DEEP FOUNDAnONS ON BORED AND AUGER PILES

BAPm
PROCEEDINGS OF THE 3RD INTERNATIONAL GEOTECHNICAL SEMINAR ON DEEP
FOUNDATIONS ON BORED AND AUGER PILES / GHENT I BELGIUM I 19-21 OCTOBER 1998

Deep Foundations on Bored

and Auger Piles
BAPIII
Edited by
WF.VAN IMPE & WHAEGEMAN
Laboratory of Soil Mechanics, Ghent University, Belgium

A.A. BALKEMA / ROTTERDAM / BROOKFIELD / 1998

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 Deep Foundations on Bored and Auger Piles, Van Impe & Haegeman (eds) © 1998 Balkema, Rotterdam, ISBN 90 5809 022 1

Table of contents

Preface XI

Theme lecture: 1 American experiences with large diameter bored piles

Applications of large-diameter bored piles in the United States 3
MW.O'Neill

Theme lecture: 2 Developments in horizontal capacity estimation ofbored piles

Developments in analysis of horizontal capacity of bored piles 23
L.CReese, W.MIsenhower & S-TWang

Theme lecture: 3 Case histories

Energy piles and diaphragm walls for heat transfer from and into the ground 37
H.Brandl

Theme lecture: 4 Static, dynamic and pile integrity testing

Design of axially loaded bored piles - European codes, practice and experience 63
FDeCock

Theme lecture: 5 Pile group and pile raft behaviour

Pile groups and piled rafts behaviour 77
CViggiani

Theme lecture: 6 Installation parameters and capacity ofscrewed piles

Installation parameters and capacity of screwed piles 95
M Bustamante & L.Gianeselli

v
Discussion sessions 1 and 2 linked to Theme lectures 1 and 2
Side-wall stability and side-shear resistance in bored piles constructed III
with high-molecular-weight polymer slurry
AAAta & M w.O' Neill
Performance of polymer slurries in large diameter bored pile 119
M Bustamante, L. Gianeselli, R. Boato & A Conedera
Large diameter slurry bored piles in tension 129
CE.Ho, CH.Lim & CG.Tan
Lateral loading tests on bored piles in cemented sands 137
NF.Ismael
Investigation of the behavior of pile foundation undergone cyclic lateral loading 145
by three-dimensional finite element analysis (DGPILE-3D)
M Kimura , F.Zhang & IInoue
Lateral split sock~t test in Franconia sandstone 151
R.E.Majano, MW.O'NeiU & G.Person
Pile foundation on gypsiferous marls for a 331 m. long bridge 157
A Serrano, E. Dapena & J M Villar
Experimental research on bearing capacity of belied piles 165
Shi Feng, Liu Chun & Cai Laibing
Effect of construction time and bentonite viscosity on shaft capacity of bored piles 171
N Thasnanipan, G. Baskaran & MAAnwar

Discussion session 3 linked to Theme lectures 4 and 5

Recent advances in ultrasonic pile testing 181
E.I.Amir & J. MAmir
Load testing at Feluy test site: Introducing the Omega B+ pile 187
MJBottiau , I.A Meyus, P.O Van Impe & G.Russo
Axial load test at failure on a large diameter, instrumented, bored pile 201
E. Cabella, M Lupo & R. Passalacqua
Integrity non destructive tests of deep foundations by means of sonic methods - Analysis 209
of the results collected on 37 sites in Italy
D.Faiella & S.Superbo
Soil-structure-interaction of a piled raft foundation of a 121 m high office building on loose 215
sand in Berlin
R.Katzenbach, UArslan & OReul
Group-efficiency of a large pile group in rock 223
R. Katzenbach, UArslan & J Holzhiiuser

VI
Development and application of analytical technique for damage investigation of foundation 231
piles by sonic integrity test
T.Matsui. A Nanjo. F.Yasuda. YNakata & Klmada

A new approach on the lateral bored pile group effect 239

NRadulescu
Integrity evaluation of Geopier intermediate foundations 247
MR. Svinkin & N S. Fox
Vertical load bearing behavior of bored pre-cast concrete piles 253
H Tanahashi
Statnamic testing of bored piles socketed into siltstone 261
STchepak & MCChin
Reuse of existing piles and underground structures in reconstruction of a building 269
YTsubakihara. KYamashita. M Kibayashi & T.Kawano
Experiences with CFA pile type under an existing building 273
WF.Van lmpe. KVerstraeten & PG. Van lmpe
The pile testing in Fuzhou International Airport 281
Xi-anLiu

Discussion session 4: Standard and codes related to bored and auger piles
Field tests of shaft resistance of bored piles 287
KGwizdala & A Tejchman
Statistical analysis on shaft friction of vertically loaded bored piles 293
F. Kuwabara & M Tanaka
The new European Standard EN 1536 "Execution of bored piles" 299
W-R.Linder & H-HSiebke
The safety requirement concept of large diameter bored in clay related to engineering practice 309
AX. Tavares

Discussion session 5: Dynamic versus static pile testing for bored and auger piles
Quality control of CFA piles by low-strain and high-strain dynamic testing 315
P Berzi. R. Skov & 1. Lorincz
Variable energy dynamic load test on a 1.0 m diameter CFA pile 321
L.G.de MeZZo & S.CPara£so
The performance of large diameter bored piles used for a road project in Malaysia 335
AJamaludin & AN Hussein
The design and performance of bored piles in shales for the Australia Stadium project 341
S.Tchepak

VII
The performance of CFA piles in residual clays 349
S.Tchepak
Load-settlement behaviour versus distinctive Q-pile execution parameters 355
WFVan lmpe, CViggiani, P.O Vanlmpe , G.Russo & M Bottiau

Discussion session 6 linked to Theme lecture 6

Influence of non-linear behaviour of soils on the performance of bored piles 369
R.Berardi
Backanalyses of elastic parameters from piles executed in a tropical porous clay 377
R.P'Cunha & E.N.P.Perez
Consolidation around piles 385
E.lmre & P.R6zsa
Effects of repeated stress on soil behavior at cast-in-place pile toe 391
M Kondou, 5. Nishiyama & FOkumura
Foundation of four 80.000 m3 crude oil tanks with 800 mm CFA piles 399
1 Lorincz, G.Madar & MB6di
Interaction effects in load testing on piles 403
A Mandolini & M Ramondini
Soil parameters relevant to screw pile research testing at Feluy test site 411
H.Peiffer, WFVanlmpe, P.O Vanlmpe & WHaegeman
Estimation of pile bearing capacity of cast-in-place screwed piles 417
V.Rizkallah & T.Bruns

Discussion session 7: Pile group ­ Structure interaction

Non-linear analysis of vertically loaded pile groups 425
F.Basile
Field load tests of piled footings founded on a tropical porous clay 433
R.P'Cunha & MMSales
Design and safety concept for piled raft foundations 439
R.Katzenbach, UArslan & Chr.Moormann
Estimation of ultimate bearing capacity for bulging failure of granular compaction group piles 449
H.-T.Kim, L-K.Kang, Y.-LKoh &J.-5oHwang
Simplified method for analysing piled raft foundations 457
K.Yamashita, T.Yamada & M Kakurai

Discussion session 8: Large diameter bored piles ­ Performance versus design

Base deformations calculation of bored pile foundations with widenings 467
5. MAleynikov

