See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.

net/publication/288667557

Shrinkage stoping of narrow veins-Problem or profit?

Article · January 1998

CITATIONS READS

4 2,058

4 authors, including:

Simon Dominy Godfrey Simon Camm

University of Exeter University of Exeter
105 PUBLICATIONS   1,042 CITATIONS    58 PUBLICATIONS   590 CITATIONS   

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:

Mine value chain sampling optimisation View project

All content following this page was uploaded by Simon Dominy on 21 July 2017.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 Mine planning and Equipment Selection 1998, Singhal (ed.) A 1998 Balkema, Rotterdam, ISBN 90 5809 011 6

Shrinkage stoping of narrow veins - Problem or profit?

SimonC.Dominy Christopher J. S. Sangster

M GRG - SEES, tJ niv ersity of Gre enw ich, Caledonia Mining Corporation, Tyndrum, UK
Chatham Maritime, UK G.SimonCamm
RolandFG.Phelps EXMIN Geological Services, Hayle, UK
Welsh Gold plc, Dolgellau, UK

because of associated high

ABSTRACT: Shrinkage stoping has a long history, though has fallen out of favour
it is based on the upward advance of the stope drilling from the muckpile'
costs. An entry-method of e*traction,
is reliant on the back-filling of the stope by ore, which offers sidewall suppod. In general the
The method
which will not oxidize within
orebody must have a dip in excess of 60o, have strong wallrocks and a composition
allowing the geologist constant access as work progresses and the
the stope.The technique has many advantages
geometry, particularly strike,
flexibiiity to leave behind low grud. or". It is also able to respond to changes in vein
to 2.5 m are common' Wider veins are
dip and width. The minimum sioping width is 1 m, however widths of up
g.*rufly more suited to longhoie olen stoping. Lifts between levels of 50 m are possible where orebodv and
ivallrock conditions allow. The disadvantages are that up to 60% of the ore is locked up until work in the stope is
resources and time. Optimum
completed, this may take several weeks or months and is expensive in terms of
The effectiveness
rock fragrnentationis vital to minimise the effects of hang-ups within boxholes and drawpoints.
of shrinkage stoping is controlled by the skill and experience of the miners in collaboration with the geologist.

l INTRODUCTION until it has been substarrtially mined because of

geological uncertainties (Dominy & Phelps 1997).
Narrow vein mining no longer holds a pre-eminent This places pressure on geologists and engineers to
position in the mining world, but is still a significant produce more reliable reserves, grade control
source of silver, gold, tin and uranium. Gold however procedures and effective mine designs (Dominy et al.
is of particular importance because of its relatively 1998a).
high unit value, with vein-gold operations in Europe, Traditionally shrinkage stoping has been

Australia, Canada, South America and Africa. To classified by some as an unsupported and by others as
corporate financiers and managers this style of a supported method. Each classihcation is justified
mineralization is viewed as high risk because of the because the back ofthe stope, which is usually ore, is
often small target areas, the associated high cost of unsupported during mining whereas the walls are
resource definition and tight profit margins. For the supported by the broken ore. More recently Rossouw
purpose of this paper we consider narrow veins to be & Fourie (1996) classified shrinkage stoping as an
those with widths of <6 m, but are commonly <3 m' non-caving st e ep- s t ope -spec ifi c method. Because of
There are a number of problems which narrow vein its simplicity and original smal1 operating scale'
mine operators must address to be successful; (1) shrinkage stoping was formerly very popular method.
complex geology and grade distribution, hence Rising costs, the scarcity of skilled labour and the
reserves are often difficult to assess, (2) high trend toward bulk mining and mechanization have
percentage of wallrock dilution, (3) low ratio of stope largely displaced shrinkage stoping.
tonnage per metre developed, (4) low overall
efficiencies due to relatively small tonnages involved 2 DESIGN CzuTERIA
and (5) inapplicability for a large amount of
mechanisation (Dominy et al. 7997;1998c). Mining The selection of a mining method for narrow vein
costs can represent tp to 70Yo of the total operating deposits depends upon orebody geometry and
costs. The fuIl nature ofan orebody is often unknown physical characteristics. The method must be

