DE GUZMAN, JORIEL RYAN A.

12- STEM PLANCK

Cell Cycle
Life Cycle
- is a series of developmental steps that an individual goes through from the time it is born until the
time it reproduce.

Cell Cycle
- It is the series of growth and development steps that a cell undergoes between its “birth”.
- Formation by the division of a mother cell and reproduction.
- Division to make two new daughter cells.

Important task of cell during the Cell Cycle:

- Must grow.
- Must copy its genetic material.
- Must physically split into two daughter cells.

CELL CYCLE
- Is the process through which cells replicate and make two new cells.
- The cell cycle is a complex sequence of events by which cells grow and divide.

INTERPHASE
- During interphase, the cell grows, develops into a mature, functioning cell, duplicates its DNA, and

prepares for division while doing normal growth processes.

- Inter – means between.
Interphase takes place between one Mitotic phase and the next.

STAGES OF INTERPHASE:

MITOTIC (M) PHASE:

- Mitosis (M) involves the division of the nucleus and the genetic material as well as the cytoplasm,
forming two new cells.
STAGES OF MITOTIC PHASE:
- PROPASE
- METAPHASE
- ANAPHASE
- TELOPHASE

Cell Cycle:
G1 PHASE:
- is the period immediately after a cell divide. During G1, a cell is growing, carrying out normal cell
functions, and preparing to replicate DNA.
- some cells, such as muscle and nerve cells, exit the cell cycle at this point and do not divide again.

S PHASE (SYNTHESIS)
- is the period when a cell copies its DNA in preparation for cell division.
- formation of the sister chromatids (refers to the identical copies formed by the DNA replication of a
chromosome, with both copies joined together by a common centromere.)

G2 PHASE:
- is the period when the cell prepares for the division of its nucleus. A protein that makes
microtubules for cell division is synthesized at this time.
- Some cell organelles are duplicated.
- Cytoskeleton is dismantled to provide resources for the Mitotic phase.

MITOTIC (M) PHASE

- Multi-step process on which duplicated chromosomes:
> Are aligned
> Are separated
> Move into two new identical daughter cells

Two Portion of M Phase:

1. KARYOKINESIS – nuclear division
process of partition of a cell's nucleus into the daughter cells.
2. CYTOKINESIS – cytoplasm division
physical separation of the cytoplasmic components.
In Mitosis the nuclear DNA of the cell condenses into visible chromosomes and are pulled apart by
mitotic spindles (a specialized structure made of microtubules.

CYTOKINESIS
- the cytoplasm and the two nuclei are distributed into the two forming daughter cells, which then
physically separate. The process differs somewhat between animal and plant cells.

CYTOKINESIS in ANIMALS
- In an animal cell, the first sign of cytokinesis is the cleavage furrow, a slight indentation around the
middle of the dividing cell. A ring of proteins beneath the cell membrane contracts like a drawstring,
separating the daughter cells.

Contractile Cytokinesis
The process when band of cytoskeleton fibers forms contractile rings that contract inwards and
pinches the cell in two.

CLEAVAGE FURROW:
- Is the indentation as the process contracts inward.

CYTOKINESIS in PLANTS:
- plant cells are surrounded by cell walls. A dividing plant cell must therefore construct a new wall that
separates the two daughter cells. The first sign of cell wall construction is the cell plate, a structure that
appears at the middle of the dividing plant cell.

CELL PLATE
- - Is made up of plasma membrane and cell wall components that partitions the cell in two.
What will happen to the two daughter cell after the division?
- It depends on the type of cell.
> Many cell types in the early embryonic stage divides rapidly, in this case daughter cells will undergo
another round of cell division.

- It depends on the type of cell.

> Other cells divide slowly or not at all. These cells will enter the G0 Phase

G0 PHASE
- (resting phase)
- This is the state in which the cell leaves the cell cycle. The phase can be temporary or permanent. An
example is a neuron which has lost its capability to divide as it has achieved the highest differentiation
state.
- Permanent state for some cells where they remain metabolically active but no longer proliferate unless
called on to do so by appropriate extracellular signal, while other may restart division if they get the
right signals.

How much time does it take for 1 cell cycle to finish?

- Other types of cell like in the fast cycling mammalian cells in the intestines can complete cycle in 9-
10 hours.

CELL CYCLE CHECKPOINTS:

Cell Cycle Regulators

- Cell cycle regulators are proteins that function to detect and repair DNA damage and prevent rapid
uncontrolled cell division. The regulations are dependent also in signaling relay of the cell.
The G1 Checkpoint
- The cell can halt the cycle and attempt to remedy the problematic condition, or the cell can advance
into G0 and await further signals when conditions improve.

The G1 Checkpoint
- Determines whether all conditions are favorable for cell division to proceed.
- Checks if the cell is big enough and has made the proper proteins for the synthesis phase.

The G2 Checkpoint
- The most important role of the G2 checkpoint is to ensure that all of the chromosomes have been
replicated and that the replicated DNA is not damaged.

