72 ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

CHAPTER 5

Learning

INTRODUCTION
Learning brings relatively permanent change in human behaviour that occurs as a result
of experience. All complex behaviour is a learned behaviour. If we want to predict and
explain behaviour, we must understand how people learn. Learning involves change in
behaviour. It is continuous process, which occurs all the time. We cannot see learning but
we can see changed behaviour as a consequence of learning. Learning changes attitude of
individuals to a large extent. An individual reacts to any situation or responds to instructions
in particular fashion, that fashion or style is caused due to learning. Theoretical approach
to learning incorporates behaviourist, cognitive and newly emerging social learning
theories. Understanding of these theories is important to the study of organizational
behaviour.
Theories of Learning
Classical Conditioning – behaviourist theory
“Classical conditioning can be defined as a process in which a formerly neutral
stimulus when paired with an unconditional stimulus, becomes a conditioned
stimulus that illicit a conditioned response. (Luthans 1995)1
Ivan Pavlov a psychologist who won Nobel prize introduced classical conditioning theory.
The experiment envisaged dog as a subject. Pavlov carried out this experiment in three
sequential stages. In stage one, he presented meat (unconditional stimulus) to the dog.
He noticed a great deal of salivation (unconditional response). In stage two he only rang
up the bell (neutral stimulus), the dog had no salivation. In stage three, Pavlov was to
accompany the offering of meat to the dog along with ringing up of bell. After doing this
several times, Pavlov rang up only bell (without offering of meat to the dog). This time the
dog salivated to the ringing up of bell alone. Pavlov concluded that the dog has become
classically conditioned to salivate (response) to the sound of the bell (stimulus). It will be
seen that the learning can take place amongst animals based on stimulus – response (S-
R) connections. The study was undoubtedly single most famous study ever conducted in
behavioural sciences. It was a major break through and had a lasting impact on
understanding of learning.
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This stimulus – response connection (S-R) can be applied in management. Historically

when a CEO visits an organization, production charts are updated, individuals put on a
good dress, window panes are cleaned and floors are washed. What all one has to do is to
just say that the Top Boss is visiting. You will find that all above work is undertaken
(response) without any instructions. Because the people in the organization have learned
the behaviour (conditioned). It has caused a permanent change in the organization (S-R
connections). Robbins2 states that classical condition is passive. Something happens and
we react in a specific way. It is elicited in a response to specific, identifiable events. As
such, it can explain simple reflective behaviours. But most behaviour – particularly the
complex behaviour of individual organizations is emitted rather than elicited. It is voluntary
rather than reflective.
Operant Conditioning
Operant conditioning deals with Response—Stimulus (R-S) connection. The concept was
originated by B.F. Skinner. He felt that more complex behaviour couldn’t be explained by
Classical Conditioning concept. He states that most human behaviour operates based on
the environment. Operant Conditioning is concerned primarily with learning as a
consequence of behaviour (R-S). In Operant Conditioning particular response occurs as a
consequence of many stimulus situations. Stimulus typically serves as a cue for a particular
response. In his concept a “response” is first evaluated out of many stimulus, which is
environmental in nature. Behaviour is a function of consequences. It is voluntary in nature.
Re-inforcement increases the probability of occurrence. Behaviour is learned and is not a
matter of reflects. If we create learning consequences, the probability of specific forms of
behaviour increases. For example an individual will take a long trek (Response) to library
because he knows he would be able to get a desired book (Stimulus), (R-S connections).
Individual would work hard(R) because he knows that he would be able to get praise, or
even promotion (S). Operant Conditioning has greater impact on learning as compared to
Classical Conditioning.
Cognitive Theory – Cognitive Approach
Edward Tolman was recognized as pioneer of Cognitive Theory. The theory consists of
relationship between environmental (cognitive) cues and expectations. He used white rat
in his psychological experiment of Cognitive theory. He found that the rat could run through
critical path with particular intention of getting food (goal/objective). In the experiment,
Tolman established certain choice points where expectations were established. The rat
learned cognitive cues at various choice points, which would raise its expectation to move
forward to the objective (food). Thus the rat turned to acquire food, based on relationship
of Cues and Reward or expectations. This theory was later applied on human resources
where incentives were related to higher performance.
Social Learning – behavioural approach
Social learning approach is a behavioural approach. The approach basically deals with
learning process based on direct observation and the experience. It is achieved while
interacting with individuals. In social learning people observe, alter and even construct
a particular environment to fit in the social behavioural pattern. Individuals learn a great
deal from watching attractive models and they copy their behaviour and display the same.
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Children copy the behaviour of their parents, adults, and copy cinema actors/actresses in
various styles. Social learning is practiced in organizations by observing various cultural,
and social practices. This phenomenon is distinctly visible in defence services where cadets
opt for a particular regiment based on the performance of their instructors (role model). In
industrial organizations leader must display a role model so that subordinates copy the
style of functioning. An appropriate behaviour can be predicted that would contribute
towards achieving higher individual satisfaction level and organizational goals. The
influence of model is central to the theory of Social Learning. The following processes
determine the extent of influence that a model may have.
Attention Process
It is human tendency to get attracted to impressive models especially those, which suits
the individual’s temperament and match expectations. This causes social learning.
Retention Process
Learning is basically adapting to a change on permanent basis. Models retention will
depend upon the attractiveness of the model. Advertising agencies therefore project
attractive models in promotion to their product or services. The advertisement retention
aspect is at the core of the concept of the theory that the buyer must be able to retain
maximum of what has been projected in the advertisement. Evaluation of such retention
(learning) is measured by pre- test and post-test (advertising experiments). This will
measure the effectiveness of learning through observation of a particular model.
Motor Reproduction Process
Motor reproduction deals with evaluating the impact of the model on individual. Does
individual display the same behaviour as is displayed by the model? If the learning were
effective then the learner would be able to display a desired (reproduction) pattern of
behaviour.
Re-inforcement Process
Individuals will be able to display positive behaviour or even attitude if a particular activity
is rewarded by way of positive incentives. An accountant would be able to maintain accounts
correctly and produce a balance sheet when needed if he is encouraged, his work is
appreciated or he is given monetary or non-monetary incentives. Re-inforcement is being
practiced by various organizations to achieve a patterned behaviour free of conflict
situations.