105
adaptable to irregular ore limits and yield good will impart wallrock stability and solve potential
recovery and minimal dilution. Consideration should environmental problems.
be given to: (1) vein strike and dip; (2) vein widtfu (3) The disadvantages are that up to 60% of the
the dimensions and regularity of oreshoots and; (4) ore is locked up until work in the stope is completed,
geomechanical properties of wallrocks and ore this may take several months and is expensive in
(Hartman 1992; Hustrulid 1982). terms of inventory costs. If wallrocks are
Vein dip controls stope drawdown, where unexpectedly weak then substantial additional dilution
below 45o broken ore will not move down the may occrrr during drawdown. Treatment of hang-ups
footwall and scrapers become necessary. In the 45-55o is hazardous and requires entry into the stope and the
range the behaviour of broken ore is often use of water or compressed air jets and./or secondary
unpredictable with the possibilities of increased costs blasting. Boxhole blockage is similarly common and
and reduced production. Above 55" few diffrculties may in some cases require total removal and rebuild.
are generally encountered as broken ore will run This is an extremely dangerous task as it requires men
under gravity. The geometry of vein walls are rarely to work under the open finger raise with broken rock
planar and vary both laterally and vertically. The on either side. Highly sulphidic ore within the stope is
minimum stoping width of 1 m represents the thinnest often prone to oxidation, particularly if wet and may
opening permissible with respect to safety. If the result in a low recovery due to cementation. High
orebody is narrower than this, then inclusion of levels of clay-like minerals will impart a high
barren/low grade material will result in high planned viscosity to the broken rock and may lead to problems
dilution (Dominy et al. 1998a/b). during drawdown.
Method selection must consider the nature of
grade distribution which may be relatively uniform
throughout the vein or restricted to discrete oreshoots. 4 STOPE DEVELOPMENT
A choice must be made between a small-scale,
selective method of mining the oreshoots only (e.g. As a consequence of being a vertical stoping method,
shrinkage or reefopen stoping), or a more bulk, high shrinkage stoping operations are carried out over a
tonnage method which incorporates some low grade considerable vertical distance. Several levels are
(e.g. longhole open stoping). required, the main or haulage levels being spaced up
to 50 m apart. The two main tasks of vertical-stope
preparation are to construct a means of drawing the
3 ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES ore in which the muck flows by gravity and an
undercut into which the ore initially falls.
Shrinkage stoping has many advantages as it allows Two draw systems are commonly used at
the geologist constant access to the vein as work present. The oldest, a small-scale method, consists of
progresses and the flexibility to leave behind low finger raises terminating in chutes or boxhoies
grade ore, or extract rich areas. Selectivity is good for through which wagons are loaded directly (Figure 1).
wall/assay limits, but not for intemal dilution unless a This traditional shrinkage method is simple in
complete panel is abandoned. The method is able to concept, where gravity flow and boxholes replaced
respond to relatively rapid changes in vein geometry, hand loading. Blockages within boxholes are colnmon
particularly warps along strike or up-dip. Splits within and delay production. Where veins are sinuous the
the vein structure can also be accommodated with method often results in tramming trough crooked
care. If both ore and wallrocks are strong stopes can haulages which are often obstructed by the boxholes
be quickly developed. The amount of development reducing transport efficiency. Finger raises are carried
required is relatively small which is advantageous to up through sufficient thickness (e.g. 3-6 m) of ore to
small operations with limited capital. The broken ore make pillars and connected laterally to form a stope
in the stope supports the wallrocks and generally sublevel from which mining commences. Pillars offer
eliminates the need for timber stulls. The minimum sfuong support and can generally be recovered after
practical stoping width is 1 m, however up to 2.5 m is stope drawdown if ground conditions allow. Crown
possible, wider veins being often more suited to pillars are left below the main levels to ensure
longhole open stoping (Dominy et al. 1997,1998c). accessibility after stoping.
Lifts between levels of 50 m are possible where The modem and generally preferred system
strong orebody and wallrock conditions allow. An uses drawpoints which eliminate the bottleneck of
empty shrinkage stope may be filled with waste which boxholes and utilizes loading machines at drawpoints.

