Vibration Engineering Reviewer Three “pitfalls” Introduced by the finite, discrete

nature of DFT
FINALS
1.) Aliasing- caused by sampling of the
PHILIPPIANS 4: 11- 13 time signal, and meaning that high
“I can do all things through Christ which strengthens me” frequencies after sampling can appear
as lower ones (as with a stroboscope).
This eliminated by lowpass filtering the
CHAPTER 7: FREQUENCY ANALYSIS OF signal before sampling to ensure that it
VIBRATION AND SHOCK contains no frequencies above half the
sampling frequency.
Detector- Used to measure the mean power in
the filter output, and consists of a squaring 2.) Time Window Effect- resulting from
section to obtain the instantaneous power, the finite length of the record. Because
followed by an averaging section to smooth out the resulting spectrum is calculated at
fluctuations and find the mean square value discrete frequencies separated by 1/T,
over a specified averaging time where T is the record length, the time
The ideal averaging would be a running linear record is treated implicitly by the
average over the previous TA seconds. This is analyzer as one period of a periodic
very difficult to achieve, however, and recourse signal of period T.
is normally made to 2 alternatives.
3.) Picket Fence Effect- resulting from the
1. Linear Averaging- with uniform discrete sampling of the spectrum in the
weighting over given time periods of frequency domain. It is as though
length TA , where the result is only the spectrum is viewed through the slits
available at the end of each period, and in a picket fence, and thus for example
is usually held until something is done peak values are not necessarily seen. It
with the result is eased by having a greater overlap of
2. Running Exponential Averaging- where adjacent filters, and
a result is available at all times and with Hanning weighting.
represents approximately the previous
TA seconds, but where the
maximum weighting is on the most Choice of Bandwidth, Frequency Scale and
recent input and there is Amplitude Scale
an exponentially decaying weighting
backwards in time.  Stationary deterministic and in
(Recursive) Data Filter- is a calculation particular periodic signals containing eq
device which receives a sequence of digital -ually spaced discrete frequency
values at its input, operates on each sample in a components, the aim is to separate
defined manner, and outputs a sample for each adjacent components, and this can best
input. be done using a constant bandwidth on
a linear frequency scale.
FFT Algorithm- is an extremely efficient way  For stationary random or transient
of calculating the so-called Discrete Fourier signals, the shape of the spectrum will
Transform (DFT) most likely be determined by
 resonances in the transmission path ANALYSIS OF NON-STATIONARY SIGNAL
between the source and the pickup - The type of analysis considered in this
section is the use of moving time
window too see how the short-term
SERIAL ANALYSIS OF STATIONARY SIGNALS frequency spectrum varies with time

Stationary Signal- A stationary signal is a signal Two main application areas

wave that is generated by keeping
1.) Analysis along a single record
the time period and spectral content value
2.) Cyclic Signal
constant,

Serial Analyzer- The most common technique

used in portable battery-operated equipment.
CHAPTER 8: VIBRATION
CHOICE OF AVERAGING TIME
MEASUREMENT FOR NACHINE
Stationary Deterministic Signal- For analysis of HEALTH MONITORING
stationary deterministic signals, where the filter
bandwidth is such that only one Relative Vibration- refers to the
discrete frequency component is in the filter at vibration of the rotor relative to the
a time, the only requirement of the averaging is vibration probe, so the relative vibration
that it reduces the ripple of the detector output can also be understood as the vibration
to an acceptable level. of the rotor relative to the bearing bush
or bearing seat, which is also called
Stationary Random Signal- For stationary
shaft vibration.
random signals the averaging time should be
chosen so as to achieve an acceptable accuracy
Absolute Vibration- refers to the
of the result. 
vibration of the rotor relative to the
CHOICE OF ANALYSIS SPEED ground, which can also be called tile
vibration.
A.) Filter Response time- this will only be
the limitation for deterministic signals
Displacement Transducer- is a device
where a small averaging time is required
used to convert the motion of an object
and where the recorder writing speed
or machine into
does not dominate.
electromagnetic, magnetoelectric, or
B.) Averaging Time- This will only be the
electrostatic signals. These signals are
limitation for DC recording and is thus
read and interpreted into data.
not normally the limiting factor with

