Military Guide To Terrorism in The Twenty-First Century

A Military Guide to Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century 15 August 2005
Summary of Change
U.S. Army DCSINT Handbook No. 1 (Version 3.0)
A Military Guide to Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century
Specifically, this handbook dated 15 August 2005 –
Provides an information update since the DCSINT Handbook No. 1, A Military Guide to
Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century, publication dated 12 October 2004 (Version 2.0).
References the U.S. Department of State, Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism,
Country Reports on Terrorism 2004 dated April 2005, and the National Counterterrorism
Center, A Chronology of Significant International Terrorism for 2004, dated 27 April 2005
for selected data on terrorism.
References the Department of Homeland Security, National Response Plan, dated December 2004.
Deletes Appendix H, WMD and CBRNE Consequence Management.
Refers to new Supplemental DCSINT Handbook No. 1.04, Defense Support of Civil
Authorities, replaces Appendix H.
Deletes Appendix I, Cyber Operations.
Refers to new Supplemental DCSINT Handbook No. 1.02, Cyber Operations and Cyber
Terrorism, replaces Appendix I.
Deletes Appendix J, Case Studies in Terrorism.
Refers to new Supplemental DCSINT Handbook No. 1.01, Terror Operations: Case Studies
in Terrorism, replaces Appendix J.
Refers to new Supplemental DCSINT Handbook No. 1.03, Suicide Bombing in the COE, as
an expansion on the topic of suicide bombing.
Expands the Selected Bibliography.
This 2005 Version 3.0 update supercedes DCSINT Handbook No. 1, A Military Guide to
Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century, publication dated 12 October 2004 (Version 2.0).
A Military Guide
to
Terrorism
in the Twenty-First Century
U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command

Deputy Chief of Staff for Intelligence
Assistant Deputy Chief of Staff for Intelligence – Threats
15 August 2005
Version 3.0
Page Intentionally Blank

Contents
Contents ..................................................................................................................................... i
Preface....................................................................................................................................... v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS................................................................................................... vii
Introduction .............................................................................................................................. 1
Purpose................................................................................................................................... 4
Scope of the Issue .................................................................................................................. 4
U.S. Strategic Overview......................................................................................................... 7
U.S. Goals and Objectives ..................................................................................................... 8
GWOT and the Contemporary Operational Environment ..................................................... 9
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 14
Chapter 1 Nature and History of Terror ............................................................................ 1-1

Section I: What is Terrorism ............................................................................................... 1-2
Section II: Historical Overview of Terrorism ................................................................... 1-13
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 1-23
Chapter 2 Terrorist Behaviors, Motivations, and Characteristics................................... 2-1

Section I: Terrorist Behavior............................................................................................... 2-1
Section II: Impact of Terrorist Goals & Motivations on Planning...................................... 2-7
Section III: Terrorist Characteristics................................................................................. 2-12
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 2-15
Chapter 3 Terrorist Group Organization........................................................................... 3-1

Section I: Terrorist Group Structure ................................................................................... 3-2
Section II: Categories of Terrorist Organizations ............................................................... 3-7
Section III: Knowledge Exchange and Proliferation Between Organizations .................. 3-11
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 3-13
Chapter 4 Assessing Terrorist Capabilities and Intentions .............................................. 4-1

Section I: Potential Adversaries and Their Motivations ..................................................... 4-4
Section II: Considerations in Targeting U.S. Forces .......................................................... 4-6
Section III: Categorizing Terrorist Groups by Capability................................................. 4-11
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 4-17
Chapter 5 Terrorist Targeting of U.S. Military Forces..................................................... 5-1

Section I: Categories of U.S. Forces ................................................................................... 5-2
Section II: Terrorist Threat to Deployed Forces ................................................................ 5-3
Section III: Terrorist Threat to Deployable Forces ........................................................... 5-12
Section IV: Terrorist Threat to Institutional (Non-Deployable) Forces............................ 5-20
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 5-27
Chapter 6 Future of Terrorism............................................................................................ 6-1

i
Section I: Future Trends in Terrorism................................................................................. 6-1

Section II: The Future of Conflict....................................................................................... 6-9
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................ 6-14
Appendix A Terrorist Threat to Combatant Commands ................................................ A-1

General ............................................................................................................................... A-1
U.S. Northern Command ................................................................................................... A-2
U.S. Southern Command ................................................................................................... A-3
U.S. European Command................................................................................................... A-4
U.S. Central Command ...................................................................................................... A-7
U.S. Pacific Command....................................................................................................... A-9
Appendix B Terrorist Planning Cycle................................................................................ B-1

Phase I: Broad Target Selection......................................................................................... B-2
Phase II: Intelligence Gathering and Surveillance ............................................................. B-3
Phase III: Specific Target Selection................................................................................... B-3
Phase IV: Pre-attack Surveillance and Planning................................................................ B-4
Phase V: Rehearsals ........................................................................................................... B-4
Phase VI: Actions on the Objective ................................................................................... B-5
Phase VII: Escape and Exploitation................................................................................... B-5
Appendix C Terrorist Operations and Tactics.................................................................. C-1

General ............................................................................................................................... C-1
Aircraft Threats ................................................................................................................ C-12
Maritime Threats.............................................................................................................. C-15
Suicide Tactics ................................................................................................................. C-17
International Incidents...................................................................................................... C-19
Appendix D Firearms .......................................................................................................... D-1

Handguns ........................................................................................................................... D-3
Submachine Guns .............................................................................................................. D-7
Assault Rifles ................................................................................................................... D-10
Sniper Rifles..................................................................................................................... D-13
Shotguns........................................................................................................................... D-16
Appendix E Improvised Explosive Devices ....................................................................... E-1

General ................................................................................................................................E-1
Explosive Charges...............................................................................................................E-2
Common Trigger Devices ...................................................................................................E-4
Types of IEDs .....................................................................................................................E-8
Covert Firearms.................................................................................................................E-12
Evacuation Distance Tables ..............................................................................................E-13
Appendix F Conventional Military Munitions ...................................................................F-1

General ................................................................................................................................F-1
Fragmentation Grenades .....................................................................................................F-1
ii
Rocket Propelled Grenade...................................................................................................F-3

Air Defense Weapons .........................................................................................................F-4
Bombs and Artillery............................................................................................................F-6
Mines...................................................................................................................................F-8
Appendix G Weapons of Mass Destruction/Effect............................................................G-1

General ............................................................................................................................... G-1
CBRNE Background.......................................................................................................... G-2
Weapons of Mass Destruction Categories ......................................................................... G-3
Availability and Dual Use................................................................................................ G-16
Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... G-18
Glossary.....................................................................................................................Glossary-1
Selected Bibliography .......................................................................................Bibliography-1
iii
iv
Preface
A Military Guide to Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century is a reference guide prepared
under the direction of the U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command, Assistant Deputy
Chief of Staff for Intelligence-Threats. Understanding terrorism spans foreign and domestic
threats of nation-states, rogue states with international or transnational agent demonstrations,
and actors with specific strategies, tactics, and targets. A central aspect of this terrorism guide
comprises foreign and domestic threats against the United States of America in a contemporary
operational environment (COE).
Purpose. This informational handbook supports operational missions, institutional training,

and professional military education for U.S. military forces in the Global War on Terrorism
(GWOT). This capstone document provides an introduction to the nature of terrorism and
recognition of terrorist threats to U.S. military forces. A common situational awareness by
U.S. military forces considers three principal venues: forces that are deployed, forces that are
in transit to or from an operational mission, and forces that are primarily installation or
institution support. Compiled from open source materials, this handbook promotes a “Threats”
perspective and enemy situational awareness of U.S. strategies and operations in combating
terrorism. Neither a counter-terrorism directive nor anti-terrorism manual, the handbook
complements but does not replace training and intelligence products on terrorism.
Intended Audience. This handbook exists primarily for U.S. military forces, however, other
applicable groups include interdepartmental, interagency, intergovernmental, civilian
contractor, non-governmental, private volunteer, and humanitarian relief organizations.
Handbook Use. Study of contemporary terrorist behavior and motivation, terrorist goals and
objectives, and a composite of probable terrorist tactics, techniques, and procedures (TTP)
improves readiness of U.S. military forces. As a living document, this handbook will be
updated as necessary to ensure a current and relevant resource. A selected bibliography
presents citations for detailed study of specific terrorism topics. Unless stated otherwise,
masculine nouns or pronouns do not refer exclusively to men.
Proponent Statement. Headquarters, U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command