VIII
Augered pressure grouted piles for difficult conditions - A case history 475
M Durrani
A contribution to the analysis of negative skin friction on piles 481
G.B.Fenelli & G.Russo
Shear load transfer characteristics of drilled shafts in weathered rocks 489
S.lKim, s.s.Jeong & S.H.Cho
Load displacement performance of bored piles in weak rock 497
lP.Seidel, C.MHaberfield & S.Baycan
Discussion on the sudden failure mechanism oflong rock-socketed bored pile 505
Shu Xiang & Chen Zhuchang
Large diameter bored piles in multi-layered soils of Bangkok 511
N Thasnanipan, P.Tanseng & MAAnwar
Performance of bored piles in Lignite 519
W.l van Niekerk, 1 W. Rosingh & J. Y.Tonnisen

Author index 525

IX
 Deep Foundations on Bored and Auger Piles, Van Impe & Haegeman (eds) © 1998 Balkema, 'Rotterdam, ISBN 90 5809 022 1

Preface

On a five-yearly basis and starting in 1988, the Bored and Auger Pile Seminars have been organized
in Ghent.
The intriguing complexity of the soil-pile interaction and its related load-settlement behaviour do
justify such specialized topic meetings, especially in case of bored and evenmore of screw piles.
Contractors, designers and academicians compiled once more in this proceedings their new
approaches and developments ofthe last five years, elucidating the today's state-of-the-art from pile
installation, pile testing and pile capacity-evaluation point of view.
This third Bored and Auger Pile Seminar hopefully will also contribute to a better and more
efficient professional interaction of specialized contractors, designers and academicians gathering in
the discussion sessions this week.
It's the main editor's pleasure to thank sincerely all members of the Scientific and the Organizing
Committee in preparing this 3rd BAP event. For the continuous follow up of the Seminar's
organizing details as well as the lay-out of the proceedings, the laboratory scientific staff Professor
P. Menge, Or W Haegeman, Or H. Peiffer, Ir P.Van Impe, Ir L.Areias and the technical-administrative
staffK.Crombeen, H.Oe Cooman, L.Van Cauwenberge, E.Bracke, L.Clerick and lCasteels should
be acknowledged.
The Scientific Committee equally returns thanks to all authors and discussion contributors
allowing for a high level proceeding edition and the undoubtfully related intriguing discussion
sessions pitching the expectations high.

Prof. Or Ir W Van Impe

Seminar-Coordinator

XI
Theme lecture 1
American experiences with large diameter bored piles
 Oeep Foundations on Bored and Auger Piles, Van Impe & Haegeman (eds) © 1998 Balkema, Rotterdam, ISBN 90 5809 022 1

Applications of large-diameter bored piles in the United States

M.WO'Neill
UniversityojHouston , Tex., USA

ABSTRACT The current state of practice for large-diameter bored piles (LDBPs) in the United States is
discussed, from the perspective of the writer, and several brief case studies are examined . The use of LDBPs is
increasing in the United States primarily because of educational efforts and demands for foundations that are
scour-resistant, adaptable to over-water construction and economically advantageous in restricted construction
areas.

1 INTRODUCTION installed in restricted spaces, such as freeway

medians, that are not large enough to permit the
Large-diameter bored piles (LDBPs) can be defined, economical marshaling of pre-fabricated, driven piles
for purposes of this paper, as cast-in-situ piles with and construction equipment for groups of such piles,
diameters of at least 0.76 m. The use of LDBPs has which are the main alternatives to LDBPs in the
increased dramatically in the United States in the past United States.
decade. ADSC, the international trade association
for bored piles, reports that the value of bored pile LDBPs have been found by designers to be
construction in the U S. increased from about $US particularly well-suited as foundations for structures
800,000,000 in 1992 to about $US 1,040,000,000 in that must resist extreme events that produce large
1997. The growth has been greatest in the lateral loads (e g., seismic and vessel impact
transportation area, principally for bridges but also as loading) because of the very large moments of
soldiers and tangent piles for retaining structures. inertia they provide . They have become widely used
The use of LDBPs in bridge foundations has been in seismic retrofit work for highway bridges in states
stimulated by several factors, including the need to such as California, where the seismic risk is high.
install foundations in rivers in which large volumes of F or seismic retrofit and river crossing projects, it is
soil can be scoured during extreme floods not uncommon for LDBPs to have diameters as
Cylindrical LDBPs are viewed as more resistant to large as 2.44 m, even in soft to moderately hard
local scour than capped groups of smaller piles or rock . Even larger sizes are sometimes specified .
noncylindrical piles, and they permit relatively easy
penetration of hard, non-scourable geomaterial Although flexible mat (raft) foundations are
beneath the depth of maximum scour to provide for relatively common for architectural structures in
both lateral and axial stability after the scour event some areas of the United States, the use of LDBPs
has occurred . to reduce stresses and settlements in mats has not
been implemented as it has in Europe and other parts
The ability of contractors to use casings as of the world . The absence of this potentially
column forms in overwater construction, even where important application of LDBPs appears to the
large amounts of scour are not anticipated, writer to be associated with the fear of litigation on
eliminates the need for cofferdams. This attribute of the part of designers, who work under contracts
LDBPs has given them a significant economic separate from the constructors, that is associated
advantage that is just now being fully realized by the with their assuming the risk of designing a
U. S foundation engineering community. LDBPs foundation system for which no local histories exist.
are also being used increasingly as foundations for
rehabilitated and expanded structures that must be Simultaneously with the growing economic and

3
technical pressures to use LDBPs, known in the new research on reliability-based design of bored
United States as drilled shafts, their use has been piles for highway and power transmission structures,
significantly advanced by the technology transfer respectively (Barker et aI, 1991 , Kulhawy, 1998).
efforts of the Federal Highway Administration of the While ASD is still the norm in the United States, the
U S Department of Transportation, which has results of research aimed at producing resistance
sponsored the development of a series of manuals of factors derived systematically from reliability
practice focusing on the design and construction of concepts, in some cases involving variances of
bored piles and which has introduced these manuals geotechnical design parameters for construction
to practicing transportation engineers throughout sites, are beginning to find there way into design
the United States by means of formal training practice in the load and resistance factor (LRFD)
courses given at many locations . ADSC: The format (e . g. , AASHTO, 1994) This remains a
International Association for Foundation Drilling, controversial topic in the United States among
has also been very active in educating practicing civil geotechnical practitioners.
engineers from all sectors in the design and uses of
bored piles through lpcal seminars and publications. Policies and procedures for verification of the
structural integrity of LDBPs varies .considerably
The demand for LDBPs has fostered from agency to agency in the United States.
requirements for efficient and reliable designs, cost­ Caltrans (the California Department of
effective and environmentally sensitive construction Transportation) is perhaps the most aggressive
practices and dep'endable procedures to verifY agency in the use of post-construction integrity
structural integrity (Baker et aI. , 1993). testing, largely because of the importance of seismic
loading in that state. All large-diameter bored piles
Routine design of LDBPs in the United States constructed by direct displacement of either mineral
follows the normal practice of characterizing the soil or polymer drilling slurry by the fluid concrete are
or rock (geomaterial) by sampling cohesive surveyed by Caltrans for defects by using gamma­
geomaterials and measuring their undrained shear gamma or cross-hole ultrasonic logging techniques
strengths by means of unconfined, VU triaxial or within cast-in-pile tubes spaced evenly around the
CIU triaxial tests and by performing dynamic reinforcing cage at the rate of one per every 0.3 m of
penetration tests (SPT, for example) in layers of pile diameter. Other governmental agencies follow
cohesion less soils. Values of limiting side and base similar practice, perhaps casting access tubes in all
resistances are then established through correlations piles but subjecting only those piles with suspicious
with these geomaterial properties. It is unusual for construction histories to integrity tests.
designs to be based on in-situ tests, such as the
PMT, CPT or DMT tests, but on occasion designs 2 EXAMPLES OF RECENT PROJECTS
are carried out in this way.
The remainder of this paper will focus on a few
Full-scale or partial-scale load tests are relatively specific examples of the use of large-diameter bored
common means of developing job-specific piles for projects in the U. S. on which the author
correlations between geomaterial properties has been a consultant. These include the
measured in the manner described above and unit
• St. Croix River Bridge, Oak Park Village,
side and base resistances in unusual soil or rock
Minnesota (interpretation of half-scale load tests
formations or in formations with which the designer
in soft, highly dilatant sandstone for use in
lacks familiarity . The availability of the ,Osterberg
design of production piles),
Cell and the Statnamic loading device has greatly
• GTE World Operations Headquarters, Dallas,
increased the frequency of load testing in recent
Texas (simple measures for enhancing side
years because of the reduced cost and increased
resistance and decreasing settlement in cJay­
loading capacity.
shale),
Allowable stress design (ASD) techniques, using • Viaducts for Highway H-3 , Halawa Valley,
nominal loads and resistances and global factors of Hawaii (use of bored piles for seismic loading
safety (in the range of 2 to 3) are still prevalent. conditions in heterogeneous saprolite), and the
However, both the National Cooperative Highway • Fred Hartmann Bridge, Baytown, Texas (use of
Research Program (NCHRP) and the Electric Power bored piles at soft soil site to prevent
Research Institute (EPRI) have sponsored important environmental pollution of shallow ground
water) .