APPLICATION OF REINFORCEMENT TO SHAPE BEHAVIOUR

Management of human resource plays a dominant role in the growth of an organization.
Various material inputs in the organization can be put to its optimum utilization if the
employees display positive attitude towards organizational systems, processes, activities
and have an appropriate interpersonal behaviour. This is possible if a manager is able to
identify human requirements (needs) try and satisfy them in an unambiguous manner.
This can be achieved by applying re-inforcement to individuals in the course of their
performance. If a cleaner keeps the workshop floor neat and clean at all the times, he
should be awarded so that he continues to display the same behaviour.
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A soldier was publicly congratulated for smart salute by his commander showed an
over all higher standard of salutation in the entire defence unit. It has happened (at no
cost) because of the re-inforcement received and soldiers showed an overall higher standard
in the performance of their duty. Application of re-inforcement model developed by Skinner
could be applied with positive results in the organization.
Continuous Schedule
Continuous re-inforcement re-inforces the desired behaviour of an individual in the
organization. When a worker is required to do a particular assignment and if he does it on
time he should be rewarded for the same. Because he would continue to display the same
behaviour every time with the hope of reward. It has been seen that when the re-inforcement
(reward) is withdrawn the individual is unlikely to do the job on time. It is not possible for
the manager to keep a tag of each and every individual and the activities they perform in
the organization. It is therefore important to lay down the policy in this respect so that
employees achieve higher productivity by displaying desired (standard) behaviour.
Partial Re-inforcement Schedule
In partial re-enforcement every positive act of individual is not re-enforced (rewarded). In
this schedule individual’s behaviour is re-enforced after a long gap and his accumulated
behaviour is rewarded. It has been observed that partial re-enforcement has a fair chance
of individual behaving in a positive and desired manner because he feels that sooner or
later his work would be recognised. Partial re-inforcement has a wide application in the
organizations. Partial re-inforcement can be classified into four categories as shown in
Figure 5.1 below.