(TRADOC) is the proponent for this publication. Periodic updates will accommodate
emergent user requirements on terrorism. Send comments and recommendations on DA Form
2028 directly to TRADOC Assistant Deputy Chief of Staff for Intelligence – Threats at the
following address: Director, TRADOC ADCSINT – Threats, ATTN: ATIN-L-T (Bldg 53),
700 Scott Avenue, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas 66027-1323. This handbook is available at
Army Knowledge Online (www.us.army.mil). Additionally, the General Dennis J. Reimer
Training and Doctrine Digital Library (www.adtdl.army.mil) lists the handbook as a
special text.
v
vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Threats Terrorism Team (T3) Network
The Deputy Chief of Staff for Intelligence at U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command
extends special appreciation to the many stakeholders who were invited to contribute
information, subject matter expertise, and insight into the update of this 2005 unclassified
terrorism handbook, A Military Guide to Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century.
This expanding partnership of the Threats Terrorism Team (T3) Network in conjunction with
the Assistant Deputy Chief of Staff for Intelligence-Threats includes:
U.S. Northern Command, J2 Combined Intelligence and Fusion Center (CIFC)

U.S. Northern Command, Director of Operations, J3
U.S. Northern Command, J34, Force Protection and Risk Management Branch
U.S. Northern Command, J35
U.S. Northern Command, JTF-Civil Support, J5 Plans, CBRNE Consequence Management
U.S. European Command, Plans and Operations Center
U.S. Pacific Command, Antiterrorism and Training Branch, J34
U.S. Pacific Command, U.S. Marine Forces Pacific, G5
U.S. Central Command, J2
U.S. Special Operations Command, Center for Special Operations, J23
U.S. Southern Command, J2
U.S. Strategic Command, Joint Intelligence Center, J2201
U.S. Joint Forces Command, J9
U.S. Joint Forces Command, J34
Joint Staff, J34 Deputy Directorate for Antiterrorism/Homeland Defense
Joint Staff, J5 War on Terrorism Directorate, Strategic Planning Division
Joint Military Intelligence Training Center (JMITC)
State Department, Bureau of Diplomatic Security, Intelligence-Threats Analysis Directorate
Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense for Homeland Defense
Department of Energy, Office of Headquarters Security Operations
Department of Homeland Security, Director Preparedness Division, Operational Integration Staff
Department of Homeland Security, Federal Emergency Management Agency, Region VII
Department of Homeland Security, Citizen Corps FEMA Region VII Program Manager
Department of Homeland Security, Transportation Security Administration, KCI Airport
Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) Terrorism Watch and Warning Unit
FBI, National Joint Terrorism Task Force (NJTTF)
FBI, Counterterrorism Division, Military Liaison and Detainee Unit
U.S. First Army Headquarters, Military Support Division, G3
U.S. Fifth Army Headquarters, G3
U.S. Navy Center for Antiterrorism and Navy Security Forces
U.S. Navy, Naval War College
U.S. Navy, Navy Command and Staff College
U.S. Marine Corps Training and Education Command, G3 Training Readiness, Plans and Policy
U.S. Marine Corps, Marine War College
U.S. Marine Corps, Marine Corps Command and Staff College
U.S. Air Force Security Forces Center
U.S. Air Force, National Air and Space Intelligence Center, Behavioral Influences Analysis Division
U.S. Air Force, Air War College
U.S. Air Force, Air Command and Staff College
U.S. Army Office of Deputy Chief of Staff G2, for Counterintelligence, HUMINT, and Security
U.S. Army Office of the Chief Information Officer (CIO)/G6
vii
U.S. Army Network Enterprise Technology Command, 9th ASC, G2

U.S. Army Network Enterprise Technology Command, Office of Information Assurance
U.S. Military Academy (West Point), Combating Terrorism Center (CTC)
U.S. Army Combined Arms Center (CAC)
U.S. Army Maneuver Support Center (MANSCEN)
U.S. Army Combined Arms Support Command (CASCOM)
U.S. Army Combined Arms Center-Training (CAC-T)
U.S. Army Battle Command Training Program (BCTP)
National Defense University
U.S. Army TRADOC Centers and Schools, including:
U.S. Army, Army War College
U.S. Army Command and General Staff College (CGSC)
U.S. Army Logistics Management College (ALMC)
U.S. Army Aviation Logistics Center
U.S. Army Management Staff College
U.S. Army School of Information Technology
U.S. Army Leader College for Information Technology
U.S. Army Fort Eustis, Directorate of Plans, Training, Mobilization, and Security
U.S. Army Command and General Staff School (CGSS)
U.S. Army School for Command Preparation (SCP)
U.S. Army School for Advanced Military Studies (SAMS)
U.S. Army Center for Army Leadership (CAL)
U.S. Army Infantry Center, G2 Director of Intelligence and Security
U.S. Army Intelligence Center, Futures Development and Integration Center
U.S. Army Warrant Officer Career Center
U.S. Army Sergeants Major Academy
U.S. Army Soldier Support Institute
U.S. Army Academy of Health Sciences, Medical Department Center and School
U.S. Army Nuclear and Chemical Agency
U.S. Northern Command, Homeland Security/Defense Education Consortium (HSDEC)
U.S. Army TRADOC, Assistant Deputy Chief of Staff for Intelligence-Threats
viii
Introduction
A Military Guide to Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century is a capstone reference guide that
describes terrorism1 and its potential impact on U.S. military forces in the conduct of mission
operations. The handbook highlights the nature of terrorism present in a full spectrum
contemporary operational environment (COE),2 and the likely impacts on the conduct of
U.S. military operations.
Despite the consistent menace, terrorism is a threat that is poorly understood, and frequently
confused due to widely divergent views over exactly what defines terrorism. Terrorism, as
discussed in this handbook, centers on known principal terrorist “Threats” to the United States
of America. The United States confronts terrorism in daily circumstances, both foreign and
domestic; and prepares for security against terrorism expected in the foreseeable future. The
most significant U.S. concerns are terrorist organizations with demonstrated global reach
capabilities and those terrorist organizations that seek to acquire and use weapons of mass
destruction (WMD).
Nonetheless, the threat of terrorism to the U.S. is present across the entire spectrum of
conflict. The use of terrorism ranges from individual acts of wanton damage or destruction to
property or person, to highly sophisticated operations conducted by highly organized violent
groups with social, environmental, religious, economic, or political agendas. This full range
of terrorist activity can have significant negative impact on the conduct of missions by U.S.
military forces.
The Contemporary Operational Environment (COE) has several common threads or constants
for defining the environment. The U.S. will not experience a peer competitor until 2020 or
beyond. Armed forces will continue to be used as a tool to pursue national interests. The U.S.
may direct military action within the context of an alliance, a coalition, or even as unilateral
action, with or without United Nations sanctions. Actions will be waged in a larger
environment of diplomatic, informational, economic, and military operations. Modernization
of capabilities by potential or known adversaries could negate U.S. overmatch for select
periods of time or specific capabilities. Similarly, advanced technologies will be readily
available on a world market for nation-states and non-state actors. Non-state actors can cause
significant impacts on a military operation, as combatants and non-combatants. Of course,
these factors and their effects will vary depending on a particular situation; however, a
constant that must also be addressed is the issue of variables.
Complementing these overarching constants or factors, the U.S. Army describes eleven
critical variables that enhance a comprehensive appreciation of a particular mission setting.
This assessment and analysis is appropriate for both real world contingencies and training
preparations. Whether a real world threat or an opposing force created to simulate realistic and
relevant conditions for training readiness, the COE is a dynamic and adaptive process of being
more aware, better prepared, and fully ready to counter any adversary that could negatively
impact on conduct of an assigned U.S. military mission.
1
Joint Publication 1-02. Department of Defense Dictionary of Military Terms and Associated Terms, 12 April
2001, as amended through 30 November 2004.
2
U.S. Army Field Manual FM 7-100, Opposing Force Doctrinal Framework and Strategy, May 2003, iv to xvi.
1
Interaction among these elements may range