4
 Common to all of these projects was the support the eastern bents, where a medium dense
performance of full-scale load tests to verify the sand layer is present below the organic muck.
resistance and stiffness estimates at each unique However, the effect of driving piles into the
construction site; however, the results of the load sanpstone near the Minnesota shore on the
tests will not be discussed in all of the examples. resistance of the sandstone and on the structural
The availability of expedient loading devices such as co~dition of the piles was unknown, so a foundation
the Osterberg Load Cell and the Statnamic loading system consisting of LDBPs, drilled through the
device has made it possible to conduct load tests muck and socketed into the sandstone, was selected
much more frequently and to much higher loads than for that section of the bridge. Sockets were required
was feasible only a few years ago (O'Neill et ai , primarily because the foundations were to sustain
1997). In the United States, with its extremely substantial uplift loads caused by large overturning
variable subsurface conditions, routine design rules moments that would be applied to the bents by the
from CPT, PMT and other geotechnical tests, are construction cranes during assembly of the
not applied in any standardized manner. There is no superstructure.
doubt, therefore, that the capability to conduct
significant numbers of site-specific load tests at In order to assess the axial resistances of bored
relatively low cost has also encouraged the use of pifes in the heterogeneous sandstone, a field
more LDBPs. experiment was conductect on, the west bank. It was
assumed that the preponderance of the resistance of
Emphasis for the first three projects will be on the rock sockets would be developed in ,side shear,
the methods that were used to compute the nominal so side shear resistance was the focus of the
ultimate resistance and stiffness of production piles experiment and the associated interpretation of
for axial loading and the verification of the design results.
methods through load testing. In the fourth project,
the construction technique that was devised to affect A half-scale rock socket, 1.22 m in diameter and
environmental safety will be described . 3.66 m long, was tested axially on the west bank,
using an Osterberg Cell, in preference to testing a
2.1 St. Croix River Bridge full-scale socket, 2.44 m in diameter, in the river.
The same formation is present onshore and in the
O'Neill and Person (1998) explain the methodology river, but, as is evident in Fig. 1, the vertical position
used to design 2.44-m diameter bored piles for a of the test socket resulted in a much higher
major bridge spanning the St. Croix River near Oak magnitude of vertical effective stress at the test
Park Village, Minnesota, at the border betw.een location than at the locations of the production piles
Minnesota and Wisconsin. The methodology can be in the river. Therefore, it was necessary to scale the
summarized by the following. test results to the conditions of overburden stress
(and shaft diameter) at the locations of piers that
The western several bents of the planned would be supported by LDBPs in the river.
crossing of the St. Croix River traverse an area of Since the sandstone formations in eastern
s9ft to very soft, organic, normally consolidated clay Minnesota were know to be highly dilatant, scaling
(" organic muck") underlying approximately 10 m 'of
water and overlying a complex interbedded
formation of glauconitic (highly cohesive) and friable
(much less cohesive) sandstone, known collectively
as the Franconia formation., The friable member was
very difficult to sample, and little data on strength,
deformability and compressibility were available.

A simplified profile along the alignment of the

bridge in Fig. 1 indicates the problem facing the
foundation designer. Near the Minnesota (west)
shore the organic muck, which was much too soft
and compressible to support the bridge, was situated
directly on top of the heterogeneous sandstone. It
was decided to install conventional driven piles to Fig. 1. Schematic Profile of St. Croix River Crossing

5
was accomplished with the method of analysis cell was oriented vertically in order to split the
developed at Monash University, using software socket and force the two halves laterally into the
denoted "ROCKET" (ROCK sockET) (Seidel, rock. Relative movement between the two halves of
1994). This method generates axial load-movement the socket was measured by means of sacrificial
relations along a plane surface or in a rock socket as L VDTs. The design of the lateral test socket was
a function of several variables, including the such that it would be split along a central vertical
plane when the Osterberg Cell was activated, so the
• roughness pattern at the interface between load that was registered by the Osterberg cell was
the concrete and the rock, whose general equal to the load applied to each half-socket.
shape is specified and whose specific shape is
computed using principles of fractal Final excavation of both sockets was executed
geometry, with a rock auger. Electronic caliper logs made
• elastic stiffness of the rock normal to the prior to concreting revealed that there were no
rock-concrete interface in response to major indentations or gouges (concrete asperities) in
dilation that occurs at the interface as it is the borehole wall. The wireline caliper was not
sheared, sensitive enough to measure small asperities (6 mm
• initial lateral stress between the concrete and height or smaller), which may be significant in
the rock (assumed to be the effective fluid modeling interface roughness in the sockets .
concrete pressure at the time of
construction), A potentially important construction detail is
• angle of material sliding friction between the that both test sockets remained open for nine days
concrete and rock, and between drilling and concreting. The prolonged
• angle of internal friction and cohesion of the stress relief may have affected socket performance.
rock mass. The boreholes had meanwhile filled with ground
water that seeped into the holes from the overburden
ROCKET considers dilation along the rough geomaterials to an elevation well above the test
interface followed by shearing through each of the sockets . The sockets were tested several days after
asperities according to a limit equilibrium rule. casting, as soon as the concrete reached the target
Parameters that were scaled for this project were the strength for testing. At that time the ground water
lateral concrete pressures (test socket vs. prototype had reached the surface of the boreholes.
socket), the normal elastic stiffness of the rock and
socket diameter. It was assumed that the interface Both sockets were loaded in increments of 450
roughness pattern, the angle of interface material kN every five minutes . Some cycling was
friction and the mass shear strength properties of the performed, but its effect was minimal.
rock were identical at the test site onshore and the
prototype socket locations in the river. Figure 2 shows the net load on the Osterberg
Cell (measured load less the computed buoyant
The test socket was segmented vertically with an weight of the test socket) versus the average upward
Osterberg Cell (26 .7 MN capacity). The part of the displacement of the top of the cell (bottom of the
socket below the Osterberg Cell, which was 5 m test socket) . The readings were those taken four
long, functioned as a reaction socket against which minutes after each load application. Figure 2 also
the cell pushed to mobilize the test socket above the shows the gross load (no correction for the weight
cell, which was 3.66 m long. of the test socket) versus average measured
downward displacement of the top of the reaction
A second test socket, which had a diameter 0 = socket. A net base resistance of 3.7 MPa was
1.22 m and a length = 2.14 m, was constructed nea~ measured in the reaction socket at the time the test
the first, primarily to provide lateral load-deflection was terminated (approximately 15 mm of base
data for the rock for use in lateral load analysis (see displacement). The load-movement relations for
companion paper by Majano et al.), but it also both the test and reaction sockets are remarkably
functioned effectively to provide in-situ information almost linear to a deflection of greater than 33 mm
on the stiffness of the rock normal to the interface in the test socket ("top of load cell" ), which
for conducting an analysis of the axially loaded developed all of its resistance in side shear. The lack
socket. That socket was also segmented by means of displacement recovery in the unloading cycle at
of ~n Osterberg Cell with 26.7 MN capacity, but the 13.4 MN indicates that most of the side shear