106
 manway drive / nauEge
lode orlve
loog haulage

Figure 1. Longitudinal section showing traditional

shrinkage stope design.

Figure 2. Block diagram showing the design of a

The foonvall haulage drive is placed 7-8 m off the shrinkage stope with footwall drive and diawpoints.
vein with drawpoints every 8 m or so (Dominy &
Camm 1996; Dominy et al. 1998d; Figure 2),
ensuring fast and effective mucking. The technique The production rate of a shrinkage stope per
negates the use of sill pillars as the foolwall drives day is dependent upon stope width, lift height' drill
provide a permanent access. Mining commences pattem (uppers or breast holes), number of shifts per
directly off the lode drive Raises at the ends of the day and man utilization during the shift(s). A small
stope block to the level above provide miners with 25-30 m long panel using 1.8 m lifts and a single
access to the stope. machine-man on one shift can yield about 30 t/day A
In all draw systems the spacing of boxholes larger 50-60 m long panel employing two machine-
and drawpoints ranges from 5-15 m. Close spacing men per shift over two shifts can yield up to 120
requires more development, but minimises the Vday. Only 40o/o ofthe daily production can be drawn
tonnage of ore stranded in the stope after emptying off. It is generally not practical for safety reasons to
and maintains a more even work platform in the have more than two drillers operating in any one stope
stope. Wide spacings economise on development at at once.
the expense of even draw control and ore loss. In small high-grade shrinkage stopes some
Mining is based upon the drilling of 29-33 sorting of the ore can be undertaken. Ore or waste
mm diameter holes with compressed air stoper or may be removed by hand or shovelled into chutes
jackleg machines. Two types of hole are commonly built up through the shrink pile' In rare cases a resue
placed. In the first case holes are drilled up to 3.5 m technique is employed where waste and ore are
horizontally or at a slight angle to the horizontal to blasted and mucked separately. This is an extremely
break the ore in benches (breasting). The second labour intensive activity and only viable for high-
method uses vertical or steeply inclined holes up to grade pockets of ore containing perhaps coatse flree-

2.5 m long. It is suggested that vertical holes have a gold (Dominy & Phelps 1997). Shrinkage stoping is
greater shattering effect than horizontal holes and tend essentially a method in which no sorting is done in
to weaken the back and make it unstable. Long stopes, though ore can be preferentially drawn from
horizontal or flatly inclined holes are likely to break various stopes and blended.
the ore into large pieces which require secondary In-stope support can be facilitated by leaving
reduction. Compaction of the shrink may be vertical piilars which are placed one below another to
exacerbated by horizontal holes as the blast force is give continuous support. The pillars may be undercut,
downwards, verticai holes allow the sideways force of or drilled and blasted from raises and sublevels'
the blast minimising compaction effects. Pillars of waste material can also be left. The

107
effectiveness ofshrinkage stoping is controlled by the be ahead ofproduction as only one stope can operate
skill and experience of the miners (e.g. minimal in drive. Recovery and diiution are acceptable with
overbreak and optimum fragmentation) in geological control possible during mining. A similar
coliaboration with the geologist (e.g. understanding of method was used at Wheai Jane tin mine (Comwall,
vein geometry and effective communication with UK; Figure 4) and Gwynfynydd gold mine
miners). Additional dilution is usually 15% or less, (Gwynedd, LrI() where the stope was developed
though this is dependant upon wailrock conditions directly offthe lode drive (Dominy et al. 1998c).
and the qualiry of mining. The piacing of rock- and
cable-bolts in Lode drives and stopes provides a higher
degree ofsafety. They give support during drawdown
V
when hangingwall collapse is most likely. Once the
ore is removed then some degree of coilapse can be
tolerated.

Figure 3. Longitudinal section showing rise and pillar

shrinkage stoping design.