from peaceful humanitarian assistance to
high-intensity combat operations. Alliances Critical Variables of the COE
and coalitions are the expectation in most
operations, but U.S. unilateral action is • Nature and Stability of the State
always a consideration. Military operations • Regional and Global Relationships
interrelate with other elements of national • Economics
power – diplomatic, economic, social- • Sociological Demographics
cultural, and informational – for both the U.S. • Information
and an adversary. Advanced technologies are • Physical Environment
available to almost anyone, yet sophistication • Technology
of weapon systems, in itself, may be a • External Environment
liability. Intelligence and operational tools • National Will
must overlap and integrate complex sensor-
• Time
surveillance systems and the clarity of human
• Military Capabilities
intelligence “eyes on the ground” collection
and analysis. Engagement among significant (Source: U.S. Army Field Manual 7-100)
actors in the COE can span formal nation-
state representatives to the impact of
individual combatants and noncombatants.
Acts of terrorism are part of this reality.
Terrorism has become one of the most pervasive and critical threats to the security of the
United States in recent history. U.S. military fatalities from terrorist actions between 1980
and 2002 exceed the total battle deaths from Operations Urgent Fury (Grenada), Just Cause
(Panama), and Desert Shield/Desert Storm (Persian Gulf).3 As Chart Intro-1 depicts active
duty U.S. military deaths between 1980 and 2002, there were 672 military deaths attributed to
either hostile action or terrorism. Of these deaths, 63% were due to terrorist actions.4 Since
these Department of Defense figures only go through 2002, they do not include the most
current casualties from Operation Enduring Freedom (OEF), or any of the casualties from
Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF). However, sampling reports on OEF5 and OIF6 present
casualties and causes, with many of the casualties caused by terrorist actions in these two
theaters. Recent statistics for 2005 illustrate a significant number of coalition military deaths
3
Department of Defense, Washington Headquarters Services, Directorate for Information Operations and
Reports, Table 13, Worldwide U.S. Active Duty Military Deaths, Selected Military Operations (Washington,
D.C., n.d.); available from http://web1.whs.osd.mil/mmid/casualty/table13.htm; Internet; accessed 6 July 2004.
4
Reports, U.S. Active Duty Military Deaths – 1980 through 2002 (Washington, D.C., As of 10 April 2003);
available from http://web1.whs.osd.mil/mmid/casualty/Death_Rates.pdf; Internet; accessed 6 July 2004.
5
Reports, Global War on Terrorism – Casualty Summary Operation Enduring Freedom (Washington, D.C., As
of 25 September 2004); available from http://web1.whs.osd.mil/mmid/casualty/WOTSUM.pdf; Internet;
accessed 4 October 2004.
6
Reports, War on Terrorism – Operation Iraqi Freedom, By Casualty Category Within Type (Washington, D.C.,
As of 19 march 2005); available from http://web1.whs.osd.mil/mmid/casualty/OIF-Total.pdf; Internet; accessed
12 April 2005.
2
in Iraq caused by acts of terrorism via vehicle borne improvised explosive devices or other
suicide attacks.7
Chart Intro-1: U.S. Active Duty Military Deaths 1980-2002
450 426
Total Deaths due to Terrorism = 426
400
350
300
263
Total Deaths due to Hostile Action = 246 246
Hostile
Deaths
250
Deaths
200
147 Terrorist
150 Deaths
100
55
50 37 29
18 17 23 19 17 17
01 00 00 16 05 20 2 0 0 01 0 01 0 00 07 1 00 03 00 0 0 0
0
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
l
ta
To
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
Year
(Source: Department of Defense)
On occasion, adversary combatant forces have adopted terrorist tactics to continue their fight
when they no longer possess the ability or choice to conduct conventional engagement
attacks. In the 2003 State Department Patterns of Global Terrorism Report, the State
Department did make a distinction between military operations and terrorist attacks. Those
attacks directed at combatants are not classified as terrorist attacks, whereas those against
noncombatants (civilians and military personnel who at the time of the incident were unarmed
and/or not on duty) were classified as terrorist attacks. Discrete measurement of terrorist
effects on military forces becomes more difficult as forms of conflict overlap or merge during
the conduct of operations. Regardless of how casualties are officially categorized, terrorism
has been a major threat to the security of our armed forces for a number of years.
In 2004, selected statistical terrorism data in Patterns was criticized8 and revised. As a document
widely accepted as a standard authoritative reference book, the 2005 Patterns will continue to be
published by the Department of State; however, statistical data on terrorism previously associated
within Patterns will be published separately by the Federal Government’s National Counter-
terrorism Center (NCTC). 9
7
Army TRADOC ADCSINT-Threats, “OIF Top Causes of Death” Information Briefing, with Source Data from
http://www.centcom.mil/CENTCOMNews and http://casualties.org/oif/stats.aspx; Internet; accessed 26 July 2005.
8
Raphael Perl, CRS Report for Congress, Order Code RL 32417, “The Department of State’s Patterns of Global
Terrorism Report: trends, State Sponsors, and Related Issues,” Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research
Service, The Library of Congress, 1 June 2004, Summary; available from
http://fpc.state.gov/documents/organization/33630.pdf; Internet; accessed October 2004.
9
Susan B. Glasser, “Annual Terror Report Won’t Include Numbers,” Washington Post, 19 April, 2005, 17,
available from http://ebird.afis.osd.mil/ebfiles/e20050419364248.html; Internet; accessed 19 April 2005.
3
Purpose
This U.S. Army TRADOC DCSINT handbook serves as an unclassified resource to inform
U.S. military members on the nature and characteristics of terrorism. The intention is to create
situational awareness and understanding of current terrorism capabilities and limitations, and
complement the deliberate processes of military risk management, force protection, and
mission orders conduct and leader decision-making.
From a “Threats” perspective, terrorism capabilities and limitations indicate possible and
probable types of threat action that may be directed against U.S. military members, units, and
organizations. Factors other than military power may place constraints on both threats ands
friendly forces. Commanders, organizational leaders, and other military members can “think
like the threat” and use this handbook to create operational opportunities to:
h Understand the nature of the terrorist threat through a concise historical review of
terrorism, and basic descriptions of methods and organizational structures commonly used by
terrorists and terrorist organizations.
h Know terrorist goals and objectives, and the conduct of terrorist operations.
Acknowledging that asymmetric operations provide a significant advantage to the terrorist,
the study of situational patterns and techniques in terrorism over time can offer insight and
possible trends for future attacks.
h Appreciate the terrorism threat to U.S. military forces, equipment, and infrastructure.
h Relate appropriate levels of force protection (FP), operational security (OPSEC), and
terrorism countermeasures based upon unit status and situation.
h Provide relevant terrorism information that applies to Active Component (AC) and
Reserve Component (RC) Federal Reserves and state National Guard forces in primary
scenarios of being: (1) deployed on an operational mission, (2) in transit to or from an
operational mission, or (3) nondeployable as a military force designated as installation or
institutional support assignments.
h Complement research, analysis, and contingency techniques within a “red teaming”

concept and process.10
Scope of the Issue
Terrorism is a significant operational condition for U.S. military forces in the twenty-first
century. Terrorist violence has changed in recent years from an agenda-forcing and attention-
getting tool of the politically disenfranchised to a significant asymmetric form of conflict
employed against adversaries with economic, military, social, and political aims. While
terrorist acts may have appeared to be extraordinary events several decades ago, today
10
Department of Defense, Defense Science Board, Defense Science Board Task Force on The Role and Status of
DoD Red Teaming Activities, (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition,
Technology, and Logistics, September 2003).
4
terrorism eclipses these former acts and demonstrates a profound impact on populations at the
local, regional, national, and international levels. Terrorists do not plan on defeating the U.S.
in a purely military sense. As part of a larger listing of threats, “…foes today are not trying to
defeat us [U.S.] purely militarily. They’re approaching this from a far broader strategic
context, and in fact, they’re least interested in taking us [U.S.] on head-on. They’re interested
in tying us down militarily, but they are really working on defeating us informationally,
economically, and politically, the other dimensions of National power.”11
Terrorism is defined by the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) as: “The calculated use of
unlawful violence or threat of unlawful violence to inculcate fear; intended to coerce or to
intimidate governments or societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally political,
religious, or ideological.”12 This is not a universally accepted definition outside of the
Department of Defense, and the study of terrorism has often been mired in a conflict over
definitions and semantics. For the purposes of this handbook, this DoD doctrinal definition
will be used unless otherwise noted in the text.
Terrorism is a special type of violence; while