portable analyzers .
C.) Recorder Writing Speed- This will
always be the limitation for
AC recording of analyses of
random signals, and may also dominate
over filter response time
for deterministic (discrete frequency)
signals. 
 FREQUENCY RANGE AND DYNAMIC RANGE  On Condition Monitoring-Type of
PARAMETERS maintenance in where monitoring is
always executed.
 One of the most important
requirements of vibration  Predictive Maintenance-When
instrumentation for maintenance is that vibration measurements and analysis
it can register the entire vibration are performed systematically and
spectrum in a sufficiently wide intelligently (termed condition
frequency range that all important monitoring) they w ill not only allow
components are included.  determination of present machine
condition but also permit (by following
 This includes frequencies associated trends for individual components in the
with: spectrum) prediction of w hen such
 Unbalance  components most likely w ill have
 Misalignment reached unacceptable levels.
 Ball-passing
 Gear-meshing
TWO TYPES OF PERSONNEL IN MAINTENANCE
 Blade-passing
SYSTEM
 Blade resonances
 Operator- one who will perform the
 Bearing element radial resonances actual measurements following a fixed
measurement procedure.
 Maintenance Engineer- one who is
CONSIDERATION IN CHOOSING VIBRATION
responsible for preparing the
MONITORING INSTRUMENT
measurement procedure and often
 Suitability performs analysis and evaluation him -
 Proficiency self, particularly during the
 Cost- Efficiency development period. 

INSTRUMENT FOR ON-CONDITION MAINTENANCE

TYPES OF MAINTENANCE SYSTEMS
 Class 3- is a vibration meter making
 Run to Break- It is usually use for a simple overall vibration reading in a
smaller machines that is usually single frequency band.
replaceable.
 Time Based- It is the most common  Class 2- An instrument that has a
used maintenance system. vibration meter and an analyzer.
-maintenance work is often performed
at fixed time intervals such as every 3 0  Class 1- : means full analysis and
0 0 operating hours. The intervals are comparison with reference spectra each
often determined statistically as the time. This gives full information on the
period in which no more than 2% of the condition of a machine together with
machines will fail from being in new or the best predictive capability.
fully serviced condition.
 CHAPTER 9: ACOUSTIC EMISSION
2.) Phase Transformation- occurs when
Non- Destructive Testing - is a testing and one material changes its composition
analysis technique used by industry to evaluate or structure.
the properties of a material, component, - The transformation can be caused by a
structure or system for characteristic differences change in temperature so that no other
or welding defects and discontinuities without material is involved, or it may involve
causing damage to the original part.  the reaction with another
material, which may or may not be a
Examples of NDT ceramic, and may be in the liquid
Radiographic Testing- is a non-destructive or gaseous phase.
testing (NDT) method which uses either x-rays
or gamma rays to examine the internal structure 3.) Friction Mechanism- also occurs in
cracks, and the sudden sliding
of manufactured components identifying
mechanism releases burst type signals.
any flaws or defects.
Crack Formation and friction burst
Dry Penetrant Inspection-is used to detect any signals are very useful for detecting and
surface-connected discontinuities such as cracks localizing cracks.
from fatigue, quenching, and grinding, as well as
fractures, porosity, incomplete fusion, and flaws 4.) Crack formation and extension- occurs
in joints. at surface notches or at points inside a
Eddy Currents- is one of many electromagnetic material where local stresses exceed the
testing methods used in non-destructive testing fracture stress
(NDT) making use of electromagnetic induction
to detect and characterize surface and sub- Transducers- A device that converts one form of
surface flaws in conductive materials. energy to another form of various purposes
Acoustic Emission- the elastic wave generated including measurements or information transfer.
by the release of energy internally stored in a METHODS OF ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION
structure. It is sometimes called Stress Wave
Emission.  Oscilloscope-  immediate impression of
AE activity. 
AE Sources- can be described as  RMS Voltmeter- continuous emission
processes emitting elastic waves, can be  Ring down counting/ Pulse area
basically classified in 4 different groups: measurements- burst type signals; an
indication of total/rate of damage
occurring.
1.) Dislocation Movements- enables atoms  High Frequency Pulse Analyzer -
in metals to slide readily by one measuring the time a threshold is
another, facilitating the plastic exceeded will give the approximate
deformation that blunts the advance of pulse area of an AE signal. 
cracks 
Tape Recorder- modified video recorder Plastic Deformation- Permanent deformation
or change in shape of a solid body without
- Storing AE Signals for later analysis
fracture under the action of a sustained force.
- Analysis of multiple Channels
- Dynamic range is often very limited to 30 db Crack Formation - A frequent result of residual
Transient Recorder- For single pulses to be stress release from colloidal films made by the
analyzed, dynamic ranges are limited. evaporation of colloidal droplets containing
nanoparticles.
Peak Detector- short rise time (0,5 ps) and a
comparatively slow decay time   Lüders Band- A type of slip bands in metals
which are formed due to the localized bands of
- Permits interconnection with level plastic deformation in metals experiencing
recorders and similar equipment.  tensile stresses. Typically occur in low
carbon steel but not in other alloys such as
Statistical Processor- used to count the number
aluminum and titanium.
of events falling within different amplitude
windows. Problem with Luders Band
- Loudspeaker connected via the peak When you plastically deform sheet steel
detector converts the AE bursts to to make a car fender, the formation
audible “cracks”.  of Lüders bands will cause ripples on the
surface rendering the part as scrap.
ACOUSTIC EMISSION SOURCE LOCATION Strain Aging- Due to the diffusion of carbon
and/or nitrogen atoms in solution to
Multichannel System- Used for AE source
dislocations that have been generated by
location.
plastic deformation.
Two Transducer- determine a source location in
Homogeneous Deformation- if the deformation
one dimension.
of the solid is homogeneous, the two lines
Three Transducer- determine a source location remain straight in the deformed
in two dimensions. configuration, remains parallel and stretched at
the same amount.