Schedule of re-inforcement

Interval Ratio

Fixed Fixed interval Fixed ratio schedule

Variable Variable interval Variable ratio schedule

Fig. 5.1. Schedule of re-inforcement

Fixed Interval Schedule

The re-inforcement is related to the hygiene factors or administrative factors of the
organization like salary, organizational policy, interpersonal relationship, status and the
like. In the interval schedule the critical factor is time. As a manager, one has to apply re-
inforcement schedule on a fix interval of time. Daily wagers will look forward to get their
salary at the end of the day and those on piece rate of payment would work hard to earn
maximum. Fixed interval re-inforcement is not very effective. The re-inforcement is of
temporary nature and does not motivate individuals on a long-term basis.
Variable Interval Re-enforcement
In this method re-enforcement is not based on the fix period of time. It varies from job to
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job. Individual’s behaviour can be modified based on incentives on a variable time period
basis. Promotion, upgradation, or incentives in salary structure coming on different timings
that are not on a pre-fixed basis motivate individuals and increment in productivity is
achieved. Variable interval re-enforcement schedule generates higher rate of responses
and is more consistent.
Fixed Ratio Schedule
Fixed ratio schedule is related to administration of reward system after the individual
accomplishes a particular volume of work. A worker is paid or a re-inforcement is
administered after manufacturing of particular pieces of product under piece rate of
payment. The individual works hard and displays a sense of devotion to his work because
of the proposed reward for which a particular quantity has to be manufactured. The response
level under fixed ratio schedule is higher than under an Interval ratio schedule.
Variable Ratio Schedule
Variable ratio is similar to fix ratio schedule except that in variable ratio, quantity is not
fixed. Re-inforcement is awarded to an individual based on the situation to situation. For
example a sales person may be awarded a higher commission on the sales he made
irrespective of volume of sales. The incentive may also be given based on number of
successful sales calls made by the sales person. Variable ratio schedule has been most
effective to modify individual behaviour or ensure sustenance of a particular behaviour.
The method draws a very rapid and positive response at a desirable level. This type of re-
inforcement is considered to be very effective tool to obtain willing obedience of subordinates
in a particular situation. The impact largely would depend upon the timings and volume
of work performed by the individuals in the organization and the skill of the moderator.
Re-enforcement
There are four types of re-enforcement namely Positive, Negative, Punishment and
Extinction. Positive and negative re-enforcement seeks to achieve a desirable behaviour
by two different approaches while punishment and extinction prevents undesirable
behaviour. These are discussed in the succeeding paragraphs.
Positive Re-enforcement
Positive re-enforcement is institution of reward for a particular desired behaviour. The
intensity of reward must stimulate a desired behaviour. ”Shram Shri” award is a re-
enforcement or a reward for innovation in production. This is instituted so that individual
works to achieve a high standard. The awards instituted in film industry is to stimulate
artistic display by artists, which will have a lasting impact on the public. An array of
awards in defence services is to stimulate bravery during peace and war environment
amongst soldiers and improve over all efficiency. Arjun awards in the area of sports are to
achieve excellence in sports with a view to achieve skill and efficiency. Positive re-
enforcement to be effective should have following pre-requisites
• The reward should match the expected behaviour graph and need spectrum of
awards. Monetary rewards activate some people while others would be happy with
just a praise or recognition.
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• The re-enforcement or rewards should be contingent to the degree of performance.