it has a political element, it is a criminal act Terrorism
under nearly every national or international The calculated use of unlawful violence or
legal code. Although terrorism has not yet threat of unlawful violence to inculcate
caused the physical devastation and large fear; intended to coerce or to intimidate
number of casualties normally associated governments or societies in the pursuit of
with traditional warfare, terrorism often goals that are generally political, religious,
produces a significant adverse psychological or ideological.
impacts and presents a much greater threat
than a simple compiling of the numbers Joint Pub 1-02
killed or the quantity of materiel destroyed
would indicate.13 Examples of this on the
United States are the 9/11 attacks and the anthrax incidents of the same period. For many
people around the U.S., these attacks weakened their sense of safety and security. This
experience of catastrophic terrorism was evidence that the United States was not immune to
attacks by international or transnational terrorist groups, or the acts of a possible lone terrorist.
Ultimately, these attacks also had severe economic impacts on the country. As Brian Jenkins
testified to the 9/11 Commission, “The September 11 attack produced cascading economic
effects that directly and indirectly have cost the United States hundreds of billions of
dollars.”14 For other U.S. citizens, these terrorist acts fortified their will and resolve.
Consequently, a national resolve emerged from these catastrophic incidents to reassert
confidence in the economy and way of life, and to combat terrorism in the U.S. Homeland and
on a global scale.
11
General Peter Schoomaker, Army Chief of Staff, “CSA Interview: Joint and Expeditionary Capabilities,”
(Washington, D.C.: Pentagon, 4 October, 2004), available from
http://www.army.mil/leaders/leaders/csa/interviews/04Oct04.html; Internet; Accessed 11 January 2005.
12
FM 100-20, Military Operations in Low Intensity Conflict, 5 December 1990; and Joint Pub 1-02, Department
of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms, 12 April 2001, as amended through 9 June 2004.
13
Bruce Hoffman, Inside Terrorism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), 33-34.
14
National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States, Statement of Brian Jenkins to the
Commission, March 31, 2003; available from http://www.9-
11commission.gov/hearings/hearing1/witness_jenkins.htm; Internet; accessed 23 September 2004.
5
International concern about terrorism mounts too. Multinational groups in 2005 such as the
Club of Madrid, comprised of former presidents and prime ministers of democratic countries,
seek an international cooperation against terrorism. Principles include acknowledging
terrorism as a crime against all humanity, recognizing terrorism an attack on democracy and
human rights, and rejecting any ideology that guides the actions of terrorists.15 Similarly in
March 2005, the Secretary-General of the United Nations called for a world treaty on
terrorism that would outlaw attacks targeting civilians and establish a framework for a
collective response to the global terrorist threat. A complementary decision might include a
universal definition of terrorism, knowing that many different definitions exist currently for
“terrorism,” to assist in countering terrorism in all of its forms.16
“Many potential adversaries, as reflected in doctrinal writings and statements,

see U.S. military concepts, together with technology, as giving the United States
the ability to expand its lead in conventional warfighting capabilities.
This perception among present and potential adversaries will continue to

generate the pursuit of asymmetric capabilities against U.S. forces and interests
abroad as well as the territory of the United States. U.S. opponents—state and
such nonstate actors as drug lords, terrorists, and foreign insurgents—will not
want to engage the U.S. military on its terms. They will choose instead political
and military strategies designed to dissuade the United States from using force,
or, if the United States does use force, to exhaust American will, circumvent or
minimize U.S. strengths, and exploit perceived U.S. weaknesses. Asymmetric
challenges can arise across the spectrum of conflict that will confront U.S.
forces in a theater of operations or on U.S. soil.”
National Intelligence Council's "Global Trends 2015: A Dialogue About the

Future With Nongovernment Experts" Report, December 2000.
Even though terrorism attracts attention and creates fear and anxiety, terrorist acts often fail to
translate into concrete long-term gains or achieve an ultimate objective.17 Escalating acts of
terrorism can be self-defeating when the acts become so extreme that public reaction loses
attention on the terrorist’s intended purpose and focuses on the acts rather than the political
issue. The example of Palestinian defiance to Israeli controls in this geographic region of the
Mideast illustrates how progressively violent acts of resistance or terrorism can sometimes
15
The Madrid Agenda, Club de Madrid, available from http://www.clubmadrid.org/cmadrid; Internet; accessed
26 April 2005.
16
Ed McCullough, “Annan calls for treaty outlawing terrorism,” Associated Press, 10 March 2005; available
from http://www.kentucky.com/mld/kentucky/news/weird_news/11099663.htm?template; Internet; accessed 26
April 2005.
17
Caleb Carr, The Lessons of Terror: A History of Warfare Against Civilians: Why it has Always Failed and
Why it will Fail Again (New York: Random House, 2002), 11.
6
alienate large sections of public opinion that once may have supported a Palestinian quest for
recognition.18 As a tactic, terror can be successful in its immediate purpose, but fail to achieve
its ultimate aim unless dedicated political or military efforts coincide to produce tangible
results. 19 When the threat or use of terrorism is used in coordination with capabilities such as
political or military power, strategic impact may be successful. Some may see the struggles
for Algerian independence or Israeli independence as strategic outcomes that used terrorism
as a major instrument of influence. Others may see the 2004 Spanish withdrawal from
coalition forces in Iraq as an operational outcome of terrorism in Spain, and a means toward
strategic terrorist aims of fracturing the coalition and eventually causing removal of U.S.
presence and prestige in the Mideast.
U.S. Strategic Overview

Defending the Nation against its enemies is the first and fundamental commitment of the
Federal Government. The National Military Strategy (2004) describes ways and means for
Joint Forces to protect the U.S. and win the “War on Terrorism.” U.S. Joint Forces assist the
Nation in preventing conflict or surprise attack, while concurrently transforming military
capabilities while at war and preparing to meet future global challenges. In this contemporary
operational environment, two primary U.S. concerns are terrorists of global reach and the
emergent threat of terrorist use of weapons of mass destruction. The National Security Strategy
(NSS) of the USA states national priorities for dealing with terrorism.
When the President of the United States of America addresses terrorism as an enemy, the
enemy is not a single political regime or person or religion or ideology. “The enemy is
terrorism – premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against innocents…[U.S.]
priority will be first to disrupt and destroy terrorist organizations of global reach and attack
their leadership; command, control, and communications; material support; and finances.”20
The strategic intent of the U.S. National Strategy for Combating Terrorism adds a national
priority of denying sanctuary to terrorist organizations with global reach.21
Other principal threats are rogue states or terrorist organizations – enemies - who have
declared the intention to obtain and use weapons of mass destruction [WMD] against the
United States of America. The September 2001 attacks on the United States demonstrated that
inflicting mass casualties is one of several specific means that will be used by terrorists to
spotlight an agenda. Mass casualties would be exponentially more severe if terrorists
acquired and used weapons of mass destruction. 22 As noted in the U.S. National
18
Caleb Carr, “TIME.com Interview with Calib Carr,” 1 February 2002; available at
http://www.time.com/time/2002/carr/interview.html; Internet; accessed 31 August 2004.
19
Walter Lacquer, The New Terrorism: Fanaticism and the Arms of Mass Destruction (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1999), 48.
20
President, National Strategy, National Security Strategy of the United States of America, Washington, D.C.
(December 2002): Introduction and Section III; available from
ahttp://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/print/nssall.html; Internet; accessed 8 December 2003.
21
President, National Strategy, National Strategy for Combating Terrorism, Washington, D.C. (February 2003):
11; available from http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/rm/2003/17798.htm; Internet; accessed 8 December 2003.
22
President, National Strategy, National Security Strategy of the United States of America, Washington, D.C.
(December 2002): Section V; available from http://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/print/nssall.html; Internet; accessed
8 December 2003.
7
Security Strategy, the targets of these WMD attacks include U.S. military forces and
civilian population.
The major institutions of American national security were designed in a different era to
meet different national and global requirements. All of these security measures are
transforming. This includes building and maintaining national defenses beyond
challenge…an essential role exists for American military strength in near-term readiness
and the ability to fight the war on terrorism.23
U.S. Goals and Objectives

