MATH HL - OPTION CALCULUS

REVISION
(one example for each case)
by Christos Nikolaidis

Example Remarks

1. L’ Hôpital

x 2
e − 1 − x − 0.5x
Find lim
x →0 3
x

Solution
It works only for fractions
0
or ∞
0 ∞
0
 
0

2. Continuity - Differentiability

Let
 x 2 + 4, x≤2

f(x) =  ax, 2< x ≤3
b − cx 2 , x >3

Find the values of a, b, c given that the function is
continuous and differentiable.

Solution
Continuity at x=a means
• f is continuous at x=2, so lim (x2+4)= lim ax = f(2)
x →2 x →2
lim− f = lim+ f = f(a)
Thus, 8=2a=8 ⇒ a=4 x →a x →a

• f is continuous at x=3, so lim ax= lim (b-cx2) =f(3)

x →3 x →3

Thus 12=b-9c=12 ⇒ b-9c=12 (*)

• f must be differentiable at x=2. Indeed, for x=2 Differentiability at x=a means

f −′ (2) = (x2+4)΄ =2x=4, f +′ (2) = (ax)΄=a=4

f−′ (a) = f+′ (a)
i.e. the derivatives before and
• f must be differentiable at x=3. That is, for x=3
after point a are equal for x=a
f −′ (3) = (ax)΄=a=4, f +′ (3) = (b-cx2)΄=-2cx=-6c
so that 4=-6c (**)

(*) and (**) give c=-2/3 and b=6

Therefore a=4, b=6, c=-2/3

1
 3. Rolle Theorem – Mean Value Theorem (MVT)

Let f(x) = sinx

(a) Explain why Rolle’s Thm holds in the interval
[0,π] and find the corresponding value of c
(b) Does it hold in the interval [0.1 , π-0.1]?
(c) Apply the Mean Value Theorem in [0 , π/2]
and find the corresponding value of c

Solution The minimum requirement is:

(a) f(x) = sinx is continuous and differentiable in [0,π] - Continuous in [a,b]
and f(0) = 0 = f(π ) - Differentiable in ]a,b[
- f(a)=f(b)
Thus there is some value c∈]0,π[ s.t. f ′(c) = 0
Indeed, f ′(x) = cosx and cosc=0 for c=π/2 Then f ′(c) = 0 for some c∈]a,b[

(b) f(x) is still continuous/differentiable in [0.1,π-0.1]

f(0.1) = f(π - 0.1 )
Again c=π/2
The minimum requirement is:
(c) f(x) is continuous and differentiable in [0,π/2] - Continuous in [a,b]
Thus there is some value c∈]0,π/2[ such that - Differentiable in ]a,b[
f(π /2 )- f(0) , i.e. cosc= 2
f ′ (c) =
π/2 − 0 π Then f ′ (c) = f(b) - f(a)
b−a
Indeed the GDC gives c=0.881
for some c∈[a,b]

Let f(x) = x 3 + 5x − 7
Use Rolle’s Thm to show that f(x) has only one root

Solution
f(1) = -1 <0 and f(2)=11>0
Thus there is at least one root between 1 and 2
Suppose that there are two roots a and b

Then A polynomial is continuous and

- f(x) is continuous and differentiable in [a,b] differentiable everywhere
- f(a) = 0 = f(b )

Thus, by Rolle,
In general, if f(x) has n distinct
there is a value c∈[a,b] such that f ′(c) = 0
roots, then f ′(x) must have at
But, f ′(x) = 3x 2 + 5 which has no roots which
least n-1 roots (apply Rolle
contradicts the existence of c
between any two consecutive
Therefore there is only one root. roots)

2
 Use the MVT for f(x)=ex to show that e x ≥ x + 1

Solution
Consider f(x)=ex
It is continuous and differentiable everywhere.
We apply the theorem in the interval [0, x] where x>0

ex - e0 for come c∈[0,x]

f ′ (c) =
x −0
x
That is e - 1 = e c > 1 ⇒ ex-1 > x ⇒ ex > x +1 since x is positive
x

We also apply in the interval [x, 0] where x<0

ex - e0 for come c∈[x, 0]

f ′ (c) =
x −0
x
That is e - 1 = ec < 1 ⇒ ex-1 > x ⇒ ex > x +1 since x is negative
x
Finally, for x=0, ex = x +1