6
 for side resistance for the prototype piles in the St.
Croix River (O ' Neill and Person, 1998). Table I
summarizes the rock properties at the test location,
and Table 2 summarizes the inputs to ROCKET.
Notations beginning with the word "Fractal"
indicate a particular general interface roughness
pattern. These shapes are constructed
mathematically of connected linear chords. It was
found through trial and error that a library fractal
pattern denoted "Fractal I c" with a chord length of
32 mm matched the measured load-movement
behavior better than other patterns when applied
along with kN = 400 kPa/mm and an initial normal
fluid stress equal to the pressure at the middle of the
socket developed by buoyant, tot~lIy fluid, concrete,
which extended 3.66 m above the load cell The
simulated roughness profile produced rock asperities
Fig. 2. Load-Movement Relations for Axial Test with a mean double amplitude of about 7 mm.
and Reaction Sockets, St. Croix River Test Site
Only a few rock cores could be recovered for
resistance was developed through plastic shearing unconfined testing, since much of the formation is
and was not related to elastic strain in the rock. highly friable The average value of qu was 4.32
Instruments within the test socket indicated that the MPa, which is likely an upper limit for the rock
load transfer to the sandstone was relatively uniform mass. An insufficient number of cores were
with depth, in both the glauconitic and friable available to permit triaxial testing to obtain ~' , so
members; therefore, all analyses were made using <1>' had to be estimated . The angle of interface sliding
the average values of unit side resistance (t) friction was not measured . The value of 38 degrees
developed along the entire test socket and the was selected by reasoning that the angle of interface
corresponding average movements (w) of the entire sliding friction should be approximately equal to the
socket. residual angle of internal friction in the sandstone.
The average value of the pressuremeter modulus for
The results of the lateral split socket test, in initial loading was 344 MPa. The value of E
terms of mean lateral pressure (average horizontal (Young' s modulus) for the rock mass deduced from
pressure on a vertical diametrical plane through the the split socket test was 380 MPa (secant value for u
cent er of the socket, O"hs, which is equal to the radial = I mm), which corresponds closely with the
normal pressure exerted by an expanding cylinder) average pressuremeter modulus.
versus the average one-way lateral displacement of
the half-sockets, u, are shown in Fig. 3. The radial The simulation considered the rock and interface
(normal) stiffness, kN, of the socket in the Franconia to be drained, such that the strength of the rock and
Sandstone, which was defined as tiO"hJ tiU at small the interface are dependent upon the normal
values of u, appeared to be about 400 kPa/mm up to interface stiffness, which is itself dependent upon
u = I mm, dropping to a secant value of 267 depth (effective ground stress) and socket diameter,
kPa/mm at u = 6 mm (0005 D) At larger and upon the roughness of and initial normal stress
displacements the normal stiffness again increased, at the interface.
suggesting crushing and densification of the rock,
possibly because the rock had been in a stress­ A comparison of a few of the socket shear
relaxed state prior to loading due to the long period response curves obtained using ROCKET are shown
that the socket was open before concreting. in Fig. 4, where the mean developed unit side
shearing resistance, f, is plotted versus the
In order to calibrate ROCKET for the local movement of the socket, w. All parameters are as
rock and borehole roughness conditions, the specified in Table 2, except where indicated .
behavior of the axial test socket was analyzed
parametrically, primarily to ascertain the appropriate The effect of the interface roughness pattern can
interface roughness pattern to develop design values be seen by comparing the upper three curves in Fig.

7
Table 1. S·ummarVO fRockD Test Site for F- - . Sand
.­ - - - -

Depth (m) % Recovery / N (SPT) qu (MPa) q. (MPa) Initial

RQD Blows / m E. (MPa)
42.3 (G) 98/34 4.21
45.3 (G) 100/60
45 .7(G) - 319
47.0 (GIF» 84/40
47.5 (F) - 433
48 .1 (F) 5217
50.1 (F) - 50/0.1
50.6 (F) - 280
509 (F) 67/0
51.4 (F) 80/40 6.96
51.8 (F) 50/0.3 - 0.310
52.5 (F) 95/35
52.7 (F) - 1.71 0.285
52.8 (F) - 0.570
53 .1 (F) 50/0.3 -
53 .8 (F) - 4.41
AVERAGE - 4.32 - 0.39 344
G = glauconitic / cohesive (Reno member); F = friable (MazomaQie member); qu = unconfined
compression strength; q. = splitting tensile strength; Bp = pressuremeter modulus

Table- 2. I
-- - ~ -- - for Analvsis of St. Croix River Axial Test Socket for ROCKET
--- ---- -- - - - - - - - ---- - ­

Parameter Value Comment

Interface roughness Fractal pattern le with Library pattern in
chord length = 32 mm ROCKET
Normal stiffuess of rock at 400 kPa/mm Lateral stiffuess from
interface, kN split socket test
Peak angle of internal 40° Direct shear tests on
friction of rock, 4>' SPT samples
Angle of interface sliding 38° Assumed value
Cohesion of rock 0.050 MPa Assumed value
Poisson's ratio of rock 0.25 Assumed value
Initial normal 30 kPa Fluid pressure of
interface pressure concrete at middle
of socket, assuming
buoyant concrete I
Simulation state Constant normal stiffuess Shearing of a
plane surface I

4. Note that 1.8 m of concrete head was the other formal procedure, to design bored pile sockets
average value within the axial test socket, which directly without performing a site-specific calibration
produces 30 kPa of isotropic pressure in the fluid such as is illustrated here.
state at the middle of the socket. The effect of
normal interface stiffuess can be seen by comparing Although not shown in Fig. 4, ROCKET also
the results using the two "Fractal le" patterns. Both predicts decreasing maximum values of f as the
the interface roughness and normal stiffuess effects diameter of the socket increases, which must also be
are quite significant. In fact, the differences in the considered when the test results are scaled to
top and bottom curves are so great that it is prototype conditions.
probably not appropriate to use ROCKET, or any

