MA 326: Leadership and Organizational Behavior Module 2

1 PART II: LEADERSHIP IN AN ORGANIZATION

Introduction

People who do research on leadership discuss the fact that leadership is a complex phenomenon
involving the leader, the followers, and the situation. Authors in leadership books usually focused on the
personality, physical traits, or behaviors of the leader; some have studied the relationships between
leaders and followers; still others have studied how aspects of the situation affect how leaders act. In
this module we have to begin to understand the complexities of leadership and see some of the ways
leadership has been defined and explained. As you can see, definitions of leadership differ in many ways,
and these differences have resulted in various researchers exploring disparate aspects of leadership.
Thus each group of researchers might focus on a different aspect of leadership, and each would tell a
different story regarding the leader, the followers, and the situation. Although having many leadership
definitions may seem confusing, this module let us understand that there is no single correct definition,
and that the various definitions and topic discussions will help us appreciate the multitude of factors
that affect leadership.

Learning Outcome

After studying this chapter and doing the exercises, students should be able to:

1. Describe the different ways leadership has been defined and the characteristics a leader must possess
2. Understand the controversy about differences between leadership and management.
3. Describe how leadership influences organizational performance.
4. Describe a framework for understanding leadership.
5. Recognize the various types of power and Identify tactics used for becoming an empowering leader.

Learning Content

TOPICS :
THE CONCEPT OF LEADERSHIP
THE 5 LEVELS OF LEADERSHIP (JOHN C. MAXWELL)
LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT
THE INTERACTIONAL FRAMEWORK FOR ANALYZING LEADERSHIP (FRED FIEDLER)
POWER AND INFLUENCE
LEADER MOTIVES

2 THE CONCEPT OF LEADERSHIP

Leadership is one of the universal functions of management that deals with the relationship of
managers and non-managers. Planning, organizing, and controlling could be done effectively, but it must
be supported by an understanding of people’s behavior by good communication and an ability to lead.
Managers as leaders should understand the motives of people, and they should maintain or improve the
interpersonal relationship in an organization so that people can be satisfied from contributing to the
achievement and development of objectives of the enterprise.
Human organizations function through the continuous intercommunication and interaction
among its members. Leading, can therefore be looked upon as the process through which the manager
energizes the organization into action, much like electricity activates an electric fan.
Definitions of Leadership

Leadership researchers have defined leadership in many different ways:

 Leadership is “a process of giving purpose (meaningful direction) to collective effort, and
causing willing effort to be expended to achieve purpose” (Jacobs & Jaques, 1990, p. 281).
 Leadership is “the ability of an individual to influence, motivate, and enable others to
contribute toward the effectiveness and success of the organization . . .” (House et al., 1999, p. 184).
 “The ends of leadership involve getting results through others, and the means of leadership
involve the ability to build cohesive, goal-oriented teams. Good leaders are those who build teams to
get results across a variety of situations.” (Hogan, Curphy, & Hogna, 1994).
 “Actions that focuses resources to create desirable opportunities.” (Campbell, 1991).
 “The leader’s job is to create conditions for the team to be effective.” (Ginnett, 1996)
 Leadership is “the behavior of an individual . . . directing the activities of a group toward a
shared goal” (Hemphill & Coons, 1957, p. 7).
 Leadership is “the process of influencing the activities of an organized group toward goal
achievement” (Rauch & Behling, 1984, p. 46).
 Leadership is “about articulating visions, embodying values, and creating the environment
within which things can be accomplished” (Richards & Engle, 1986, p. 206).

Leadership can be perceived in two ways:

1. As an organizational position, it pertains to the person who has been placed in a leadership
position by management.
2. As an influence process, leaders must inspire other to follow. It means that leadership is a
process of influencing others towards the achievement of the organization’s objectives.
 Without leadership, an organization would be only a confusion of people and machines, just
as an orchestra w/out a conductor would be only musicians and instruments. (Orchestra or all other
organizations require leadership to develop their precious assets to the fullest.)
 Without leadership, only three things happen naturally in organizations: friction, confusion,
and underperformance. Everything else requires leadership. (Peter Dricker)
 Leadership is the catalyst that transforms potential to reality. Thus,