 The time difference between

the arrival time of the signal at two Q: WHY DOES AE MEASUREMENTS
transducers determines a hyperbola in ARE APPLICABLE ON AREAS LIKE STUDY OF
a plane if the propagation velocity is PLASTIC DEFORMATION AND CRACK
known. FORMATION AND EXTENSION?
 Intersection of hyperbolas obtained
A: THESE AREAS ARE THE TWO OF THE PRIMARY
from other transducer pairs defines the
SOURCES OF AE IN MATERIALS
location of the source.  
THAT UNDERGO FRACTURE.
 INDUSTRIAL APPLICATION EXAMPLES OF APLICATION

 Tensile Test on Brass Specimen

 Tensile Test on Carbon Fibre Braid
 Test on Pressure Vessel

Kaizer Effect- absence of detectable signals

Felicity Effect- presence of detectable signals

Source Location in AE testing

ADVANTAGES Source location is one of three basic objectives
of an AE test, which are:
 Requires only limited accessibility to
test objects.  detecting AE activity. 
 Detects active flaws.  locating the source of the activity; and 
 Only relatively low loads are required.  evaluating the material defects causing
 Can sometimes be used to forecast the activity.
failure load
 Remote detection and location of flaws. Source location techniques used with AE
 Integral method (The entire structure testing for pressure vessels.
is covered).
 The measuring system can be set-up  Linear Location- is most suited for
quickly.  vessels where the length is much larger
 High sensitivity. than the diameter.
 2D Planar Location- if the diameter of
the vessel is significantly relative to its
LIMITATIONS length, 2D planar location of AE source
must be utilized.
 The structure has to be loaded.  3D Location- used in vessels that are
 AE activity is highly dependent spherical in shape.
on materials.
 Irrelevant electrical and mechanical
noise can interfere with measurements.
 Limited accuracy of localization. 
 Gives limited information on the type
of flaw. 
 Interpretation of results may
be difficult.
 CHAPTER 10: VIBRATION AND SHOCK Electrodynamic Exciter-any vibration test
TESTING system requires an activated device to subject
the test object to the mechanical motion
required. This transducer is the exciter.

