M3.3 How Continuity Fails

How does continuity fail?
Let
x2 ,

0≤x<1
f (x) = x
2 + 1, 1≤x
Let
x2 , x ̸= 2

g(x) =
1, x = 2
1
We’ll show that f (x) is discontinuous at 2. Recall f (x) is continuous at a iff
(∀ϵ > 0)(∃δ > 0)(|x − a| < δ =⇒ x2 − a2 < ϵ).

The negation of this logical statement is

(∃ϵ > 0)(∀δ > 0)(|x − a| < δ AND x2 − a2 ≥ ϵ).

For x = 2, f (x) = 1 by definition of f . The negation statement becomes

(∃ϵ > 0)(∀δ > 0)(|x − 2| < δ AND x2 − 1 ≥ ϵ).

So we’ll show that for that SOME ϵ > 0, x2 − 1 ≥ ϵ, NOT FOR ALL ϵ.
Let’s choose ϵ = 0.5, for instance. For x near 2, x = 2 ± δ for a small enough δ
|f (x) − f (2)| = x2 − 1

= (2 ± δ)2 − 1

= 3 + δ 2 ± 4δ

(1)
We want this term (13) to be larger than ϵ = 0.5. Writing what we want mathematically
δ 2 ± 4δ + 3 > 0.5
or
2
δ ± 4δ + 2.5 > 0 (2)
If δ < 0.1, for instance, then (14) holds for all x such that |x − 2| < 0.1 = δ (why?)
(Take a specific value within 0.1 of 2, for instance, just for clarity: For x = 2.08, f (2.08)−f (2) =
2.082 − 1 = 3.3264 > 0.5).
Thus for x within 0.1 of 2, f (x) is more than 0.5 away from f (2). So, f cannot be continuous
at 2.
Note
1. It must be shown that |f (x) − f (2)| = |x2 − 1| fails to be within the fixed ϵ for any δ such
that |x − 2| < δ, unlike the situation when we have to show f (x) is continuous at a, where
you have to show |f (x) − f (2)| < ϵ for all ϵ and for all δ such that |x − 2| < δ
2. To disprove continuity, it suffices to show |f (x) − f (2)| ≥ ϵ FOR ONE ϵ only.
3. Take ϵ = 5 and δ = 0.1 in the above argument, for instance.
|f (x) − f (2)| = x2 − 1

= (2 ± δ)2 − 1

= |3 + δ 2 ± 4δ|
< ϵ = 5 (why ?) (3)
If δ = 0.1, then 3 + δ 2 ± 4δ = 2.61 or 3.41. In either case the answer is less than 5 = ϵ.
The point is, |f (x) − f (2)| might be less than ϵ for some ϵ. However, to prove continuity, it
has to be less than ALL ϵ, for |x − 2| < δ.
1
4. Show that f (x) = e x is not continuous at 0.
Proof First, we can say that f (0) is actually undefined. True! Let’s define it then as f (0) = a.
(We give our selves some slack by not specifying what a is, in case adjustment is neededed.
1
We use sequential continuity (or the negation of it): xn −→ 0 =⇒ e xn −→ f (0) = a.
Counterexample: It suffices to show that this property doesn’t hold for one sequence:
2
1
n −→ 0
1
Take xn = n1 . Then f (xn ) = e 1/n = en
f (xn ) = en −→ ∞ not to f (0) = a as required by sequential continuity.
One last point: One may say, let’s define a = ∞, and so we get contiuity, because then
we will have f (xn ) −→ f (0) = ∞. Well... ∞ is not really a number!
5. Non-removable discontinuity Show that f (x) = sin x1 is not continuous at 0.

Proof We will use sequential continuity. This time we construct two sequences xn and yn ,
each one converges to a different limit.
Let xn = nπ 1 1
: xn −→ 0 as n −→ ∞. And f (xn ) = sin 1/nπ = sin nπ = 0. Thus
f (xn ) −→ 0
Let yn = (4n+1)π/2
1
: yn −→ 0 as n −→ ∞. And f (yn ) = sin yn = sin(4n + 1)π/2 = 1.
Thus f (yn ) −→ 1.
So we have constructed two sequences xn and yn both converge to 0, but f (xn ) and
f (yn ) converge to different limits. This implies that limx−→0 f (x) = limx−→0 sin x1 does
not exist, and so f (x) = sin x1 can not be continuous at 0 no matter how we define f (0).
By contrast, let’s look at the following discontinuous function
6. Removable discontinuity Let

sin x

x , x ̸= 0
f (x) =
0, x=0
Is f (x) continuous at 0?
Proof By definition, f (x) continuous at 0 means limx−→0 f (x) = f (0). In fact, limx−→0 f (x) =
limx−→0 sinx x = 1, and f (0) = 0 and f (0) = 0, by definition. So f (x) is not continuous at 0.
However, we can redefine f (x) at 0 so that f (x) is continuous at 0. All we need to do is set
f (0) = 1, the value of the limit at 0. We certainly have now
sin x
1 = lim f (x) = lim = f (0) = 1.
x−→0 x−→0 x
Thus this newly defined f (x) is continuous at 0.
Comment In the non-removable discontinuity case, the limit of f (x) at x0 did not exist.
That is why we couldn’t fix the discontinuity issue. Whereas in the removable case, the limit
did exist allowing us to redefine the f (x0 ) as the value of the limit limx−→x0 f (x)
7. Recall that the characteristic function of a set E is defined as

1, x is in E
χE (x) =
0, x is not in E
Let E be the set of rational numbers in [0, 1]. Show that χE is not continuous. Hint: Assume
it is and Use the IVT to get a contradiction.

M3.3 How Continuity Fails

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How does continuity fail?

The negation of this logical statement is

For x = 2, f (x) = 1 by definition of f . The negation statement becomes

5. Non-removable discontinuity Show that f (x) = sin x1 is not continuous at 0.

By contrast, let’s look at the following discontinuous function

6. Removable discontinuity Let

7. Recall that the characteristic function of a set E is defined as

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