8
Fig. 3. Lateral Pressure on 1.22 m X 1.63 m Plane Fig. 5. Average Measured Socket Shear Stress vs.
Surface vs. Lateral Deflection from Split-Cylinder Movement and Comparison with Numerical Model
Socket Test
appropriate for estimating limiting side resistance of
the prototype sockets. The results of the "Fractal
lc" solution with the parameters listed in Table 2
were used as the reference condition for scaling to
design conditions for rock sockets in the St. Croix
River.
Details of the scaling process are described by
O'Neill and Person (1998). They can be
summarized in the following :
• Construction procedures for production piles
were assumed to be identical to the procedures
used to construct the test sockets (excavation by
rock augers, no drilling slurry); therefore, the
interface roughness pattern was assumed to
remain unchanged from test socket to
production socket.
• Because of the reduced effective vertical stress
Fig. 4. Analysis ofInterface Behavior for Constant (and by implication the horizontal effective stress)
Normal Stiffness Conditions Using ROCKET in the rock beneath the river, the lateral normal
stiffness, kN, was reduced to 0.33 X 400 kPaJmm
(= 133 kPaJmm) 0.61 m below the top of the
Figure 5 shows a comparison of the solution sandstone within the river and to 0.50 X 400
from ROCKET with the closest fit with the kPaJmm (= 200 kPaJmm) 9.15 m below the top of
relationship of average f to w from the loading test. the sandstone within the river. These distances
The analytical predictions of the f-w relation are not correspond to the top and bottom of the
highly accurate at values of w less than 8 - 10 mm. production sockets, respectively. This scaling
This effect may be due to the degraded condition of rule was established assuming that the normal
the interface caused by nine days of exposure to air stiffness scaled in the friable sandstone in the
and water prior to concreting, or it may have same manner as in a dense sand, which can be
resulted partially from the attribute of the version of described approximately by Eq. (I).
ROCKET employed at the time of the design, which
did not include elastic deformation of rock
asperities. But the ROCKET model replicated the k N prototype a'v ( prototype)
(I)
observed near-linear behavior to a large kN/oad test a'v (test)
displacement quite well and can be considered

9
 where cr 'v = vertical effective pressure in the
geomaterial at the depth of interest
• Because of the increased diameter of the sockets
in the river, the lateral strain (and thereby lateral
stress) , induced at the interface by vertical
movement of the socket for a given asperity
height will reduce generally in proportion to the
diameter of the pile. Assuming linearity of the
normal stress-strain behavior in the sandstone at
the interface, k"l was reduced further by 50 per
cent in consideration of the requirement for
sockets of 2.44 m diameter in the river The final
values of kN for the prototypes were therefore 67
kPa/mm and 100 kPa/mm at the top and bottom
of the socket, respectively.
• 9 . 15 m of effective fluid (buoyant) concrete head
will exist above the middle of the sockets for the
prototype shafts. This ,. is based on the Fig 6. Relations for Design Based on Scaling of

consideration that the bored piles for this Interface Behavior from Axial Socket Test for

particular project will be constructed within Shallow Penetration of Rock and 2.44-m Socket

cofferdams and that the concrete will be placed Diameter Using ROCKET

only up to a level slightly below the top of the

organic muck, which will leave the concrete head of 2 was selected based on the reasoning that (I) a
at least 9 . 15 m above the mid-depths of the load test had been conducted, (2) there was reserve
sandstone sockets. capacity in side resistance, and likely in base
resistance, at the designated settlement limit (25.4
Consideration of the scaling rules described mm), (3) inspection of the rock excavation would
above led to the f-w relations for the prototype take place during construction, allowing the rock
sockets in the St Croix River shown in Fig 6 . sockets to be lengthened in the field if necessary,
These were computed using ROCKET with a and (4) at least one prototype socket will be load­
"Fractal Ic" roughness pattern, a 32 mm chord tested to its design load .
length, 7 mm mean asperity height (inferred from the
loading tests), kN = 67 and 100 kPa/mm (values It was also recommended that no mineral drilling
from the lateral split socket test scaled to prototype slurry be used in construction of the production
conditions), and an initial normal interface pressure piles, as it could reduce the degree of roughness in
equivalent to 9 . 15 m of buoyant, fluid concrete. the completed socket, and that adequate fluid
These relations suggest that fm" = 3 20 kPa at the concrete pressure be maintained when the concrete
tops of the prototype sockets and 430 kPa 9.15 m is placed . This can be achieved with cohesive
below the top of sandstone (bottoms of deepest concrete having a slump of at least ISO mm and
sockets), based on defining an axial movement of placed rapidly.
25.4 mm to correspond to the limiting condition.
Similar logic was used to scale gross base Construction of the bridge awaits the outcome
resistance, qm". A conservative value of qm.x for of court hearings related to the appropriateness of
design of 0 93 MPa was deduced from the load test erecting a large bridge in an otherwise lightly
and scaling rules, assuming that the river sockets developed area.
will penetrate 9. 15 m into the sandstone. This value
corresponds to a base settlement of about 9 mm and 2.2 GTE World Operations Headquarters Building
so is not likely truly an ultimate value.
A campus of mid-rise buildings was constructed
These predicted ultimate values of fm•x and qm,x in hilly terrain in a Cretaceous-aged clay-shale
require that either a factor of safety or a resistance formation known as the Eagle Ford fonnation in
factor be applied to the computed (nominal) limiting lrving, Texas (O 'Neill et aI , 1992). The subsurface
values of resistance. No formal reliability analysis investigation revealed the presence of a zone of
was conducted . However, a global factor of safety intact clay-shale interbedded with thin seams of

10
bentonite, which was much softer than the clay­ cast at the base of the pile to inhibit the development
shale, as depicted schematically in Fig . 7. The site of base resistance, The void was vented to the
for one of the buildings required that the overburden atmosphere to prevent the buildup of fluid pressure
soil be excavated permanently to a depth of about in the void.
6.3 m. The geomaterial in the formation is , The second pile (Shaft 6, Fig. 7) was identical to
horizontally laminated, with lamination thicknesses the first except that the sides of the borehole were
of about I mm, and has a Unified Soil Classification rifled in a spiral pattern using a simple side cutter on
of CH . Two concerns dictated the performance of the auger. Rifling was performed to evaluate its
load tests at the site of the building in the effect on the minimization of the effects of bentonite
excavation (I) the process of excavating the smear. The two piles were installed within about 6
geomaterial above and below the zone with m of each other at a location at which the 6.3 m of
bentonite seams would smear the bentonite on the overburden had been excavated for only about one
sides of the borehole throughout the zones without week prior to constructing the test piles. The piles
bentonite seams, thus reducing the side load transfer; were load-tested in compression about two weeks
and (2) the rebound of the highly laminated clay­ after they were cast.
shale may require the piles to settle considerably
more than usual to develop the full side shearing The load-settlement behavior of the two test
resistance. piles is shown in Fig 8, Immediately after initial
loading, each pile was refoaded Fig. 8 shows the
load-settlement relations such that zero s~ttlement is
defined at the beginning of each loading for clarity in
comparing the results,

In the first loading, it is apparent that the rifling

increased the side resistance by about 40 per cent. It
is also evident for both piles that side resistance
.continued to increase at settlements beyond the
usual 5 - 7 mm at which side shear failure normally
occurs in stiff to hard clays in the area. Upon
ioading each shaft a second time, immediately
following the first loading, the load-settlement
relation remained linear and the settlement remained
very small (less than 5 mm) up to the load that had
produced in excess of 30 mm of settlement during

Fig. 7. Geomaterial and Pile Profiles GTE Site

Two load tests specific to the building in

question were conducted ,· The first pile to be tested
(Shaft 5 in Fig. 7) was constructed in the usual way
using an auger, without casing or drilling slurry,
except that a permanent casing with a bond breaker
was installed and left in place in the top 7.9 m. Side
shear was eliminated in this zone since the test was
intended to measure the expected side resistance in
the deeper clay-shale near the level of the zone with
bentonite seams . In order to permit the use of
available surface loading equipment to affect a side Fig. 8. Measured Load-Settlement Relations
resistance failure during the load test, a void was for GTE Tests

11
the first loading. Once the applied load exceeded
the value of the maximum load applied on the
previous loading, settlement increased abruptly. As
additional load was applied, further side resistance
developed as settlement increased rapidly, until the
base encountered the bottom of the borehole.