Wöhler- one of the earliest workers to use - For low-frequency testing, typically in
a systematic form of vibration testing who used the range of 0 Hz to 20 Hz, where a
special apparatus for his experiments on the large displacement stroke is required,
fatigue of metals over 100 years ago. the electrohydraulic vibrator is widely
used.
World War 2- time when most modern vibration - For frequencies above 10 Hz,  and to
testing techniques have been developed. match common vibration test
specifications,  the electrodynamic
vibration exciter is in general use
MOST COMMON VIBRATION TESTING
Vibration Exciter- a machine that produces
mechanical vibratory motion.
 Production Control - vibration may
influence the durability and reliability - can be used in several applications such
of mechanical systems or structure as the determination of the dynamic
and problems such as damage, characteristics of machines and
abnormal stopping, and disaster. structures and fatigue testing of
 Frequency Response/ Dynamic materials. 
Performance Testing- The dynamic Forced Vibration- is a type of vibration in which
performance test is used to optimize a force is repeatedly applied to a mechanical
the controller in the step-response test, system.
and to test whether the
dynamic response time Structural Vibration- occurs when dynamic
forces generated by compressors, pumps, and
meets requirements.
engines cause the deck beams to vibrate.
 Environmental Test- Environmental
tests demonstrate that your products Sinusoidal Excitation- When it is required to
have the build quality to work maintain a constant vibration level with
perfectly, no matter what a sinusoidal drive signal, the output level from a
the conditions. vibration sensor mounted on
 Sinusoidal Testing - fixed or sweeping the worktable may be used in a servo loop to
frequency. control the input level to the exciter.
 Random Testing - wideband
 Where it is required to perform
or narrowband characteristics 
vibration tests up to high frequencies,
 Force Testing - using
and a very low exciting force is
mechanical impedance or mobility
acceptable, it is in some situations
concepts and structural response
advantageous to use a piezoelectric
measurements.
accelerometer as an exciter .
Shock Testing- a method of qualification testing of the center of mass of the disc
to ensure that delicate equipment will operate from the axis of rotation.
satisfactorily in the practical shock environment.
Statics Balance- When a small mass m (g) is
Two Types of Shock Testing fixed to the disc at a distance r (mm) from that
axis, the disc is said to be in a state of
1.) Laboratory Testing "unbalance”.

 The simplest design is the drop-test Couple Unbalanced- the case of a right cylinder,
machine, where a test specimen is it is possible to have two equal
bolted onto a carriage and uncompensated masses symmetrically placed
dropped from a certain height  about the center of mass but positioned at 180°
to one another. The rotor is in static balance, yet
Shock testing by means of a pendulum- centrifugal forces will produce a
type shock machine. moment about the center of mass when the
 Construction of the machine rotor turns
 Typical trace of acceleration versus Dynamic Unbalanced- When both static and a
time produced by the machine. couple of unbalances are present.
Principal inertia axis is now inclined to
2.) Service Testing the geometric shaft axis, but there is also an
eccentricity at the center of mass. 
 The transport medium or packaging
How to Balanced?
method has to be specified for a piece
of vulnerable equipment, so that - Correction is made by mass addition
it will not be damaged by shocks (welding, rivets, etc.) or mass removal
occurring during shipping or handling.  (boring, planing etc.), using ancillary
equipment. 

Balancing Machines- are devices used to

CHAPTER 11: BALANCING OF ROTATING balance rotating parts, such as wheels, rotors,
MACHINE and fans, to ensure their smooth operation and
reduce wear and tear. 

Two Main types of Balancing Machines

Centripetal Acceleration- acceleration toward
the center of the circle  Dynamic
 Static
Centripetal Force- a force that acts on an object
to keep it moving along a circular path. Field Balancing- is a process of dynamically
balancing a rotating machine while it is in
Centrifugal Force- has the same magnitude and
operation, in its intended operating
dimensions as the force that keeps the particle
environment.
on its circular path (the centripetal force)
but points in the opposite direction. Two Main Types of Field Balancing
- This force is equivalent to the  Single-plane balancing 
force generated by a small eccentricity  Two-plane balancing
 DIFFICULT BALANCING TASK Crankshaft Balancing- refers to the process of
evenly distributing the weight of the crankshaft
Fine Balancing- refers to the process
and its components so that it rotates smoothly
of adjusting or optimizing the weights of a
and without vibration.
machine learning model to improve its accuracy
or performance. - is essential for engine performance and
longevity and should be performed
 Fine Machining- is a kind of
by experienced professionals.
machining that aims to
achieved the final Crankshaft- backbone of the
desired tolerance or also known internal combustion engine (ICE).
as the radial run – out
- responsible for the proper operation of
tolerance.
the engine and converting a linear
 Radial Runout- is when the axis
motion to a rotational motion.
of rotation is off-center from
the main axis, but still parallel. Crankshaft Balancing can provide
several benefits, including:
Flexible Rotors- refer to rotating
machinery components that are designed  Smoother Running Engine
to have some degree of flexibility or elasticity.  More Powerful Engine
 Less Energy Wasted
 Rotors that have high rotational speed
 More Power Efficiency
or a rotational speed greater than 50%
 Reduces Vibration
of the first critical speed are considered
to be flexible rotors. Multi Span Shaft- are drive systems composed
of connected shafts.
 Critical Speed- is the speed where
the natural vibration (resonance) - Refer to a type of shaft configuration
occurs. that consists of multiple shafts
 Balancing is now a process connected in series.
to "dynamically straighten " the rotor  For a rigid
to re-align its principal inertia axis rotor, measured values will
with the axis of rotation in order that depend not only on
the machine can be run up safely to rotor unbalance, but also on
its operating speed. the accuracy of the alignment
 Modal Balancing- putting a correction of the bearings and on the run-
mass as a compensation for higher out at the journals.
modes.  For flexible rotors, it is
extremely difficult if not
This flexibility can provide several benefits,
impossible to predict how the
including:
bearing systems will affect the
 Vibration damping mode shapes and
 Torsional stiffness vibration response at the critical
 Torsional natural frequency speeds.
 Dynamic balancing
 CHAPTER 12: FUNDAMENTALS OF SHOCK Damping Treatment- addresses the system
AND VIBRATION CONTROL response at resonance and is only part of the
solution to most vibration issues.