LEADERSHIP MODELS: FOUR FRAMEWORK APPROACH

1. Structural Framework. Structural leaders focus on structure, strategy, environment,
implementation, experimentation and adaptation.
2. Human Resource Framework. Human Resource leaders believe in people and communicate
that belief; they are visible and accessible; they empower, increase participation, support, share
information, and move decision making down into the organization.
3. Political Framework. Political leaders clarify what they want and what they can get; they
assess the distribution of power and interests; they build linkages to other stockholders, use persuasion
first, and then use negotiation and coercion only if necessary.
4. Symbolic Framework. Symbolic leaders view organizations as a stage or theater to play certain
roles and give impressions; these leaders use symbols to capture attention; they try to frame experience
by providing plausible interpretations of experiences; they discover and communicate a vision.

THE 5 LEVELS OF LEADERSHIP (John C. Maxwell)

Level 1: Position (Rights) This is the lowest level of leadership—the entry level. People who
make it only to Level 1 may be bosses, but they are never leaders. They have subordinates, not team
members. They rely on rules, regulations, policies, and organization charts to control their people. Their
people will only follow them within the stated boundaries of their authority. Position is the only level
that does not require ability and effort to achieve. Anyone can be appointed to a position. This means
that position is a fine starting point, but every leader should aspire to grow beyond Level 1.
Level 2 – Permission (Relationships) Making the shift from Position to Permission brings a
person’s first real step into leadership. Leadership is influence, and when a leader learns to function on
the Permission level, everything changes. People do more than merely comply with orders. They actually
start to follow. And they do so
Leadership and Organizational Behavior
because they really want to. Why? Because the leader begins to influence people with relationship, not
just position. When people feel liked, cared for, included, valued, and trusted, they begin to work
together with their leader and each other. And that can change the entire working environment. The old
saying is really true: people go along with leaders they get along with.
Level 3: Production (Results) Production qualifies and separates true leaders from people who
merely occupy leadership positions. Good leaders always make things happen. They get results. They
can make a significant impact on an organization. Not only are they productive individually, but they also
are able to help the team produce. No one can fake Level 3. Either you’re producing for the organization
and adding to its bottom line (whatever that may be), or you’re not. Some people never move up from
Level 2 Permission to Level 3 Production. Why? They can’t seem to produce results. When that is the
case, it’s usually because they lack the self-discipline, work ethic, organization, or skills to be productive.
However, if you desire to go to higher levels of leadership, you simply have to produce. There is no other
way around it.
Level 4: People Development (Reproduction) On Level 3, the emphasis is on personal and
corporate productivity. The ability to create a high-productivity team, department, or organization
indicates a higher level of leadership ability than most others display. But to reach the upper levels of
leadership that create elite organizations, leaders must transition from producers to developers. Why?
Because people are any organization’s most appreciable asset. Good leaders on Level 4 invest their time,
energy, money, and thinking into growing others as leaders. How does this emphasis on people and
people decisions translate into action? Leaders on the People Development level of leadership shift their
focus from the production achieved by others to the development of their potential. And they put only
20 percent of their focus on their personal productivity while putting 80 percent of it on developing and
leading others. This can be a difficult shift for highly productive people who are used to getting their
hands dirty, but it’s a change that can revolutionize an organization and give it a much brighter future.
Level 5: The Pinnacle: Personhood (Respect) Rare is the leader who reaches Level 5—the
Pinnacle. Not only is leadership at this level a culmination of leading well on the other four levels, but it
also requires both a high degree of skill and some amount of natural.
5 leadership ability. It takes a lot to be able to develop other leaders so that they reach Level 4;
that’s what Level 5 leaders do. The individuals who reach Level 5 lead so well for so long that they create
a legacy of leadership in the organization they serve. Pinnacle leaders stand out from everyone else.
They are a cut above, and they seem to bring success with them wherever they go. Leadership at this
high level lifts the entire organization and creates an environment that benefits everyone in it,
contributing to their success. Level 5 leaders often possess an influence that transcends the organization
and the industry the leader works in. Most leaders who reach the Pinnacle do so later in their careers.
But this level is not a resting place for leaders to stop and view their success. It is a reproducing place
from which they make the greatest impact of their lives. That’s why leaders who reach the Pinnacle
should make the most of it while they can. With gratitude and humility, they should lift up as many
leaders as they can, tackle as many great challenges as possible, and extend their influence to make a
positive difference beyond their own organization and industry. "A leader is one who knows the way,
goes the way, and shows the way." - John C. Maxwell
ATTRIBUTES OF A LEADER Leadership ability can be acquired through observation of effective
role models, participation in management training, and learning from work experiences. Learn from
mistakes.
1. Standard bearers – establish the ethical framework within an organization. This demand a
commitment to live and defend the climate and culture that you want to permeate your organization.
2. Developers – help others learn through teaching, training, and coaching. This creates an
exciting place to work and learn.
3. Integrators – orchestrate the many activities that take place throughout an organization by
providing a view of the future and the ability to obtain it.