The United States Government has a mandate to ensure the protection of the Nation and to
reduce its vulnerability to terrorism. Leaders at each level of government are implementing
interconnected strategies to address emerging risks and threats of terrorism. While protection
infers prevention from terrorist attacks, U.S. national strategies recognize that managing risk
of terrorist threats is a challenging continuum. One of the national strategies is The National
Strategy for Homeland Security. This strategy presents six critical mission areas for security
risk management and resource allocation: intelligence and warning, border and transportation
security, domestic counterterrorism, protecting critical infrastructure, defending against
catastrophic terrorism, and emergency preparedness and response.24 A survey of these mission
sets aligns readily with functions of expert support that U.S. military forces can provide, as an
operating element of the Department of Defense, within Federal law.
Of note, the United States has implemented an integrated series of national strategies to enhance
the security of the Nation. These strategies translate instruments of national power into strategic,
operational and tactical actions against terrorism. U.S. military forces are part of a national arsenal
of capabilities among diplomatic, economic, law enforcement, financial, information, and
intelligence institutions in the Global War on Terrorism (GWOT).
“No group or nation should mistake America’s intention:

We will not rest until terrorist groups of global reach have
been found, have been stopped, and have been defeated.”
George W. Bush
The President of the United States of America
September 14, 2001
Soon after the catastrophe of the 2001 World Trade Center bombing, the President of the
United States declared a specific charter to U.S. military forces: “The battle is now joined on
many fronts. We will not waver, we will not tire, we will not falter and we will not fail. Peace
and freedom will prevail…To all the men and women in our military, every sailor, every
soldier, every airman, every coast guardsman, every marine, I say this: Your mission is
23
Ibid., Section IX.
24
President, National Strategy, National Strategy for Homeland Security, Washington, D.C. (16 July 2002): viii
and 2; available from http://www.whitehouse.gov/homeland/book/nat_strat_hls.pdf; Internet; accessed 8
December 2003.
8
defined. The objectives are clear. Your goal is just. You have my full confidence, and you
will have every tool you need to carry out your duty.”25 As one of several instruments of
national power, the “just” goal reaches beyond a task of just preserving U.S. freedoms. This
goal envisions a world with the ability for all people to live and prosper without fear.
GWOT and the Contemporary Operational Environment

On a global scale, the United States National Defense Strategy has four strategic objectives:
(1) secure the United States from direct attack, (2) secure strategic access and retain global
freedom of action, (3) strengthen alliances and partnerships, and (4) establish favorable
security conditions. Four ways that the U.S. accomplishes those objectives are assuring allies
and friends, dissuading potential adversaries, deterring aggression and coercion, and when
necessary, defeating adversaries.26 These principles are integral to situational awareness in the
Global War on Terrorism (GWOT).
The GWOT is an operational environment of today and for the foreseeable future. The
Operational Environment (OE) as defined by the Department of Defense is: “A composite of
the conditions, circumstances, and
influences that affect employment of
military forces and bear on the decisions of
the unit commander.”27 The U.S. Army Threat and Opposing Force
builds on this DOD definition and further
defines a mission setting for the current or Threat - Any specific foreign nation or
the near-term future circumstances – the organization with intentions and military
Contemporary Operational Environment. 28 capabilities that suggest it could become an
adversary or challenge the national security
Contemporary Operational Environment interests of the United States or its allies.
(COE) encompasses a full range of
terrorism threat. This contemporary period U.S. Army Regulation 350-2
can be assessed as “…the most dangerous
times of our lifetime…not so much because Opposing Force (OPFOR) – A plausible,
we know precisely what somebody’s going flexible military and/or paramilitary force
to do, when and where, or how they’re representing a composite of varying cap-
going to do it; but that we know their intent abilities of actual worldwide forces, used
and we know what the possibilities are and in lieu of a specific threat force, for
we know what our vulnerabilities are…So training and developing U.S. forces.
terrorism is part of the tactic. In other ways
it’s [terrorism] an ‘ism’, much like U.S. Army Regulation 350-2
communism and the others, only so much
25
“Transcript of President George Bush’s address 10/07/01,” ATTACK on AMERICA [database on-line];
available from http://multimedia.belointeractive.com/attack/bush/1007bushtranscript.html; Internet; accessed 13
July 2004.
26
Department of Defense, The National Defense Strategy of the United States of America, (Washington, D.C.:
GPO, 1 March 2005), iv.
27
Department of Defense, DOD Dictionary of Military Terms, available from
http://www.dtic.mil/doctrine/jel/doddict/data/o/03843.html; Internet; accessed 25 April 2005.
28
Army Field Manual 7-100, Opposing Force Doctrinal Framework and Strategy, (Washington, D.C.: GPO,
May 2003), Foreword and iv.
9
as it’s embodied in whatever movements and for whatever reasons.”29 Originated to address
known and potential conditions and adversaries that U.S. forces might confront in a post-Cold
War world, the COE is a conceptual construct to recognize several norms and critical
variables for military decisionmaking, planning, and operating. As a superpower, the U.S.
must still consider the normal influences of movements and regional powers around the world
and the capabilities of their armed forces, paramilitary forces, or clandestine groups.
The U.S. National Defense Strategy identifies four types of

Challenging Threats challenging threats. Traditional challenges exist by states that
employ recognized military capabilities and forces in the more
• Traditional conventional forms of military competition and conflict. Irregular
• Irregular challenges are the more unconventional ways and means to counter
• Catastrophic the traditional advantages of stronger opponents. Catastrophic
challenges involve the acquisition, possession, and possible use of
• Disruptive
WMD or methods that produce WMD-like effects (WMD/E).
Disruptive challenges may be the use of breakthrough technologies
to limit or negate the operational advantage of an opponent.30
The National Military Strategic Plan for the War on Terrorism (NMSP-WOT) addresses the GWOT
nature of the threat, and states priorities and responsibilities within the U.S. Armed Forces. As noted
by the U.S. Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, this strategy “…produces a clearer understanding
of the enemies we face and the conditions under which we fight…” The nature of this environment
is a war against extremists that advocate the use of violence to gain control over others, and in doing
so, threaten our [U.S.] way of life. Success will rely heavily on close cooperation and integration of
all instruments of national power and the combined
efforts of the international community. The overall goal
of this war is to preserve and promote the way of
life of free and open societies based on rule of law, Terrorist Vulnerabilities
defeat terrorist extremism as a threat to that way of
life, and create a global environment inhospitable • Ideological Support
to terrorist extremists. 31
• Leadership
• “Foot Soldiers”
The United States will target eight major terrorist • Safe Havens
vulnerabilities. This targeting is against terrorist • Weapons
networks, including state and non-state supporters. • Funds
The contemporary operational environment can be • Communications
assessed as “…the most dangerous times of our and Movement
lifetime…not so much because we know precisely • Access to Targets
what somebody’s going to do, when and where, or
how they’re going to do it; but that we know their Source: National Defense Strategy,
intent and we know what the possibilities are and we March 2005
know what our vulnerabilities are…So terrorism is
29
General Peter Schoomaker, U.S. Army Chief of Staff, “Media Roundtable at the Association of the United States Army
Annual Convention, Washington, D.C., 4 October 2004; available from:
http://www.army.mil/leaders/leaders/csa/interviews/04Oct04Roundtable.html; Internet; accessed 11 January 2005.
30
The National Defense Strategy of the United States of America, 1 March 2005, 2.
31
Joint Chiefs of Staff, J5 War on Terrorism, Strategic Planning Division, Briefing (U) The National Military
Strategic Plan for the War on Terrorism (NMSP-WOT), Version 18 April 2005.
10
part of the tactic. In other ways it’s [terrorism] an ‘ism’, much like communism and the
others, only so much as it’s embodied in whatever movements and for whatever reasons.”32 The
intent is to maintain the initiative and dictate the tempo, timing, and direction of military operations.
As an example, denying resources to terrorists and terrorist networks is critical to countering