The M Checkpoint
- The M checkpoint is also known as the spindle checkpoint, because it determines whether all the sister
chromatids are correctly attached to the spindle microtubules.
- Occurs near the end of the metaphase stage of Karyokinesis.
Cell Division

> What are the phases of the cell cycle?

> In what phase of a cell cycle does cell grow and prepare for DNA synthesis?
> During a cell cycle, when is a cell’s DNA continue to grow and prepare for mitosis?
> In what phase of the cycle does cell division occur?

What is Cell Division?

Cell Division is the process by which a parent cell divides, when a mother cell divides into two or more
daughter cells. Cell division usually occurs as part of a larger cell cycle.

What is Mitosis?
- is the division of nucleus into two genetically identical nuclei containing the same full set of DNA.
- somatic cell division

- Sister chromatids are two identical copies of the same chromosome formed by DNA replication,
attached to each other by a structure called the centromere.

- Centrioles help to arrange the microtubules that move chromosomes during cell division to ensure
each daughter cell receives the appropriate number of chromosomes.

- Spindle fibers form a protein structure that divides the genetic material in a cell

Prophase:
- Chromosomes condense and become visible
- Spindle fibers emerge from the centrosomes
- Nuclear envelope breaks down
- Centrosomes move toward opposite poles

Metaphase
- Chromosomes are lined up at the metaphase plate
- Each sister chromatid is attaches to a spindle fiber originating from opposite poles

Anaphase
- Centromeres split into two
- Sister chromatids (now called chromosomes) are pulled toward opposite poles
- Certain spindle fibers begin to elongate the cell
Telophase
- Chromosomes arrive to opposite poles
- Nuclear envelope material surrounds each set of chromosomes
- The mitotic spindle breaks down
- Spindle fibers continue to push poles apart

Cytokinesis
- Animal cells: a cleavage furrow separates the daughter cells
- Plant cells: a cell plate the precursor to a new cell wall, separates the daughter cells\

What is Meiosis?
- A cellular division occurs to produce sex cells in the reproductive organs, ovaries, and testes. It divides
the number of chromosomes into halves in the formation of gametes, known as reduction process.

Meiosis I
- It focuses on the division of homologous chromosomes to produce two haploid cells with duplicated
chromosomes.
Prophase I
- Chromosomes condense
-Nuclear envelope breaks down
- Crossing over occurs

Prophase I

- Leptonema—Replicated chromosomes have coiled and are already visible.

- Zygonema—Homologue chromosomes begin to pair and twist around each other in a highly specific
manner.
- Pachynema—Chromosomes become much shorter and thicker. A form of physical exchange between
homologues takes place at specific regions.
- Diplonema—The two pairs of sister chromatids begin to separate from each other.

- Diakinesis—The four chromatids of each tetrad are even more condensed and the chiasma often
terminalize or move down the chromatids to the ends.
Crossing over
- Crossing over is a cellular process that happens during meiosis when chromosomes of the same type
are lined up. When two chromosomes — one from the mother and one from the father — line up, parts
of the chromosome can be switched. The two chromosomes contain the same genes, but may have
different forms of the genes.

Metaphase I
- Pairs of homologous chromosomes move to the equator of the cell

Anaphase I
- Homologous chromosomes move the opposite poles of the cell

Telophase I / Cytokinesis
- Chromosomes gather at the poles of the cells.
- The cytoplasm divides.

Prophase II
- New spindle forms around the chromosomes

Metaphase II
- Metaphase II chromosomes line up at the equator.

Anaphase II
- Centromeres divide
- Chromatids move to the opposite poles of the cell

Telophase II / Cytokinesis
- Nuclear envelope forms around each set of the chromosomes
- The cytoplasm divides
Application and Significance of Meiosis and Mitosis:

- Mitosis is significant for growth, repair, and development. Likewise, continues the physiological cycle.
The control checkpoint is an important parameter to prevent the damaging consequences of
unregulated cell division.

- Meiosis is significant to a sexually reproducing organism. This is essential as this regulates the
chromosome number (e.g., n=23 for humans) wherein each parent contributes half the genes needed to
produce a new individual. It also increases variability in the population of organisms from one
generation to the next.

- Meiosis produces the gametes, sperm or eggs that fuse after two organisms have sex. Gametes only
have half the normal number of chromosomes, or strands of DNA, that a normal cell does. So, two of
them must fuse in order to form a new cell that will develop into a new organism. In sexually
reproducing organisms, gametes are only produced by meiosis, not mitosis.

- In multicellular organisms that have reproductive organs that do meiosis to produce gametes, the
organs were built by cells that underwent mitosis. Thus, in these organisms meiosis is only possible
because mitosis made organs that nurture the cells to undergo meiosis. In human females, this organ is
called the ovary; in males, it is called testicles.

- The human reproductive system is controlled by the brain. The sperm are produced in the testicles,
and the eggs are produced in the ovaries, but both of these organs receive commands from the brain.
Just as with the reproductive organs, the brain was formed by the cells that underwent mitosis. In fact,
the cells that produce the hormones in each organ were the result of mitosis, not meiosis.