Higher the performance required, higher must be the recognition (Reward system).
• Rewards must be given on time. Delay in awards may not have desired effect and
the impact of reward would be lost. Field Marshal Slim used this tool very effectively
during World War II when he used to give gallantry awards to the soldiers for their
acts of bravery on the spot in the battle field (front line) thereby intending to
achieve high morale and success in fierce battle actions.
• Re-enforcement must be applicable universally without any structural variations.
Disparity in rewards is counter-productive.
Negative Re-enforcement
In organizations acts are committed or omitted. For commission of desired acts a reward
is given while rewards can also be given for displaying behaviour by terminating undesired
consequences. Both, positive and negative re-enforcement techniques are for strengthening
desired behaviours. In former employees put in their best and work hard to get financial
and other rewards but in the later case of re-enforcement employees work in such a way
that they do not invite negative comments or reprimand from superiors. In work places,
parking of vehicle at right places, following instructions on training, abiding by safety
regulations, assisting employees in performance of their duty are the forms of negative re-
enforcement. Because employees would follow instructions to avoid negative consequence
of undesired behaviour.
Punishment
Punishment is awarded to an individual for undesired consequences of behaviour. It is a
method of decreasing frequency of occurrence of unpleasant behaviour and a tool generally
used by organizations for corrective or modification of individual behaviour. It is generally
treated as an unpleasant consequence contingent upon undesired behaviour. It is corrective
in nature and intended to reduce probability of its recurrence. Punishment acts as deterrence
to other individuals and prevent them from doing an undesired act. Punishment should
not be given collectively to a group. Punishment should be awarded to an individual who
is habitual of undesired behaviour. Punishment can be reduction of salary, non-granting of
increment, fine and even removal from service. The gravity or the scale of punishment will
depend upon the nature of behaviour displayed by an individual. Punishment should be
used sparingly and not as a matter of routine. It should be corrective in nature and not
punitive. It should focus on an act deserving punishment and not the subject person.
Punishment must be awarded with due care and made public so that it acts as deterrence.
While applying punishment as behaviour modification for skill development, due care
must be taken by organizations to avoid legal and social fall out. Following points should
be kept in mind while applying punishment
Authority
Authority who is entitled to award punishment must be specified and notified to all
concerned.
Process
All employees should know the process of punishment. If required this should be included
in training programme so that awareness is brought about.
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Show Cause
Individual must be given opportunity to justify his actions. No arbitrary decision should
be taken.
Board for Inquiry
An impartial body of persons should be formed to investigate each event to decide whether
the punishment is required to be awarded. The gravity of the offence, the probable scale
of punishment and the individuals involved in the commission of an act.
Time Bound
All actions must be time bound and individual awarded punishment in time
Gravity
Punishment must be commensurate with the gravity of the offence.

EXTINCTION
Extinction refers to withdrawing of re-enforcement or reward so that the happening becomes
less frequent and ultimately dies off. The method involves withdrawing positive re-
enforcement earlier granted. Eliminating any re-enforcement is called extinction. For
example students are given extra coaching for higher performance. Over a period of time
this positive re-enforcement leads to students increased dependency on coaching by a
teacher. So if this facility (re-enforcement) is withdrawn, it is with the aim of modifying
behaviour by extinction, so that the students form the habit of self-study and therefore the
learning takes place that leads to behaviour modification in a group. Ignoring an individual
in organization for his unsuitable behaviour or ignoring a lazy person in a group is some
of the forms of extinction. Because it is expected that extinction would lead to behaviour
modification.

APPLICATION OF LEARNING AND ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOUR

MODIFICATION
Some of the behaviour modification techniques are given below which may be used in the
organization
1. Use of Lotteries to reduce Absenteeism
Attractive prizes can be included in lottery that can be used gainfully to achieve reduction
in absenteeism. It has been found that there was no absentee in an organization with the
above scheme because management decided that only those individuals could participate
in the lottery that has no absenteeism. This has led to individuals attending work regularly
and brought about behaviour modification. Absenteeism reduced to a large extent and
workers displayed a sense of responsibility that led to increased productivity and higher
job satisfaction.
2. Work pay Vr sick pay
Organizations have leave policy. Apart from other leave, there is a provision for few days
of sick leave in a year. It has been noticed that most of the employees avail sick leave with
impunity whether they are sick or otherwise and therefore organization cannot avail of
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their services. But if sick leave can be converted in to payment of bonus up to a certain
extent, the employees would choose to avail of financial benefits and would not absent
themselves under the pretext of being sick. This will improve satisfaction level of employees
and would not hamper productivity.
3. Training and Development
Training and development programmes must be run systematically and in a preplanned
manner. The author had asked employees in an organization as to what are the expectations
of workers from owners of any organization? I was glad to hear that the employees
expected two things. First, they should be so trained in their profession that they are able
to take up next/ higher job position and the second, employees expect that all their
entitlements be paid on time. This is biggest contribution an organization can make to the
employees. The training and development programmes must be very effective. Social
learning theory must be applied and a role model displayed during training. Apart from
imparting job related training, it must also enrich value system, adapt a way of life, new
life concept and develop a total ethics based approach to life. If this were achieved, all
organizations would have conflict free behaviour. Employees would develop a sense of
belonging to the organization. Japanese precisely developed this and followed social
learning concept. The efficiency of training and development will depend upon the skill of
the trainer, the organization culture that management would like to practice and the level
of commitment.
4. Mentoring Programmers
2nd lieutenant of an Army regiment was asked as to why he chose to join that regiment.
The officer replied that his mentor was from that regiment which interested him the most
during his training period. Most of the newly commissioned officers chose their regiment
because of the smartness of their mentors, dress they wear and skills they display during
tactical exercises, briefings and on firing ranges. Mentors therefore must display model
behaviour so that subordinates emulate them. Mentors should ensure to develop sense of
responsibility amongst the subordinates who should be able to take higher jobs and work
for the organization. They are expected to develop positive attitude towards subordinates,
job in hand and achieve a sound personality based on culture and social values. This can
be achieved by full dedication on the part of both mentor and the trainee.
5. Discipline
Behavior modification can be achieved by laying down minimum standard of discipline in
the organization. Defense organizations are most disciplined organizations because they
do not compromise on the standards, be it related to training, work, supervision, accounting
or disbursement of salary and wages etc. The leader should set an example for his
subordinates. In organization be it production intensive or service sector, managers should
insist that all his subordinates strictly follow the timing of work, dress code, display
courteous behaviour when interacting with others and accomplish their assigned task on
time. Defaulters should be dwelt with strictly. Any lethargy in programme implementation
will not bring behaviour modification. Manager must work in the same environment as
the workers, eat the same food and wear the same dress and should display alertness and
physical toughness. They should be able to work effectively under stress and strain and
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should not show any signs of tiredness to their subordinates. It is combination of leadership
qualities and role played by the managers that will establish high standards of discipline
amongst all employees of the organization.
5. Self-Management
Learning concepts are meant for modifying the behaviour of others. These theories are
also applicable for self-management. Individuals should lay down personal standards,
objectives relating to personal growth, identify various courses of action to adopt and
modify self-attitude and behaviour. Individuals should be able to compromise on self-
interests for overall good of the organization. Regulating various activities and achievement
of personal as well as organizational goals would be easier in an environment of self-
managed organizations.

SUMMARY
Learning refers to permanent change in behaviour of the individual. It is a continuous
process. Ivan Pavlov has suggested classical conditioning theory of learning where stimulus
– response (S-R) concept has been applied. Pavlov suggests that S – R phenomenon can be
applied in the management and employees should be so trained that they act in a desired
manner. Skinner on the other hand recommends Response – Stimulus (R-S) concept. The
researcher believes that an individual behaves because of higher probability of response.
Edward Tolman has propagated Cognitive Theory of learning. He explains the relationship
of environment and expectations. In the recent times social learning has been quite popular
because of its simplicity. It is related to modification of behaviour based on observation.
The change in behaviour is based on the attention process, retention process, motor
reproduction process and lastly the reinforcement process. For behavioural change
reinforcement plays a vital role. Managers must apply positive reinforcement based on
various schedules. Negative reinforcement deals with the restrictions like preventing
promotion etc. Punishment is also considered as a factor for behaviour modification.
Punishment must be timely, awarded only by the competent authority. This has a salutary
effect on employee behaviour. Learning process must be planned properly and executed
sincerely in the organization. Use of incentives, training and development schedules,
mentoring programmes, self-management and laying down minimum disciplinary standards
are some of the learning strategies that may be adopted by organizations.

TEXT QUESTIONS
Q. 1.
Explain the concept of learning. How learning leads to behaviour modification.
Q. 2.
How do you relate Pavlov’s experiment to human behaviour?
Q. 3.
What are various theories of learning? Explain in detail with suitable examples.
Q. 4.
Explain in detail the four basic reinforcement strategies to achieve desired behaviour
Q. 5.
Explain punishment as a strategy for behaviour modification. What special care
must be taken?
Q. 6. Explain schedule of reinforcement. In your opinion, which one of these schedules
is most desirable for behavioural change?