the ideological support of terrorism. These efforts remove any legitimacy to terrorism and
eliminate state and private support for terrorism; make it politically unsustainable for any
country to support or condone terrorism; and support models for moderation in the Muslim
regions of the world. Techniques in coordinating such actions may include a methodology of
identifying or “mapping” key components that affect resources such as technology, key
figures, and locations. Identifying the major connections among these components can
spotlight weak assailable links of the networking and where targeting and action plans
may be most effective. Measuring results and adapting operations enable a process for
improved Joint leader education, training, and GWOT operations.33
Interaction among these elements may range from

peaceful humanitarian assistance to high-intensity combat
operations. Alliances and coalitions are the expectation in
most operations, but U.S. unilateral action is always a Assessing the Threat
consideration. Military operations interrelate with other
elements of national power – diplomatic, economic, • Mapping the Threat
social-cultural, and informational – for both the U.S. and • Analyzing Networks
an adversary. Advanced technologies are available to • Planning Actions
almost anyone, yet sophistication of weapon systems, it • Determining Metrics
itself, may be a liability. Intelligence and operational tools • Tracking Actions
must overlap and integrate complex sensor-surveillance • Evaluating Outcomes
systems and the clarity of human intelligence “eyes on the • Adapting Methods
ground” collection and analysis. Engagement among • Improving Results
significant actors in the COE can span formal nation-
state representatives to the impact of individual
combatants and noncombatants. Acts of terrorism are
part of this reality.
Red Teaming
Key to combating terrorism is the process of Red Teaming. As a time-proven concept used in
U.S. government and commercial enterprises, red teaming deepens the understanding of options
that are available to counter adaptive adversaries. This methodology both complements and
informs intelligence collection and analysis, and enhances predictive estimates of adversary
capabilities and intentions. Aggressive red teams challenge emerging operational concepts,
evolving contingency plans, as well as operational orders in order to discover weaknesses
before real adversaries do. The perspective of an adversary may be that of a confirmed threat,
32
General Peter Schoomaker, U.S. Army Chief of Staff, “Media Roundtable at the Association of the United
States Army Annual Convention, Washington, D.C., 4 October 2004; available from:
http://www.army.mil/leaders/leaders/csa/interviews/04Oct04Roundtable.html; Internet; accessed 11 January
2005.
33
Joint Chiefs of Staff, J5 War on Terrorism, Strategic Planning Division, Briefing (U) Countering Ideological
Support for Terrorism, Version 19Jan05, 5 April 2005.
11
or a contingency of threat capabilities used to present conditions, circumstances, and

influences for training and readiness. Understanding rationale of a terrorist may involve
detailed study of, in the case of al Qaeda or associated movements, salafi Islam and
fundamentalism. Extremism can be a distorted variant of fundamental beliefs.
In 2003, a Defense Science Board task force validated two primary reasons for expanding the role
of red teaming in the DoD: (1) To deepen understanding of the adversaries the U.S. now faces in the
war on terrorism and in particular their capabilities and potential responses to U.S. initiatives, and
(2) To guard against complacency. Red teaming can stress concepts, plans, and systems to identify
vulnerabilities and capabilities before direct confrontation with a real world adversary. To best apply
red teaming programs, red team members must be able to understand the thinking and motivations
of adversaries with different cultural and social backgrounds, to assess and analyze acting as
independent and adaptive adversaries, and to interact and recommend in constructive and creative
ways with the supported friendly forces leader and military decisionmaker.34
Approach to Understanding Terrorism
The 2005 version of A Military Guide to Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century builds on a
database of open source information and current subject updates. Comments and
recommendations from handbook users are instrumental in shaping updates, revisions, as well
as identifying new requirements.
The preface keynotes this open source unclassified reference document on terrorism. The
purpose and intended audience, although existing initially for U.S. military forces, provides a
useful awareness to other activities in interagency, intergovernmental, nongovernmental,
private volunteer, humanitarian relief, and civilian organizations. The introduction centers
attention on reviewing historical perspectives of terrorism, understanding current
vulnerabilities and terrorism threats, and considering emergent and future terrorism.
Chapter 1: Nature and History of Terror, defines the concept of terrorism and provides basic
terms of reference for a common vocabulary. Attention on modern terrorism complements the
historical perspective of terrorism discussed later in the handbook.
Chapter 2: Terrorist Behaviors, Motivations, and Characteristics, presents recent examples

of terrorist behavior and illustrates individual or group declared ideology or philosophy.
Additions expand generic profile descriptions with case examples to highlight the many types
of lifestyle that can develop a terrorist’s mindset and conduct.
Chapter 3: Terrorist Group Organization, provides examples and diagrams of hierarchical

and networked terrorist group organizations, provides an appreciation of the diverse range of
terrorist capability, but also portrays organizational limitations. Discussion of U.S. domestic
terrorist acts accent this homeland threat, and the ability for inter-terrorist group transfer of
information and support.
34
Department of Defense, Defense Science Board, Defense Science Board Task Force on The Role and Status of
DoD Red Teaming Activities, (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for Acquisition,
Technology, and Logistics, September 2003), 1, 15, 16, and Appendix 1.
12
Chapter 4: Assessing Terrorist Capabilities and Intentions, emphasizes risk assessment and
management of U.S. military forces against terrorism. Vulnerabilities use a “red teaming”
approach of potential terrorist intelligence preparation of the battlefield (IPB) against U.S.
military forces. Appreciating terrorist intentions progresses to elements of potential terrorist
reconnaissance and surveillance.
Chapter 5: Terrorist Targeting of U.S. Military Forces, assesses potential targeting of U.S.
military forces by terrorist organizations with a situational framework of deployed,
deployable and in transit, or non-deployable U.S. military forces. Discussion includes the
increased overseas presence by U.S. military forces in operational missions, forward stationed
forces, and cycle of transiting forces with deployments and redeployments.
Chapter 6: Future of Terrorism, examines the future of terrorism and the merging of
terrorists with other state and sub-state entities. It also discusses some of the possible causes
of future conflicts and how terrorism will be integrated into this evolution of conflict.
Appendices to Army TRADOC DCSINT Handbook No. 1 provide additional information to

understanding terror, and the ways and means of conducing terrorism.
A: Terrorist Threat to Combatant Commands. The annual publication of Patterns of Global

Terrorism 2003 by the U.S. Department of State remains the primary source for displaying
terrorism threats to the five U.S. Combatant Command areas, and specific data to indicate
regional and global patterns related to terrorism.
B: Terrorist Planning Cycle. Emphasis outlines the norms of terrorist planning and phased
conduct of operations. Operations may be sequential, parallel, or simultaneous.
C: Terrorist Operations and Tactics. Examples describe emerging patterns in operations and
inferences of preferred terrorism tactics and techniques. Descriptions expand the operating
environment awareness to include land, air, and maritime terrorism scenarios.
D: Firearms. Illustrations, photographs, and descriptions present a survey of conventional small

arms often used by terrorists. Intelligence summaries provide the basis for this sampling of hand or
shoulder fired weapons.
E: Improvised Explosive Devices. Illustrations, photographs, and descriptions present a survey of

explosive charges and trigger devices for improvised explosive devices (IED).
F: Conventional Military Munitions. Illustrations, photographs, and descriptions present a survey

of selected conventional military munitions used by terrorists including fragmentation grenades,
rocket propelled grenades, shoulder-fired SAMS, and artillery munitions.
G: Weapons of Mass Destruction. Discussion emphasizes multiple definitions of WMD and the
underpinning of a common definition that focuses on weapon effects. Primary types of attack are
chemical, biological, nuclear, radiological, and high yield explosives (CBRNE) in effects.
13
U.S. Army TRADOC DCSINT Handbook No. 1

and Terrorism Supplements
DCSINT Handbook No.1
A Military Guide to
Terrorism
Terrorism
in the 21 Century
st
A Military Guide to Terrorism
in the Twenty-First Century
and
2005 Handbook Supplements
DCSINT Handbook No. 1.01 DCSINT Handbook No. 1.02 DCSINT Handbook No. 1.03 DCSINT Handbook No. 1.04
Terror Operations Cyber Operations Suicide Bombing Defense Support