Therefore, in any case ex ≥ x +1

4. Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

Find
1 ′ x
(a)
 3x 2 + x − 2  (b) d
∫  2  dx ∫ (lnt)3 dt
0  x + x +1  dx 2
x2 x2
(c) d 3 (d) d 3

dx ∫ (lnt)
2
dt
dx ∫x (lnt) dt

Solution
′ 1
1
 3x 2 + x − 2   3x 2 + x − 2  2 8
(a)  = 3 − ( −2) = 3
∫  2  dx =  2 b
 x + x +1   x + x + 1 0 •
∫ f ′(x)dx = [f(x)]
b
0
a = f(b) − f(a)
x a

(b) d 3
dt = (lnx)
3 x

dx ∫ (lnt) • d
∫ f(t)dt = f(x)
2
dx a
x2 g(x)
d 2 3 d
(c)
∫ (lnt) dt = 2x(lnx )
3

dx 2
•
dx ∫ f(t)dt =
a
f(g(x)) g ′(x)

x2 x  2 
d = d  (lnt)3 dt −
x
(d) 3  g(x) g(x) h(x)

dx ∫
x
(lnt) dt
 ∫ dx
3
∫0 (lnt) dt  use
∫ f(t)dt = ∫ f(t)dt − ∫ f(t)dt
 0
 h(x) a a

= 2x(lnx2 )3 - (lnx)3

3
 5. Riemann Sum

π
Consider ∫ sinxdx . Find the Riemman sum
0
(a) if you consider 4 subintervals of equal length
and as representative values xi
(i) the minima (ii) the maxima

(b) if you consider 2 subintervals of equal length

and the midpoints as representative values
(c) Compare with the actual value of the integral

Solution
(a) Subintervals [0, π ] [ π , π ] [ π , 3π ] [ 3π ,π]
Riemann sum = ∑ f(x ) ∆x
i
i i

4 4 2 2 4 4
π π π
(i) R.S. = f(0) + f( ) + f( 3π π π
) +f(π) = 1.11
4 4 4 4 4 4
π π π π π
(ii) R.S. = f( ) + f( ) + f( ) +f( π 3π ) π = 2.68
4 4 2 4 2 4 4 4
π
(b) Subintervals [0, ] [ ,π]π
2 2
π π
R.S. = f( ) + f( 3π ) π = 2.22
4 2 4 2
π
(c)
∫ sinxdx = 2
0

So the approximation in (b) is much better despite

the larger subintervals

6. Improper Integrals

+∞ +∞ +∞
Find (a) 1 (b) 1 (c) x
∫1 x dx , ∫
1 x2
dx , ∫e
0
x
dx

Solution
It diverges
(a) lim 1dx = lim[lnx ]b1 = lim [lnb − 0 ] = +∞
b

b→∞ ∫ x b →∞ b→∞
1
b
(b) lim 1 dx = lim − 1  = lim − 1 + 1 = 1
b

b→∞ ∫ x 2   It converges to 1
b→∞  
 x  1 b →∞  b 
1

(c) Find the indefinite integral first

x x 1
∫e x
dx = ∫ xe- x dx = -xe- x + ∫ e- x dx = - x
- x +c
e e
Thus,
+∞ b
(in the last limit use l’Hôpital)
x  x + 1  b+1 
∫0 e x dx = lim - x  = lim - + 1 = 1
b →∞ 
 e  0 b→∞  e b It converges to 1


4
 7. Differential Equations (D.E.)
Separable
dy
Solve = x(y
2
+ 1) , if y=1 when x=0.
dx as we can separate x’s from y’s
and get
Solution
dy dy ∫ f(y)dy = ∫ g(x)dx
2
= xdx ⇒ ∫ = ∫ xdx
y +1 2
y +1

x2 This is the general solution

⇒ arctany = +c
2
π
For x=0, y=1 ⇒ =c Using the initial condition
4
Hence ,
x2 π This is the particular solution
arctany = +
2 4
Notice: If they ask to express y in terms of x:
2
General solution: y = tan ( x + c) ,
2
2
Particcular solution: y = tan( x + π )
2 4

2 2 Homogeneous
dy 36x + 13xy + y
Solve = , if y=1 when x=1. as it can take the form
2
dx x
dy y
= F( )
Solution dx x

[this line is always the same!]