The unusual shear load-settlement relation was

thought to have been caused by the opening of
initially closed horizontal joints between the
laminations in the formation when the overburden
was removed . The initial loading of each pile caused
the joints to close partially, which produced a much
stiffer load-settlement response on the second
loading. Unfortunately, there was no practical way
to preload the production piles for this project, so
the low shear stiffuess of the sockets had to be taken
into account when establishing design resistances for
Fig. 9. Load vs. Depth, Shaft 5, GTE Site
the building foundation .

The load-depth information from the instruments

in Shaft 5 are summarized in Fig. 9. It is clear that
lower load transfer occurred in the bentonite seam
zone, as expected, than in the other zones. Despite
having the highest value of undrained shear strength,
s., among the three zones documented in Fig. 7, the
zone below the zone with bentonite seams exhibited
a lower value of fmax than the zone above the zone
with bentonite seams, possibly because the drilling
auger had dragged bentonite from the seams above
down into that zone of the socket while excavation
was taking place.

Figure 10, which shows the measured relations

of the average value of f along the socket to w for
Shaft 5 for both loadings compared with that for
Shaft 6 for the first loading, indicates that the rifling Fig. 10. Average f-w Relations for GTE Site,
clearly improved load transfer, but the unit shear Comparing Initial Loading and Reloading for Rifled
stiffuess was not enhanced correspondingly. and Unrifled Boreholes

For designing the prototype piles, it was

obviously possible to increase the unit resistance by Side resistance for the ultimate geotechnical limit
rifling the piles, based on the results of the load state is often computed for bored piles in shales
tests. Doing so would allow the production piles using the correlative method of Horvath and Kenney
either to be shortened or their diameters to be (1979), Eq. (2)
decreased. Unfortunately, if they were shortened"
their bases would be situated in or above the fmax = ICq!·5 (2)
bentonite-seam zone, which was not conducive to
development of high base resistance. It was also
in which qu is the unconfined compression strength
deemed inadvisable to decrease the pile diameters,
of the shale in kPa and fmax is the ultimate value of f
since to do so would increase the stresses in the
in kPa. The most common value of K is 6.6 for
piles so that the structural limit state controlled. The
normal drilling. In the three layers of soft rock
owner therefore concluded to use O.76-m diameter
shown in Fig. 9, K = 8.1 (unweathered clay-shale),
prototype piles, unrifled, and excavated to the
2.9 (bentonite-seam zone) and 3.4 (unweathered
depths of the test piles.

12
clay-shale with possible smeared bentonite), unweathered basalt. The elevation of the top of the
respectively, for the unrifled pile. basalt was almost unpredictable from the results of
an extensive boring program, so LDBPs, whose
The weighted average value of K was 5.2 along penetrations could be varied more easily than driven
the socket, which is generally consistent with piles, and which could penetrate the basalt at
Horvath and Kenney (1979) . That value was used locations where its elevation was higher than
for design, in which qu was taken as the average expected, were used. The LDBPs were 1.53 m in
value of the unconfined compression strength of the diameter and placed in groups, typically of six piles
clay-shale along that part of the socket along below each, beneath each pier in the viaducts, as shown in
7.9 m depth. It is of interest that K = 7.3 for the Fig. 11 . The most critical design loads were seismic
rifled pile. The clay-shale above a depth of 7.9 m loads.
was much softer than that in the socket, and
standard correlations for stiff clay were used to O' Neill (1997) discussed the strength design of
establish ultimate side resistance in that zone. the LDBPs for axial loading considering the extreme
variability of the geomaterial properties. Design of
As with the St. Croix River Bridge, ASD was the superstructure for seismic loading was
used to arrive at the final pile geometries, accomplished by the State of Hawaii' s structural
considering the ultimate limit state. Factors of engineering consultant using a mode superposition
safety of 2 on side resistance and 3 on base analysis technique. The LDBP group foundations
resistance were used, as is the custom in the were treated as constraints with linear stiffnesses at
geographical area when thorough subsurface the bases of each pier in the dynamic analytical
investigations and load tests are performed . method for the structure in order to compute
nominal forces in the superstructure components,
The geometry of the prototype piles varied deformations, and inertial "feedback" loads acting
slightly in some cases from that of the test piles. on the foundations .
Therefore, the service limit state was addressed for
those piles by simulating load-settlement relations The principal concerns for seismic analysis were
with a finite difference simulation method (Reese the rocking stiffness of each LDBP group, the
and O'Neill, 1988) using the f-w relation marked horizontal stiffness of each group, and the cross­
"Shaft 5 (unrifled), Loading 1" in Fig 1O. A net coupling between the two. Cap contact stresses
unit base resistance, q, vs. base displacement, w,
relationship, which is used in that simulation, was
estimated conservatively by using the technique
suggested on Fig. 8 to separate base resistance from
side resistance. There, Q is the net base resisting
force, and q = Q / base area. qmax was taken to be
4.3 MPa for design purposes. For most building
columns, the service limit state (settlement under the
nominal, unfactored design load) did not control the
design, when the factors of safety were set as
described above, despite the fact that very large
settlement was required to develop fm•x .

2.3 H-3 Viaducts in the Lower Halawa Valley

The construction of viaducts for Highway H-3

through rough terrain in the Lower Halawa Valley
of the Koolau Mountains near Honolulu, Hawaii,
required LDBPs because of the nature of the
subsurface conditions. The geomaterial at the
locations of the viaducts, sited primarily along
stream beds, consisted of 3 - 10 m of bouldery,
waterbearing alluvium, 10 - 25 m of variably Fig. 11. Profile of Foundation and Geomater.
weathered lava flows (termed saprolite), and harder, Lower Halawa Valley

13
were not considered because the design seismic • Geotechnical engineer
event was assumed to occur after the occurrence of I. Summed the El values from Step 5 to obtain
a scour event in the streams, which would leave the the El for the group so as to analyze it for lateral
pile caps exposed. The sequential process used to loading as a virtual, or equivalent, pile. No stiffness
analyze the LDBP groups is summarized below was assigned to the geomaterial within the group in
because it represents typical practice in the United this step.
States for seismic analysis of LDBP foundations in 2. Conducted a nonlinear lateral virtual pile
the mid-1990's. The process involved close analysis using a commercial laterally loaded pile
coordination between the structural and geotechnical code (similar to Reese et al, 1997), treating the
engineering teams. As 2000 approaches software group as a single pile assuming zero rotation of the
allowing more integrated approaches is becoming head (cap), and assuming pile penetration to be
available to designers. approximately 16 m below the scour line. Plotted
both head shear V, and moment M, vs. lateral head
• Structural engineer deflection y, and provided the structural engineer
I. Estimated nominal dead and live loads acting with a secant modulus to each relation at y, = 25
on each pile without seismic loads. mm, K ghh and KghM See Fig. 13 . These factors
2. Estimated pile-head shears from quasi-static contain no correction for group action at this point.
analysis of superstructure fo[> a design seismic event Separate pairs of factors were computed in cases
of Richter magnitude 6.5 on the island of Hawaii where the group was not symmetric about two axes.
(265 km distance), which induced horizontal 3. Conducted axial load tests on sockets
accelerations of 0.17 g at the base of the structure constructed in the saprolite with the same diameter
(top of pile caps). and having the same general depths as the
3. Used commercial software (similar to Reese production piles to obtain both the ultimate side
et al :, 1997) to estimate bending moment (M) vs. El resistance and the axial stiffness of each pile ksa
in a 1.53-m-diameter pile with nominal concrete corresponding to a secant modulus at an axial load
strength (27 .5 MPa) and 3.5 % longitudinal of 7.1 MN (applied load from dead plus ordinary
reinforcing steel for an increment of tensile load live load plus estimated rocking loads).
(from rocking motion) of7 .1 MN.
4. Assumed a depth of a "point of fixity," in • Structural engineer
cooperation with the geotechnical engineer I . Computed the rotational stiffness, K g0M, for
(approximately 3 diameters below scour line). each pile group (assuming a rigid, extended cap),
5. Estimated Mm• x in a typical pile in the group from
assuming the pile was fixed into the cap and into the
ground at the point of fixity and that the cap did not N N
rotate, using a simple double fixed-end beam model Kg(JM= .L k sa z2 + L 4EI (3)
1=1 ;=1 Le
(Fig. 12) assuming an arbitrary value of El, then
iterated until Mmax and El were compatible
according to the relation obtained in Step 3. This
where El was the reduced value described
ordinarily required El "" 0.5 El of the uncracked
section.