Case Studies in Terrorism and Cyber Terrorism In the
the COE of Civil Authorities
G G G G
INATIN INATIN INATIN INATIN
COORD COORD COORD COORD
2005 2005 2005 2005
US Army Training and Doctrine Command
05 05 05 05
US Army Training and Doctrine Command US Army Training and Doctrine Command US Army Training and Doctrine Command
MAY 20 MAY 20 MAY 20 MAY 20

Deputy Chief of S taff for Intelligence Deputy Chief of S taff for Intelligence Deputy Chief of S taff for Intelligence Deputy Chief of S taff for Intelligence
DRAFT 2005 DRAFT 2005 DRAFT 2005 DRAFT 2005

Assistant Deputy Chief of S taff for Intelligence - Threats Assistant Deputy Chief of S taff for Intelligence - Threats Assistant Deputy Chief of S taff for Intelligence - Threats Assistant Deputy Chief of S taff for Intelligence - Threats
Fort Leavenworth, Kansas Fort Leavenworth, Kansas Fort Leavenworth, Kansas Fort Leavenworth, Kansas
DIS TRIBUTION RES TRICTION: Approved for public release; distribut

ion unlimited. DIS TRIBUTION RES TRICTION: Approved for public release; distribut
ion unlimited.
1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04

Terror Operations: Cyber Operations Suicide Bombing DSCA
Case Studies and in the and
in Terrorism Cyber Terrorism COE WMD/E
New in 2005, four supplemental handbooks to DCSINT Handbook No.1, A Military

Guide to Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century, provides a more detailed discussion on
topics of terrorism:
• DCSINT Handbook 1.01, Terror Operations: Case Studies in Terrorism.

• DCSINT Handbook 1.02, Cyber Operations and Cyber Terrorism.
• DCSINT Handbook 1.03, Suicide Bombing in the COE.
• DCSINT Handbook 1.04, Defense Support to Civil Authorities (DSCA), with a focus on
WMD/E consequence management and emergency response by military forces.
Conclusion
This capstone handbook and its supplemental handbooks provide a straightforward
description of an increasingly common method of conflict – Terrorism. Promoting knowledge
and awareness of terrorism enhances the ability of U.S. military forces to assess conditional
vulnerabilities, determine enemy threats, dissuade and deter terrorist acts, deny use of
14
particular terrorism means, and effectively defend against terrorist attack.35 The U.S. National
Strategy for Combating Terrorism describes the campaigning along four simultaneous fronts:
(1) defeat terrorist organizations of global reach through relentless action; (2) deny support to
terrorism; (3) diminish the conditions that encourages terrorism; and (4) defend the people
and interests of the United States of America against terrorism.36
Ultimately, terrorism can cause more than physical carnage by imprinting psychological horror in
the minds of the target audience. The aim of the terrorist, whether terrorism is viewed as a
strategy, a campaign, or a tactic, is an attack on resolve. Therefore, the fundamental aim of
terrorism is its psychological effect on man and the decisions that result.
The world today is complex, as is armed conflict. A significant difference today, different
from previous recent wars, is the reality of a protracted conflict of uncertain duration37 – a war
on terrorism. To “detect, deter, and destroy terrorist organizations at every turn,” another
evolving component of any U.S. action plan is to act against threats before they are fully
formed. The ability to “red team” terrorist capabilities and limitations can be a powerful tool
to understand risks and identify friendly forces options.
The overarching aim of this handbook is to create situational awareness and understanding of
current terrorism capabilities and limitations, and complement the deliberate processes of
military risk management, force protection, and mission orders conduct and leader decision-
making. U.S. Armed Forces are at war – a Global War on Terrorism. In this long-term
war of uncertain duration, the United States of America will continue to defend its
values, liberties, and culture; its economic prosperity; and its security, along with allies
and international partners.
35
Moilanen, Jon H. “Engagement and Disarmament: A U.S. National Security Strategy for Biological Weapons
of Mass Destruction,” Essays on Strategy XIII. Mary A. Sommervile ed., Washington, D.C., National Defense
University Press, 1996.
36
President, National Strategy, “National Strategy for Combating Terrorism,” Washington, D.C. (February
2003): 11, 29-30; available from http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/rm/2003/17798.htm; Internet; accessed 8
December 2003.
37
Cofer Black, “The International Terrorism Threat,” Testimony before the House International Relations
committee, Subcommitteee on International Terrorism, Nonproliferation, and Human Rights, Washington, D.C.,
26 March 2003; 6, available from http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/rm/2003/19136.htm; Internet; accessed 21 April
2005.
15
This Page Intentionally Blank
16
Chapter 1
Nature and History of Terror
"Terrorism is theatre." 38 This is a classic statement and analogy by terrorism expert Brian
Jenkins for such a complex phenomenon as terrorism. Terrorism, like a play, can be viewed as
a deliberate presentation to a large audience in order to spotlight a message and hold
attention. The purpose and intent of such actions can have sinister impact on national,
regional, and global populations. Modern media provide the stage, and audience attention is
further engaged because random individuals are often targeted with principals on stage as
victims. And like a play, the point of the experience is the feelings and attitudes of the
audience, not the actors.
Terrorist acts or the threat of terrorism have been in existence for millennia. Despite a history
longer than the modern nation-state, the use of terror by governments and those that contest
their power remains poorly understood. While the meaning of the word terror itself is clear,
when terror is applied to acts and actors in the real world of today. Meaning and intent can
point in many directions. Part of this dilemma is due to use of terror tactics by actors at all
levels in the social and political environments. Is the “Unabomber” with his solo campaign of
terror, a criminal, terrorist, or revolutionary? Can he be compared to the French revolutionary
governments who coined the word terrorism by instituting systematic state terror against the
population of France in the 1790s? Are either of these examples similar to revolutionary
terrorist groups such as the Baader-Meinhof Gang of West Germany or the Weather
Underground in the United States?
Distinctions of size and political legitimacy of the actors using terror raise questions as to
what is and is not terrorism. The concept of moral equivalency is frequently used as an
argument to broaden and blur the
definition of terrorism as well. This
concept argues that the outcome of an “Terrorism has a purpose that goes well
39
action is what matters, not the intent. beyond the act itself; the goal is to
Simply put, a car bomb on a city street or generate fear.”
a jet fighter dropping a bomb on a tank are Opposing Force: Doctrinal Framework and
Strategy FM 7-100 (2003)
both acts of violence that produce death
and horror. Therefore [at the extreme
fringe of this argument] any military
action is simply terrorism by a different name.40 This is the reasoning behind the phrase “One
man’s terrorist is another man’s freedom fighter.” Such comments can promote a legacy of
legitimizing the use of terror by successful revolutionary movements after the fact.
Finally, the significant growth in the number of causes and social contexts using terrorism,
combined with the flexibility and adaptability of terror throughout the years, has contributed
to the confusion. Those seeking to disrupt, reorder, or destroy the status quo have
continuously sought new and creative ways to achieve their goals. Although many of the
38
Bruce Hoffman, Inside Terrorism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), 38.
39
40
International Encyclopedia of Terrorism, 1997 ed., s.v. “The Terrorists’ View.”
1-1
tactics and techniques used by terrorism have remained somewhat the same, significant
improvements in technology have resulted in more lethal means.
Despite these problems, terrorism can be studied to gain useful conclusions. The first section
of this chapter introduces a background of definitions and concepts for understanding
terrorism. The second section provides a brief survey of the historical employment of
terrorism. By establishing specific definitions and concrete concepts regarding terrorism,
and determining how terror has been used in the past and in contemporary operations,
potential future threats can be better understood and countered.
Section I: What is Terrorism