Now it is a D.E. of separable

variables
[this is always the case!]

General solution

Using the initial condition

Particular solution

5
 With Integrating Factor
dy
Solve e − 3x + ye
− 3x
tanx = cosx , if y=1 when x=0.
dx as it can take the form
dy
+ P(x)y = Q(x) [see booklet]
Solution dx

Spot P(x), Q(x)

[see booklet for I= e ∫

P(x)dx
]
Don’t put (+c) here

You have to remember that

Iy= ∫ IQdx

Euler
−3x dy −3x
Let e + ye tanx = cosx , if y = 1 when x = 0 as it says so! ☺
dx
Use Euler with step h=0.2 to estimate y for x = 1

Solution Always in the form dy = F(x, y)

dy dx
= e3x cosx − ytanx [see booklet for formulas]
dx
x n +1 = x n + 0.2
3x n The GDC does it all!
yn +1 = yn + 0.2 (e cosx n − yn tanx n )

Recursion
an +1 = an + 0.2
bn+1 = bn + 0.2 (e 3a cosa n − bn tana n )
n

Set a 0 = 0 , b 0 = 1

Notice: the smaller step h,

the better approximation!

6
 8. Isoclines – Slope Fields

dy
Consider = x + y . In the following grid The grid is usually given!
dx
(a) Sketch the isoclines
(b) Draw the Slope Field
(c) Sketch the partic. solution passing through (0,0)
dy
Solution If = f(x, y)
dx
(a) The isoclines are the curves x + y = c .
the isoclines are f(x, y) = c
That is y = − x + c
y
3

2 ← that is all lines of slope -1

1
x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3
-1

-2

-3

Slope 0 means
(b) We sketch the slope on each point Slope 1 means
y Slope -1 means
3
For example, at (0,1) the slope is
2 dy
= x + y = 1 , that is
1
dx
x
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3 Notice that on each isocline
-1
the slopes are equal. E.g. on
-2 y=-x+1 all slopes are 1.
-3

(c) We draw a curve passing through (0,0)

Just look at the point (0,0)
y and “follow the stream”.
3

2
Indeed, if you solve the d.e.
1 (using integrating factor)
x
you will find the particular
-3 -2 -1 1 2 3
-1
solution y=ex-x-1 and the
graph looks like that!
-2

-3

7
 9. Series
∞ Divergence Test
2n + 1
∑
n =1 3n +4
. Determine if it converges or diverges
[rarely used]
if the limit is not 0, we stop
Solution
there! The series diverges!
It diverges since lim 2n + 1 = 2 ≠ 0
n → ∞ 3n + 4 3 If it is 0, we use another test.

∞ Integral Test
1
∑
n =2 n(lnn)
2
. Determine if it converges or diverges
f(x) =
1
must be positive,
2
x(lnx)
Solution continuous and decreasing
+∞
We check the corresponding integral I =
1 Usually
∫2 x(lnx)2 dx ∞
∞
1 → dx
1 (lnx) -2
1
• for p-series ∑
n =1 n
p ∫ p
1 x
∫ x(lnx) 2
dx = ∫ x
dx = −
lnx
+c
• if you see lnn
b
Thus I = lim − 1  = lim  1 1  1
• if you recognize a known
b → ∞  lnx   − lnb + ln2  = ln2
  2 b →∞   ∞
∞
n
The integral converges so the series converges.
integral, e.g.
∑ n → ∫ xe −x dx
n =1 e 1

Comparison Test
∞ sinn
∑ . Determine if it converges or diverges
2 [rarely used! they usually
n =1 3n +4
mention it in the question]
Solution
sinn 1 and ∞
1 converges
Since ≤ ∑n
3n + 42
n2 2 larger converges ⇒ smaller too
n =1

our series converges as well. smaller diverges ⇒ larger too

∞ Limit Comparison Test

2n + 5 . Determine if it converges or diverges
∑
n = 1 3n
3
+4 [Popular!]
We usually compare with a
Solution ∞
1 conv if p > 1
1
an looks like bn = 2 and
∞
1 converges p-series ∑n p

n ∑
n =1 n
2 n =1 div if p ≤ 1
←any positive constant will do
an 2n + 5 n 2 2n 3 + 5n 2 2
lim = lim = lim = = const > 0
n →∞ bn n → ∞ 3n 3 + 4 1 n →∞ 3n 3 + 4 3 [we know the result beforehand]
Our series converges as well.

