.(2), we can now write the magnitude dE of the electric

The vector dE, lies on the r direction; if Q is positive, dE is ori-

Recall that, during this course, a “positive charge” points to a lack

We can conceive the electric field vector dE created by dQ, as

Because of the symmetry, Figure 1 offers, we now consider the in-

We can, based on Figure 1, now write this:

dEx = dE cos  . (6)

Under the given circumstances the magnitude EBelt of the electric

Integration, meant summation; and, if we add up, all of the infi-

What this means, is this: If we had brought a unit charge q=1

FC = EBelt q = EBelt  1Newton . (11)

In different terms, the belt will, in this condition, behave as a point-

Uniformly Charged Plate

Now we consider a uniformly charged plate. How can we charge a

Be patient a bit more ☺) … So much so that, if we do not make

We can choose not to get deepened in abstraction, but then instead

Let us get back to our uniformly charged plate… We like to derive

For this purpose we consider a circular surface area of radius r’,

Figure 2 Uniformly charged plate. We consider a belt of radius r’ and thickness

Considering separately the magnitudes of the electric fields, all of

Because of the symmetry the posed problem delineates, it can be

Within the given context, we can write down the magnitude dE of

For this purpose, we define the surface charge density σ, as,

dA=(2πr’) dr’ (16)

We now use Eqs. (15) and (16), in Eq.(14):

R 1 z (2 r ')dr '

This means that, if we had somehow brought a unit charge q=1

FC = EPlate q = EPlate  1 Newton . (19)

note that here we came to use the equalities,

1+R /z  1+(1/2)R /z and 1/[1+(1/2)R /z ]  1-(1/2)R /z ;

As a consequence we well see that, a uniformly charged plate of

Field Created by an Infinite Plane Based on the Field Created by a Plate

Based on the foregoing derivaiton we can easily determine, the elec-

It is of course interesting that the outcome is independent of the alti-

Thereby a charge located anywhere above or below the given uni-

formly charged infinite plane, and contribute equally to the creation of

2. MEASUREMENT OF THE RATIO OF THE ELECTRON

To understand how Thomson achieved his measurement, we consider

Figure 3 J . J. Thomson Setup (1897). A battery is connected to poles, which we