5 MODIFIED SHRN{KAGE METHODS

Over the past years a number of modified shrinkage Figure 4. Block diagram showing the design of the
methods have been developed (Dominy et al. rill shrinkage stoping method.
1997.1998c). Of note is rise and pillar shrinkage
stoping developed at the Golden Crown gold mine
(Westem Australia) in response to the need for a a
faster. safer and controllable stoping method (Beilby
et al. 1993; Figure 3). A drive is developed and fwo I

raises (rearings) at the ends of the panel link to the

level above. A series of blind finger raises are placed
along the dnve and corurected to each other via a l

stope sublevel. Mining commences from one of the

l
rearings so that a 45" dip rill is established, the stope
is rhen continued as high as possible with the miner /
i'-
throwrng his dirt towards the empty raises below. The I^ broken ore ] --\
ore pile can be reduced by mechanized mucking from t_
the drive allowing the miner to drill. The method has
a number of advantages including no boxholes mid-stope strlke Pillar
required, fewer hang-ups in the stope, quicker
extraction time and safe drive access after completion. Figure 5. Longitudinal section showing gallery
The drawbacks of the method are development must shrinkage stoping design

108
Gallery stoping at the Paringa gold mine (Western drilling/blasting 13%
Australia) involves the working of the lower half of ground support 2Yo

the block as a traditional shrinkage stope and the services 3%

upper halfas a leading stope (Upton 1985; Figure 5).
The method has some benefit as broken ore in the however these will be highly variable and dependent
lower stope can be removed once the sublevel has upon the particular case in question. Factors
commenced and the mid-stope pillars give protection effecting an increase in mining costs are iikely to be:
from poor ground.
lower tonnage factor
lower grade ore
6 SAFETY increased development
poor ground conditions
The safety of any mining operation is of prime reduced stope width
concem. In the narrow vein environment the greatest excessive dilution
dangers come from falling rock as shrinkage stoping high water influx
is an entry method. After blasting mining crews bar-
down the backs and walls which can lead to and those related to a decrease in mining costs:
unexpected collapse. Problems during mining are less
marked in shallow deposits (e.g. <500 m) but can higher tonnage factor
become problematic at depths in excess 1,000 m' higher grade
Increased shesses within wallrocks can result in greater ore width
pinching of the ore within the stope and lead to hang-
ups during drawdown. Wallrock failure during The apparent cost of mining by shrinkage
drawdown cannot usually be remediated, resulting in stoping is not necessariiy the true cost of the method.
additional dilution and possible abandonment of the Allowances should be made for interest on capital
stope. The greatest risk to life is from settlement of spent in breaking ore surplus to immediate
the shrink pile after drawdown (during stoping), this requirement and locked-up in stopes. The extra cost
results in the ground running-away beneath miners. of tramming, hoisting and processing waste within
This risk can be markedly reduced by careful the ore accounted for as additional dilution should
engineering design and control. The most important also be considered. Of particular importance is the
factors are control and order of drawdown, cost of down-time as a result of stope and/or
boxhole/drawpoint placement, fragmentation, use of boxhole/drawpoint hang-ups etc.
water, vein dip and height of stope lift. It is a good
general rule to make miners responsible for drawing
their own stopes, thus they have a control on their 8 CONCLUSIONS
own safety.
Under most economic evaluations, the labour
intensive nature of shrinkage stoping precludes its
7 ECONOMICS widespread use in modern mining applications. It
may be the only possible method applicable in the
Shrinkage stoping has been used in the mining case of a mine in which the orebody is narrow and
industry for many years, but in recent times has fallen cannot be extracted by other means. It is of
out of favour because of the its associated costs. particular relevance to operations whose
Compared to the more common longhole open stoping/vein width is below 2 m and where complex
stoping method, shrinkage costs in the order of geology negates the use of longhole open stoping
UKf,25-65ltonne as opposed to UKfl5-45/tonne. (Larsen et al. 1990). Small-medium sized high-value
Much of the shrinkage cost, up to 40"/o, is labour. A commodity mines (e.g. gold; >12 g/t recovered Au)
typical distribution of mining costs would be: whose annual production is less than 100,000 tonnes
show particular applicability to the method. The
in-stopeevaluation 4Yo introduction of footwall drives and drawpoints with
development 45Yo mechanical muckers leads to increased production
labour 33% and efficiency. Similarly, the use of small single or
twin boom drillrigs for development drivages can