Ratio Test
2 n (n !)
∞ 2
. Determine if it converges or diverges
∑
n =1 (2n ) !
[Popular!]

Solution Use if you see n!, an or similar

2 ((n + 1) !) (2n) !
n +1 2
a n +1 expressions e.g. 1×3×…×(2n+1)
lim = lim
n →∞ an n → ∞ (2n + 2) ! 2 n (n !)2
2(n + 1) 2 1 ← <1, converges
= lim = <1
n →∞ (2n + 1) (2n + 2) 2 >1, diverges
Our series converges. =1, don’t know (use another test)

8
 10. Alternating Series
Alternating series Test
∞
( −1) n +1
∑
n =1 3n + 4
,Determine if it converges or diverges For ∑ (−1) n
an

Solution
or ∑ (−1) n +1
an

1
lim =0.
n → ∞ 3n + 4 • lim a n = 0 .
n →∞
The sequence 1 decreases (see the graph in GDC)
3n + 4
• The sequence an decreases
The series converges

Approximation
( −1) n +1
∞
Show that the sum ∑ is > 0.06
n =1 3n + 4

Solution
S 1 = 0.142, S 3 = 0.120, S5 = 0.110 ← upper bounds

S 2 = 0.042, S 4 = 0.057, S 6 = 0.064 ← lower bounds

(or vice-versa)
The result is always between two consecutive values so
it is above 0.064, and thus above 0.06

Error of approximation
( −1) n
∞
Let ∑ . Find an upper bound of the error
n = 1 3n + 4

(a) if you accept S6=0.064 as an approximation

(b) If you accept S332 as an approximation; show
that the approximation is correct to 3sf.
Solution
When you accept Sn as an
(a) It is simply less that a7= 1 = 0.04
25 approximation then
(b) It is simply less that a333= 1 < 1 = 0.001 |error| < an+1
1003 1000
So the approximation is correct to 3 sf.

Absolute convergence vs
∞
( −1) n ∞
( −1) n
Check ∑ 2 and
n =1 n
∑
n =1 n
for absolute Conditional convergence

or conditional convergence.

Solution If the series of the absolute

By the alternating series test both series converge values converges the original

We check the series of the absolute values also converges (absolutely)

∞
1 converges, so the original converges absolutely If the series of the absolute
∑n 2
n =1 values diverges, check original
∞
1 diverges, so the original converges conditionally by the alternating series test
∑n
n =1 (it may converge conditionally)

9
 11. Power Series
∞
x n , Find radius and interval of convergence Always Ratio Test
∑ n3
n =1
n

Solution
a n +1 x n +1 n3 n n x [the result can be something
lim = lim = lim x=
an n → ∞ (n + 1)3 n + 1
x n n →∞ 3n + 3 3
n→∞
like that i.e. a|x| or 0, or ∝;
see details in the last box]
We solve the equation R = 1
3 ← This means that the series
So the radius of convergence is R = 3 converges for x∈]-3,3[
diverges for x outside
we don’t know yet for x=±3
For x=3 the series becomes
∞
1
∑ n , so it diverges
n =1
← Check the endpoints

For x=-3 the series becomes

∞
(-1) n , so it converges
∑ n
n =1

Hence, the interval of convergence is x∈[-3,3[

Always Ratio Test

∞
(x − 5) n
∑
n =1 n ⋅ 3
n
, Find radius & interval of convergence
Exactly the same procedure
but center of convergence = 5
Solution
Interval = ]5-R,5+R[
a n +1 (x - 5) n + 1 n3 n n x- 5
lim = lim = lim x- 5 = (and check the endpoints)
an n → ∞ (n + 1)3 n 1 n n → ∞ 3n + 3 3
n →∞ +
(x - 5)

← This means that the series

We solve the equation R = 1
3 converges for x∈]2,8[
So the radius of convergence is R = 3 diverges for x outside
we don’t know yet for x=2,8
For x=8 the series becomes
∞
1 , so it diverges
∑
n =1 n
∞
(-1) n , so it converges ← Check the endpoints
For x=2 the series becomes ∑ n
n =1

Hence, the interval of convergence is x∈[2,8[

The limit
Ratio test Radius Interval of convergence
an +1
a| x | R= 1 x∈]-R,R[ and check at x=±R
lim
a
n →∞ an
0 R=∞ x∈]-∞,∞ [ results in
∞ R=0 x=0 a|x| or 0 or ∞

10
 12. Maclaurin Series – Taylor Series
Just use the formula in the
1
Find the Maclaurin series for f(x) = ln , up to x3
1−x booklet!