Fig. 12. Double Fixed-End Beam Model for Pile Fig. 13 . Virtual Lateral Pile Analysis

14
previously, Le is as defined in Fig. 12, z is the maximum moments and shears were passed along to
perpendicular distance from Pile i to the axis of the structural engineer
rotation and N is the number ofLDBPs in the group. 2. Verified that the nominal factor of safety
2. Performed a linear dynamic modal analysis of against either compressive or tensile failure for any
the substructure - deck system using K ghh , K gh]' 1 and pile in the group was always at least 1.5. If not, k"
K g0M as constraints at the bases of the bridge piers. was reduced to reflect potential cyclic degradation
The vertical and torsional stiffnesses were assumed of the saprolite during the cyclic loading of the pile
infinite, and the complementary cross-stiffness K g0h during the seismic event.
was assumed to be equal to K gh.\I . A damping ratio
of 5% was applied to all components in the system, • Structural engineer
including the foundation. I Examined whether the maximum moments
3 Passed the following outputs to the computed by the geotechnical engineer exceeded
geotechnical engineer for further evaluation : G max significantly the moments assumed in selecting El or
(maximum rotation of the cap), y, ma, (maximum exceeded the allowable moments in the piles from a
translation of the cap), P, max (maximum axial load structural perspective (ASD criteria were used) . If
on any pile in the group computed from the either case occurred, the steel percentage was
maximum moment and vertical load at the base of increased to raise the ultimate moment capacity
the pier using the " PIA + MzlI" concept). 2. Determined the necessary shear steel
schedule .
• Geotechnical engineer 3. Based on Step I decided v,thether the
I Given the values of deformation in Step 3, geotechnical engineer needed to make a, new single­
above, as inputs (head deformations) to a nonlinear, pile analysis. In most cases this was not necessary
commercial lateral single-pile analysis program 4. Decided whether additional dynamic analyses
(similar to Reese et ai , 1997), performed a detailed of the superstructure were warranted based on the
lateral pile analysis for critical individual piles. In revised pile group stiffness values provided by the
this analysis the lateral soil response relations ("p-y 'geotechnical engineer If so, such analyses were
curves") were estimated for the site geomaterlals . executed and the revised values of cap deflections
from weighted average values of laboratory strength and rotations were returned to the geotechnical
tests and then modified using "p-multipliers" .engineer for an additional iteration.
(Brown and Shie, 1991) to account for lateral group
action to obtain (a) maximum bending moment, (b) • Geotechnical engineer
maximum shear force, (c) pile-head shear, and (d) Verified that the LDBPs had a factor of safety of 3
revised values of K ghh = N V, and K gh." 1 = LM,/Yt. in under static dead load plus live loads. If not, minor
each pile group . The p-y curves that were used adjustments were made in the pile lengths at this
were those recommended for cyclic loading. point without reanalyzing for lateral loading.

[This is a controversial issue in the U S , as many This step concluded the design process for this
prominent foundation engineers argue that the project. An additional step is often performed by
effects of rapid (seismic) loading, group interaction the structural engineer -- a so-called " pushover"
itnd cyclic degradation counteract one another; so analysis, in which the structure and foundation are
that "static" p-y curves should be used . In this analyzed with a nonlinear code (or several codes) to
project the fundamental period of the structures investigate the degree of ductility that is available at
were large, such that an underestimation of the design loading to assure that there is an adequate
foundation stiffness resulted in larger motions and level of safety against tot~1 collapse of the structure
higher forces in the bridges, indicating that the during the seismic event.
conservative approach was to err on the side of
underestimating lateral soil stiffness. It is pointed out The piles for the Lower Halawa Valley viaducts
also that the geomaterials below the scour zone were designed so as to keep their toes above the
were not considered liquefiable.] most probable elevations of the surface of the basalt
(to reduce construction costs) Furthermore, most
Kg0~vl was not revised because it was reasoned that of the alluvium would have been scoured away for
relatively little group action occurred in the rotary the design conditions, so it was only necessary to
mode . The revised foundation stiffnesses and estimate the axial stiffness of LDBPs in the saprolite.

15
Therefore, the axial socket tests, similar to those
described for the St. Croix River Bridge
foundations; were performed in order to estimate the
unit axial stiffness of the LDBPs in the saprolite,
from which ks. could be estimated directly, assuming
no contribution of end bearing to stiffness.

In order to maXImIze the side resistance, the

boreholes in the saprolite were rifled (O 'Neill,
1997). A design model based on a parametric finite
element study for a regular pattern of asperities
between the concrete and soft, ductile rock, such as
would be produced by systematic rifling of the
saprolite, was used to predict the axial load­
movement behavior of sockets within the saprolite
(Hassan and O'Neill, 1997; Hassan et aI. , 1997). A
rifled test socket was installed between depths of
15 .3 and 21.5 m. The results of an Osterberg Cell
load test are shown in Fig. 14 (socket movement
shown as compression), and computed relations for Fig. 14. Measured and Predicted Load-Movement
the socket are shown in terms of operative Young's Relations for Lower Halawa Valley Test Socket
moduli for the saprolite as-modeled related to mean
unconfined strengths of saprolite cores and strength
reduction factors (r) . The r factors relate the 2A Fred Hartmann Bridge
maximum unit side shear resistance to qu/2 and were
necessary because the saprolite was highly The fourth and final example of current U. S
differentially weathered and behaved as if it were a practice in LDBPs considers only the construction
rock that contained frequent, thick, soil-filled joints. method and not the design procedures. As
The best-fit solution obtained using the model of elsewhere, environmental concerns often dictate the
Hassan and O'Neill (1997) was for the condition in methods of construction that will be used in the
which the socket was rifled ("rough"), the saprolite United States. A major cable-stayed bridge, named
had E = 300 qu (average) and the effective saprolite the "Fred Hartmann Bridge" upon its completion,
compressive strength was OA qu (average) 1 2 (= 0.2 was constructed by the Texas Department of
qu). gu (average) was a biased average that was Transportation across the Houston Ship Channel at
obtained by discarding all values of qu > 5 MPa. Baytown, Texas. Initially, the foundations for all
piers and abutments were designed for driven,
The measured initial axial stiffness of the 1.53-m prestressed concrete piles, some as deep as 40 m
diameter socket was 1242 kN/mmlmeter of pile beneath the main towers. The north approach to the
length, while the value computed from the Hassan­ bridge, however, traversed a shallow lagoon that
O'Neill model was 630 kN/mmlmeter of pile length. held surface runoff containing trace amounts of
The Hassan-O'Neill model likely underpredicted hydrocarbons from nearby industrial facilities.
axial stiffuess because it does not capture the effects
of short-wave-length components of borehole The soil profile is shown in Fig. 15. The state
roughness. Nonetheless, both of these values were DOT was concerned that the driving of groups of
used to compute k" to provide upper and lower displacement piles required to support the loads
bound rotational group stiffnesses K gElM for the from the large bridge would compact the thick
superstructure analyses using Eg. (3). layer of very loose sand that existed beneath a thin
layer of plastic clay directly beneath the surface
The piles were successfully constructed and are water. It was reasoned that this compaction , with
now in service. Construction monitoring was resultant differential settlement , would cause the
provided by the geotechnical engineer to ensure that thin layer of surface clay to crack. If any
the geomaterials encountered were as assumed in contaminants were present in the water within the
the analysis and that the borehole rifling was carried shallow lagoon, cracking of the surface clay would
out'as specified. allow the contaminants to migrate into the