LEADERSHIP AND MANAGEMENT

To many, the word management suggests words like efficiency, planning, paperwork,
procedures, regulations, control, and consistency. Leadership is often more associated with words like
risk taking, dynamic, creative, change, and vision. Here are some other distinctions between managers
and leaders (Bennis, 1989).
Management Leadership -Planning and budgeting -Using communication to align people with
that direction -Organizing and staffing -Motivating people to action through empowerment and basic
need gratification -Controlling and problem solving Managers Leaders - administer - innovate - maintain
- develop - control - inspire - have a short-term view - a long-term view - ask how and when - ask what
and why - imitate - originate - accept the status quo - challenge it - reduces uncertainty - creates
uncertainty - stabilizes organizations - creates change 
Because there is difference between managers and leadership, strong leaders may be weak
managers if poor planning causes their group to move in the wrong decisions. Though they can get their
group going, they just cannot get it going in directions that best serve organizational objectives. 
A person can be a weak leader and still be an effective manager, especially if he/she happens to
be managing people who have a clear understanding of their jobs and a strong drive to work.
Differences:
1. Not all leaders are managers; not all managers are leaders.
2. Management provides leadership opportunity.
3. Management is broader than leadership.
4. Leadership is not a position but influence.
 Managers need to be leaders...their workers need vision and guidance! On the other hand,
leaders need to be good managers of the resources entrusted to them.

The Interactional Framework for Analyzing Leadership (Fred Fiedler) This framework is a useful
way to understand the leadership process. We can understand the process even better if we also
examine the interactions among the three elements, or lenses, represented by the overlapping areas in
the figure. For example, we can better understand the leadership process if we not only look at the
leaders and the followers but also examine how leaders and followers affect each other in the
leadership process. Similarly, we can examine the leader and the situation separately, but we can gain
even further understanding of the leadership process by looking at how the situation can constrain or
facilitate a leader’s actions and how the leader can change different aspects of the situation to be more
effective. Thus a final important aspect of the framework is that leadership is the result of a complex set
of interactions among the leader, the followers, and the situation. These complex interactions may be
why broad generalizations about leadership are problematic: many factors influence the leadership
process.
 The Leader
This element examines primarily what the leader brings as an individual to the leadership
equation. This can include unique personal history, interests, character traits, and motivation.
The Followers
Followers are a critical part of the leadership equation, but their role has not always been
appreciated. For a long time, in fact, “the common view of leadership was that leaders actively led and
subordinates, later called Leader Follower followers, passively and obediently followed.” However, we
know that the followers’ expectations, personality traits, maturity levels, levels of competence, and
motivation affect the leadership process too.
The Situation
The situation is the third critical part of the leadership equation. Even if we knew all we could
know about a given leader and a given set of followers, leadership often makes sense only in the context
of how the leader and followers interact in a particular situation.
Systematic analysis to leaders, followers, and the situation:
 A leader may need to respond to various followers differently in the same situation.
 A leader may need to respond to the same follower differently in different situations.
 Followers may respond to various leaders quite differently.
 Followers may respond to each other differently with different leaders.
 Two leaders may have different perceptions of the same followers or situations.