 The source of vibration is also

Machinery- is isolated to prevent the
commonly addressed to limit force
transmission of noise, shock, and vibration. It is
one of the most critical phases of advanced input, either by vibration
building and machine design. Light weight isolation or increasing stiffness to
structures and the placement of machinery on ground, or by using passive cancellation
upper floors can increase the demand for (tuned reaction mass) or active
vibration control. cancellation (such as servo controlled
"self tuning" cancellation systems)
Isolation- is basically used to minimize the
impact of the dynamic forces, created by a
machine’s moving components, into the  From quiz of GRP 11
surrounding structure.
TRUE or FALSE
Mechanical Vibration Isolator 1. Natural vibration sources like aerodynamic
turbulence, rough sea movements and
 Mechanical Spring Isolator earthquakes can be isolated. TRUE
 Wire Rope Insulator
 Air Spring Isolator 2. The resonant frequency of the isolation
 Rubber Vibration Isolator system must be away from all resonances in the
 Metal Vibration Isolator machine or equipment to achieve desired
isolation. FALSE

Shock- is a transient condition in which an 3. To obtain optimum damping of the

impulse of energy is created. This energy is combination structural element and damping
transmitted to the surrounding structure in a material, not only must the internal loss factor
short duration with high speed. Shock isolation of the damping material be low, but so also
can limit the transmission of forces to the must its modulus of elasticity (Young's
surroundings of the system in which shock modulus).TRUE
originates.
4. Machinery is isolated to prevent the
Isolators- are used to store shock energy, like transmission of noise, shock, and vibration.
how capacitors store electrical energy, and then FALSE
release it over a longer duration. The shock
5. Metal spring vibration isolator is the earliest
isolator deflects to ensure proper energy
type of vibration isolator and it has the
storage. The force verses deflection curve
advantages of low cost, no fear of corrosive
measures the efficiency of a shock isolator.
environment and high temperature resistance.
Shock pulse- may contain frequency FALSE
components ranging from 0 to ∞ it is, generally
speaking, not possible to avoid excitation of the
isolator/mass resonance.
 elongation, winding blank, die pressing and
other processes. Metal Rubber Vibration
Isolator
 IDENTIFICATION

1. The only way to diminish undesirable  Enumeration

vibration effects is to isolate the equipment to Different kind of Mechanical Vibration
which the vibrations may cause serious damage. Isolators
2. It is basically used to minimize the impact of  Metal Spring Isolator
the dynamic forces, created by a machine’s
 Rubber Vibration Isolator
moving components, into the surrounding
 Wire Rope Isolator
structure. Vibration Isolation
 Metal Rubber Vibration Isolator
3. The application of Dynamic Vibration  Air Spring Isolator
Absorber is normally completed and use then
preferably made of some sort of general
damping treatment. Two basic measurement methods of material
damping properties
4.A third method of applying damping to
 The frequency response method
structural elements is the use of Sandwich
Structures
 The decay-rate (reverberation)
method
5. Non-linear Isolators can cause extra response
effects at harmonic or sub-harmonic Three types of Sandwich Structures
frequencies.
 Use of a constrained visco-elastic
layer
6. A Shock Pulse may contain frequency
 Sandwich structure with a thin visco-
components ranging from 0 to ∞.
elastic layer
7. A Damping Treatment addresses the system  Sandwich structure with a thick
response at resonance and is only part of the visco-elastic layer
solution to most vibration issues.

8. This method is a technique used to measure

the reverberation time of a room. It involves
measuring the time it takes for sound to decay
by 60 dB after the sound source is turned off.
Decay-Rate (Reverberation)

9. Normally decay measurements according to

the Geiger Test/Geiger Thick-Plate Test are
made at one frequency only.

10. This new type of vibration isolator is made

of metal wire through spiral forming,