16
underlying sand. This layer of sand communicated plastic clay whose purpose was to prevent minute
with adjoining sand formations that were pumped quantities of contaminated water that might have
from shallow wells for irrigation and for the been trapped within or below the berm from
watering of livestock. pelletrating the sand. The cohesive material was
ther excavated from inside this protective casing
In order to avoid the problem, LDBPs were and spoiled in an approved fill for hazardous
required to support the piers in the approach spans waste .
that traversed the lagoon . It was reasoned that
LDBPs could be installed without compacting the A second casing was then inserted inside the
sand to any significant degree . The construction protective casing through the very loose sand and
procedure was specified so as to prevent any sealed into the underlying stiff clay by using a
communication between the surface water in the combination of dead weight and vibration . The
lagoon and the underlying layer of sand . This was vibratory driver was activated only when the
accomplished as indicated on the right side of Fig. casing stopped penetrating under its dead weight
15. Samples of pore fluid in the sand layer were and that of the hammer. Once the seal was
secured from sampling wells in the sand· to provide achieved , the sand inside the casing was removed
an accurate baseline reading of the concentration with an auger , spoiled in the approved fill , and the
of hydrocarbons (~s total organic carbon) in the casing was filled completely and simultaneously
ground water. Then, a clay berm was constructed with bentonite drilling fluid.
at the location of each pier in the lagoon. This
provided a work platform for the drilling rigs and The slurry was needed because the stiff clay
also displaced the potentially contaminated free below the loose sand was submerged and contained
surface water from around the top of each pile . A sand seams and layers that would collapse without
heavy surface casing ("protective casing" in Fig. support. Once the borehole was clean and filled
15) was thrust downward through the berm and the with slurry, excavation proceeded carefully using
thin layer of plastic surficial clay. This casing had soil augers until the base elevation was reached
an outside diameter 0 .305 m larger than the design [approximately 30 m below the elevation of the
diameter of the LDBP. It provided a seal with the surface water]. In order to carry the heavy loads
of the piers, capped groups of six 1.53-m diameter
piles arrayed in a 3 X 2 pattern at 3-diameter
center-to-center spacing were installed beneath
each column .

The contractor was permitted to use partial­

depth rebar cages despite the fact that casing of
significant length had to be employed , because a
large number of long LDBPs were to be
constructed and the savings in steel would be
substantial. The contractor chose to hold the cage
in place with a very large crane with a long line
while a second large crane was used to hold the
vibrator and casing. After cleaning the base of the
borehole , and when necessary exchanging the
slurry , th~ contractor suspended the cage and then
placed concrete using a gravity tremie to the level
of the bottom of the casing, which was
approximately the depth of the bottom of the
partial-depth cage . The rate of concrete placement
was then slowed to avoid "floating" the cage.
Once the level of concrete reached the elevation of
the berm , the contractor exposed the top of the
column of uncontaminated concrete in the
Fig. 15. Profile of Subsurface Conditions: North

temporary casing by draining away all slurry and

Approach to Fred Hartmann Bridge

17
visually contaminated co ncrete and began to Baker, e N ., Jr. , Parikh, G ., Briaud, J-L,
extract the casing by first turning on the vibrator to Drumright, E. E., & Mensah, F. (1993) . "Drilled
break the seal in the clay and then turning it off Shafts for Bridge Foundations," Report No.
once the casing was moving upward freely. The FHWA-RD-92-00-l, Federal Highway
casing was then brought compl etely out of the Administration, Office of Engineering and
borehole while the second crane was still holding Highway Operations, McLean, VA, U. S. A.
the cage. Additional concrete was placed into the
top of the casing as it was being withdrawn to Barker, R. M., Duncan, J M., Rojiani, K B., Ooi,
acco unt for the head loss that was incurred as the P S K , Tan, C K , & Kim, S G. (1991)
concrete flowed downward to occupy the space "Manuals for the Design of Bridge Foundations,"
previously occupied by the walls of the casing. National Cooperative Highway Research
The cage was then secured to fixtures at the Program Report No. 3-13 , Transportation
ground surface , and the line holding the cage was Research Board, Washington, DC, USA.
finally released. Lastly , the temporary casing was
set down , and the protective casing was left in Brown, D . A., & Shie, C-F. (1991) "Modification
place. of p-y Curves to Account for Group Effects on
Laterally Loaded Piles," Geotechnical Special
Samples of pore tluid were recovered from Publication No. 27, Ed . by F. G. McLean, D . A.
sampling wells in the sand periodically. No Campbell, & D . W Harris, Vo! I ASCE, June,
evidence of contamination was observed in the 479 - 490 .
loose , waterbearing sand after the co mpletion of
the foundations for the 22 spans that crossed the Horvath, R. G ., & Kenney, T C (1979) " Shaft
lagoon. Resistance of Rock-Socketed Drilled Piers,"
Proceedings, Symposium on Deep Foundations,
3 CONCLUSIONS Ed . by F. M Fuller, ASCE, Oct , 182 - 214 .

Kulhawy, F. H. (1998) "Practical Reliability-Based

This paper briefly cove rs the state of
Design Approach for Foundation Engineering,"
enginee ring practice regarding large-diameter
Proceedings, Drilled Shaft Foundation
bored pile foundations in the United States in the
Symposium Current Design Principles and
late 1990s from the perspective of the writer.
Practices, ADSC, Dallas, Texas, USA, 67 - 94 .
LDBPs are becoming more common in the U. S.
and are used for a variety of reasons, primarily
Hassan, K M , & O ' Neill, M . W (1997) " Side
related to economics and subsurface conditions .
Load Transfer Mechanisms in Drilled Shafts in
Soft, Argillaceous Rock," Journal of
4 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Geolechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering,
ASCE, Vo!. 123, No. 2, February, 145 - 152.
The writer thanks the Minnesota DOT; Texas
DOT ; Hawaii DOT ; Case Foundation Company,
Hassan, K M, O 'Neill, M W , Sheikh, S A. , &
Inc., Farmer Foundation Company; N . L. Schutte
Ealy, C D . (1997) "Design Method for Drilled
Company; Williams Brothers / Traylor Brothers
Shafts in Soft Argillaceous Rock," Journal of
Constructors; Parsons-Brinckerhoff; Inc ., Park
Geotechllical and Geoenvironmental Engineering,
Engineering, Inc.; Loadtest, Inc., Dr. Julian Seidel
ASCE, Vo!. 123, No. 3, March, pp . 272 - 280.
and Dr. Christopher Habertield of Monash
University, PSC Associates; and Southwestern
O ' Neill, M . W , Townsend, F. C , Hassan, K H. ,
Laboratories, Inc. for their contributions to the
Buller, A. , & Chan, P S (1996) "Load Transfer
information presented in this paper.
for Drilled Shafts in Intermediate Geomaterials,"
Publication No. FHWA RD-95-172, Fedetal
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