POWER and INFLUENCE

The success of a manager in influencing others in the organization is not determined solely by
his skill in communicating, in the technical sense. It is also much affected by the amount of power he has
in the organization.
POWER has been defined as the potential to influence the actions of another person in the
direction desired by the influencer. The capacity to influence, or power, that a person in the
organization has is determined by many factors, the formal authority of his position being one of these.
Positional Power – flowing from granted status.
Personal Power – earned through one’s own endeavors.
TYPES OF POWER (French and Raven)
1. Legitimate Power - this power comes by virtue of a person’s occupying a position in an
organization. It depends on a person’s organizational role. AUTHORITY which exists in the formal
organization is the right to issue directives and expend resources. Authority has been viewed in the past
as a function of position in the organizational hierarchy, flowing from the top to the bottom of the
organization.
2. Reward Power - is the ability of a manager to give or withhold tangible and intangible
rewards. This can include the power to give raises, bonuses, and promotions; to grant tenure; to select
people for special assignments or desirable activities; to distribute desired resources like computers,
offices, parking places, or travel money to recognize awards and praise, and so on.
3. Coercive Power - is the potential to influence others through the administration of negative
sanctions or the removal of positive events. It is the ability to control others through the fear of
punishment or the loss of valued outcomes. This is power which comes from the capacity to deprive a
person of something of value.
4. Resource Power - arises from control or access to specific resources: funds, supplies,
equipment.
5. Referent Power - is a function of the personal characteristics of a leader; it is the power that
comes from subordinates’ and coworkers’ respect, admiration and loyalty. When people admire a leader
and see her as a role model, we say she has referent power.
 6. Expert Power - is based on the special knowledge, skills, and expertise that a leader possesses.
It is the power of knowledge. Some people are able to influence others through their relative expertise
in particular areas.
7. Information Power - derives from one’s access to valuable information.
8. Connection Power - comes through networking, being able to use links to other influential
people to support one’s own power.
EFFECTS OF POWER BASES
 Resistance. They may resist the leaders’ initiative, especially if coercive power is used
consistently, without apparent cause, or in an arrogant manner.
 Compliance. They may comply with the leader’s wishes by meeting minimal expectations
while withholding extra effort. Legitimate power will likely result in compliance, as will reward power,
unless the rewards are substantial and directly related to employee needs.
 Commitment. The most desirable outcome from wielding power is commitment, which is the
enthusiastic release of energy and talent to satisfy the leader’s requests. Referent and expert power are
most likely to produce commitment. Sources of Leader Power in the Leader–Follower–Situation
Framework
INFLUENCE Whereas power is the capacity or potential to influence others, influence tactics are
the actual behaviors used by the agent to change the attitudes, opinions, behavior of a target person.
TYPES OF INFLUENCE TACTICS
1. Rational Persuasion occurs when an agent uses logical arguments or factual evidence to
influence others.
2. Inspirational appeals when they make a request or proposal designed to arouse enthusiasm
or emotions in targets.
3. Consultation occurs when agents asks targets to participate in planning an activity. In this case
the consultative work might not only lead to a better building plan but also strengthen member
commitment to the very idea of a new addition.
4. Ingratiation occurs when the agent attempts to get you in a good mood before making a
request.
5. Personal appears – when agent asks another to do a favor out of friendship.
6. Exchange – when agents exchange favor to other individual.
7. Coalition tactics – when agents seek the aid or support of others to influence the target.
8. Pressure tactics – Threats or persistent reminders are used to influence targets.
9. Legitimizing tactics occur when agents make requests based on their position or authority.

LEADER MOTIVES
Need for Power (McClelland). People vary in their motivation to influence or control others, and
individuals with a high need for power derive psychological satisfaction from influencing others. They
seek positions where they can influence others, and they are often involved concurrently in influencing
people in many different organizations or decision-making bodies.
Two different ways in expressing the need for power:
1. PERSONALIZED POWER. Individuals who have a high need personalized power are relatively selfish,
impulsive, uninhibited, and lacking self-control. This individual’s exercise power for their own
selfcentered needs, not for the good of the group or the organization.
2. SOCIALIZED POWER. This implies more emotionally mature expression of the motive. It is exercise in
the higher goals to others or organizations and often involves self-sacrifice towards those ends. It often
involves empowering, rather than autocratic, style of management and leadership.
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