109
 also reduce costs and improve efficiency. Elsewhere mining operations. In: Mine Planning and
shrinkage stoping can also be used in situations Equipment Selection 1998. A.A. Balkema,
where small blocks cannot be removed by other Rotterdam. This volume.
methods. The effectiveness of shrinkage stoping is Dominy, S.C., Phelps, R.F.G., Sangster, C.J.S. &
controlled by the skill and experience of the miners Camm, G.S. 1998c. Problems and solutions
(e.g. minimal overbreak and optimum fragmentation) associated with narrow vein mining
in collaboration with the geologist (e.g. understanding operations - a review. Transactions ofthe
of vein geometry and effective communication with Institution of Mining and Metallurgt (Section
miners). l), submitted.
Dominy, S.C., Phelps, R.F.G., Sangster, C.J.S. &
Camm, G.S. 1998d. Nanow vein mining
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS techniques in the United Kingdom.
This contribution results from an on-going research Australasian Institute of Mining and
programme by the Mining Geology Research Group Metallurgt Special Publicatior, in press.
of the School of Earth & Environmental Sciences. Hartman, H.L. 1992. Mining Engineering
Work is supported by the University of Greenwich, Handbook. Society of Mining Engineers
Welsh Gold plc, Caledonia Mining Corporation, (American Institute of Mining Engineers),
Clogau Gold Mines Ltd, Elenith Mining Ltd and the Littleton. 2260 p.
Institution of Mining and Metallurgy (1996 G. Hustrulid, W.A. 1982. Underground Mining
Vemon Hobson Bequest Grant). Dr Ian Platten Methods Handbooft. Society of Mining
(University of Greenwich) and Dr Alwyn Annels Engineers (American Institute of Mining
(University of Wales) are thanked for useful Engineers), New York. 1754 p.
discussions and review of the manuscript. The Larsen, P., Cyr, R. & Quesnel, W. 1990. Application
figures were drafted by Hilary Foxwell and Clare of longhole drilling methods for narrow vein
Guard- mining. Canadian Mining and Metallurgical
Bulletin,937,35-40.
Rossouw, P.A. & Fourie, G.A. 1996. Classification
REFERENCES of underground mining methods.
Transactions of the Institution of Mining and
Beilby, P., Rogers, M. & Sullivan, B. 1993. Rise and Metallurgt (Section A), 105, 162-165.
pillar rill stoping at Golden Crown mine. Upton, B.S. 1985. Gallery stoping at Gold
Australasian Institute of Mining and Resources Paringa operations. Aus tralas ian
Metallurg,, Special Publication, 4193, 79-82. Institute of Mining and Metallurg,, Special
Dominy, S.C. & Camm, G.S. 1996. The nature and Publication, 2185, 85-87 .

exploitation ofnarrow tin-bearing veins: a

case study from South Crofty mine,
Comwall, UK. British Mining, 57 , I 50- 170. Corresponding author:
Dominy, S.C. & Phelps, R.F.G. 1997. Small-scale S.C. Dominy, MGRG, School of Eartrr. &
vein-gold exploitation in Gwynffnydd mine, Environmental Sciences, University of
Wales, UK. In'. Mine Planning and Greenwich, Medway Campus, Chatham
Equipment Selection 1997. A.A. Balkema, Maritime, Kent ME4 4TB, UK.
Rotterdam. 133-139.
Dominy, S.C., Camm, G.S. & Phelps, R.F.G. 1997.
Narrow vein mining - a challenge to the
operator. Inl. Mine Planning and Equipment
Selection 1997. A.A. Balkema, Rotterdam.
125-132.
Dominy, S.C., Camm, G.S., Wheeler, P., Annels,
A.E. & Phelps, R.F.G. 1998a. Geology in the
reserve estimation ofnarrow vein deposits.
Exploration and Mining Geologgr, submitted.
Dominy, S.C., Phelps, R.F.G. & Sangster, C.J.S.
1998b. The nature ofdilution in narrow vein

110

View publication stats