Solution
f(x) = −ln(1 − x) f(0) = 0
1 We find the first three
f ′(x) = f ′(0) = 1
1−x derivatives and values at x=0
1 f ′′(0) = 1
f ′′(x) =
(1 − x) 2
2 Notice: the result is a power
f ′′′(x) = f ′′′(0) = 2
(1 − x) 3 series , namely
∞
x n with
∑
n =1 n
Thus
f ′(0) f ′′(0) 2 f ′′′(0) 3 R=1, interval of conv x∈[-1,1[
f(x) = f(0) + x+ x + x +L
1! 2! 3! Now we know that this series
x2 x3 converges to f(x) = ln 1
⇒ f(x) = 0 + x + + +L
2 3 1− x

Lagrange form of error

Find the approximation for f (0.5) given by the
Maclaurin series above. Estimate the error using the
Lagrange form. Compare with the actual error.

Solution Approximation
0.5 2 0.5 3
f(0.5) ≡ 0.5 + + = 0.666
2 3 [see formula booklet]
f (4) (c)
R 3 (0.5) = 0.5 4 where 0 < c < 0.5
4!
We need f (4) (x) = 6 . Thus
(1 − x) 4
6 4 1(0.5)4 1
R 3 (0.5) = (0.5) ≤ = = 0.25 Max value for c=0.5
24(1- c) 4
4(1- 0.5) 4
4

The actual value of f(0.5) is ln2 = 0.693 Thus the estimated error was
So the actual error is ln2-0.666 = 0.026 (by GDC) no so good.

Just use the formula in the

1
Taylor series for f(x) = ln up to (x- a)3, a=0.5
1−x booklet!

Solution
f(0.5) = ln2 , f ′(0.5) = 2 , f ′′(0.5) = 4 , f ′′′(0.5) = 16 We find (as above) the first

Thus three derivatives and the

f ′′(0.5) values at x=0.5
f(x) = f(0.5) + f ′(0.5)(x - 0.5) + (x - 0.5) 2 + L
2!
8
⇒ f(x) = ln2 + 2(x - 0.5) + 2(x - 0.5) 2 + (x - 0.5) 3 + L
3

11
 Maclaurin found by a D.E.
dy
Let = x 2 + 5xy + 4y 2 , and y = 1 when x = 0 .
dx
Find the Maclaurin series of y = f(x) up to x2.

Solution
dy dy
We know already f(0) = 1 and f ′(0) = =4 Because f(x)=y and f ′(x) =
dx x =0 dx
y =1

d2 y dy dy
We need = 2x + 5y + 5x + 8y Implicit differentiation
2
dx dx dx
Thus
d2y
f ′′(0) = = 0 + 5 + 0 + 32 = 37
dx 2 x =0
y =1

f ′(0) f ′′(0) 2 37 2
f(x) = f(0) + x+ x + L = 1 + 4x + x +L
1! 2! 2

2
Maclaurin found by another
Find the Maclaurin series for f(x) = e-x , up to x6
known Maclaurin series.
Solution
We know that

x x 2 x3 (see formula booklet)

e =1+ x + + +L
2! 3!
Thus

- x2 x 4 x6
e =1− x2 + − +L
2! 3!

Differentiating and integrating

Based on the maclaurin series of sinx find the
a series, term by term
Maclaurin series for cosx by using term by term
(a) Differentiation (b) Integration

Solution
x3 x5 (see formula booklet)
sinx = x − + +L
3! 5!
′
 x3 x5  x2 x4 Differentiate both sides.
(a) cosx = (sinx)′ =  x − + + L = 1 − + +L
 3! 5!  2! 4!
 
x Integrate both sides;
x

x
x3 x5

  x2 x4 
(b) ∫ sinxdx = ∫ x − + + L dx =  − + L
 3! 5!  2! 4! definite integrals from 0 to x.
0 0  
  0
2 4
x x
⇒ −cosx + 1 = − +L
2! 4!
x2 x4
⇒ cosx = 1 − + +L
2! 4!

12