Terrorism has been described variously as both a tactic and strategy; a crime and a holy duty;
a justified reaction to oppression and an inexcusable abomination. Much depends on whose
point of view is being represented. Terrorism has
often been an effective tactic for the weaker side in a
conflict. As an asymmetric form of conflict, it Related Definitions
confers coercive power with many of the advantages Terrorist: (JP 1-02)
of military force at a fraction of the cost. Due to the An individual who uses violence,
secretive nature and small size of terrorist terror, and intimidation to achieve
organizations, they often offer opponents no clear a result.
organization to defend against or to deter. Terrorism Counter-terrorism: (JP 1-02)
is a means to an “end” or objective. Methods may Offensive measures taken to
vary from incident to incident but in review of prevent, deter, and respond to
terrorism during the last two centuries, methods terrorism.
appear strikingly similar in concept. Anti-terrorism: (JP 1-02)
Defensive measures used to
What may be of most concern is the lethality and reduce the vulnerability of
damage that adaptive terrorists can inflict when individuals and property to
armed with expanding technologies and intellect. terrorist acts, to include limited
That is why preemption is more important than ever response and containment by
before. However, deterrence and preemption can be local military forces.
difficult against transnational terrorist groups. As
stated in an al Qaeda article in January 2002,
“[Deterrence] is completely eliminated when dealing
with people who do not care about living but thirst for martyrdom. While the principle of
deterrence works well [in warfare] between countries, it does not work at all for an
organization with no permanent bases and with no capital in Western banks…How can
such people, who strive for death more than anything else, be deterred?”41
In some cases, terrorism has been a means to carry on a conflict without the adversary
realizing the nature of the threat, mistaking terrorism for criminal activity. Because of these
characteristics, terrorism has become increasingly common among those pursuing extreme
goals throughout the world. But despite its notoriety, terrorism can be a nebulous concept.
41
Ben Venzke and Aimee Ibrahim, The al-Qaeda Threat: An Analytical Guide to al-Qaeda’s Tactics and
Targets (Alexandria: Tempest Publishing, LLC, 2003), 12, quoting Abu ‘Ubeid al-Qurashi, “Fourth Generation
Wars,” 28 January 2002.
1-2
Even within the U.S. Government, agencies responsible for different functions in the global
war on terrorism use different definitions.
Defining Terrorism
The Department of Defense approved definition of terrorism is: “The calculated use of
unlawful violence or threat of unlawful violence to inculcate fear; intended to coerce or to
intimidate governments or societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally political,
religious, or ideological.”42 For the purposes of this document, this will be the standard
definition. However, this is not the last or only word on the subject. A researcher did a review
of writings on terrorism and found 109 different definitions!43 Here is a sampling of definitions
to illustrate the difficulties of categorizing and analyzing terrorism.
The FBI uses this: “Terrorism is the unlawful use of force and violence against persons or
property to intimidate or coerce a government, the civilian population, or any segment
thereof, in furtherance of political or social objectives.”44 The U.S. Department of State uses
the definition contained in Title 22 U.S.C. Section 2656f(d). According to this section,
“terrorism” means “premeditated politically-motivated violence perpetrated against non-
combatant targets by sub-national groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence
an audience.”45 These definitions stress the respective institutional concerns of the
organizations using them. The FBI concentrates on the “unlawful” aspect, in keeping with its
law enforcement mission. The Department of State concerns itself with “politically
motivated” actions by “sub-national” or “clandestine” actors, a focus appropriate to the
Department’s functions of international relations and diplomacy.
Outside the United States Government, there are greater variations in what features of
terrorism are emphasized in definitions. The United Nations produced this definition in 1992;
“An anxiety inspiring method of repeated violent action, employed by (semi-) clandestine
individual, group or state actors, for idiosyncratic, criminal or political reasons, whereby - in
contrast to assassination - the direct targets of violence are not the main targets.” A commonly
accepted academic definition starts with the U.N. definition quoted above, and adds two
sentences totaling another 77 words; containing such concepts as “message generators” and
‘violence based communication processes.”46 A more concise British Government definition
of 1974 is “…the use of violence for political ends, and includes any use of violence for the
purpose of putting the public, or any section of the public, in fear.”47
There is clearly a wide choice of definitions for terrorism. Despite this, there are elements in
common among the majority of useful definitions. Common threads of the various definitions
identify terrorism as:
42
FM 100-20, Military Operations in Low Intensity Conflict, 5 December 1990; and Joint Publication 1-02,
Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms, 12 April 2001, as amended through 09
January 2003.
43
44
Title 28, Code of Federal Regulations, Section 0.85, Judicial Administration, (Washington, D.C., July 2001).
45
Department of State, Patterns of Global Terrorism 2001 (Washington, D.C., May 2002), xvi.
46
International Encyclopedia of Terrorism, 1997 ed., s.v. “The Academic View.”
47
Ibid., s.v. “The Official View.”
1-3
• Political
• Psychological
• Violent
• Dynamic
• Deliberate
Political
A terrorist act is a political act or is committed with the intention to cause a political effect.
Clausewitz’ statement that “war is a continuation of policy by other means” is taken as a
truism by terrorists. They merely eliminate the intermediate step of armies and warfare, and
apply violence directly to the political contest.48 A U.S. State Department official
summarized, “The ultimate goals of terrorism are political…Politically motivated terrorism
invariably involves a deeply held grievance over some form of injustice. The injustice may be
social or economic, but it is nonetheless blamed on a political authority.” 49
Psychological
The intended results of terrorist acts cause a psychological effect or terror. They are aimed at
a target audience other than the actual victims of the act. The intended target audience of the
terrorist act may be a population as a whole, some specific portion of a society (an ethnic
minority, for example similar to the situation in Kosovo between the Serbs and Albanians), or
decision-making elites in the society’s political, social, or military population.
Violent
Violence, coercion, and destruction are used in the commission of the act to produce the
desired effect. Even if casualties or destruction are not the result of a terrorist operation, the
threat or potential of violence is what produces the intended effect. For example, a successful
hostage taking operation may result in all hostages being freed unharmed after negotiations
and bargaining. Regardless of the outcome, the terrorist bargaining chips are nothing less
than the raw threat of applying violence to maim or kill some or all of the hostages. When the
threat of violence is not credible, or the terrorists are unable to implement violence
effectively, terrorism fails.
Dynamic
Terrorist groups demand change, revolution, or political movement. The radical worldview
that justifies terrorism mandates drastic action to destroy or alter the status quo. Even if the
goals of a movement are reactionary in nature, they may require action to “turn back the
clock” or restore some cherished value system that is extinct. Nobody commits violent
attacks on strangers or innocents to keep things “just the way they are.”
48
Karl von Clausewitz, War, Politics and Power (Chicago: Regnery Gateway, 1962), 83.
49
David E. Long, The Anatomy of Terrorism (New York: THE FREE PRESS, A Division of Macmillan, Inc.,
1990), 4 and 5.
1-4
Deliberate
Terrorism is an activity planned and intended to achieve particular goals. It is a rationally

employed, specifically selected tactic, and is not a random act.50 Since the victims of terrorist
violence are often of little import, with one being as good for the terrorists’ purposes as
another, victim or target selection can appear random or unprovoked. But the target will
contain symbolic value or be capable of eliciting emotional response according to the
terrorists’ goals. Remember that the actual target of terrorism is not necessarily the victim of
the violence, but the psychological impact on the society or population. This psychological
impact is intended to create an environment of fear and intimidation that terrorists can then
manipulate to force others to submit or agree to their demands.
Specific Observations
In addition to these common elements derived from attempts to define terrorism, some
specific observations about terrorists become apparent. These observations are neither
definitive nor are they automatically indicative of terrorist activity. But they are common to the
practice of terrorism.
Media Exploitation
Terrorism effects are not necessarily aimed at the victims of terrorist violence. Victims are
usually objects exploited by the terrorists for their effect on a third party. In order to produce
this effect, information of the attack must reach the target audience. So any terrorist
organization plans for exploitation of available media to get the message to the right
audiences.51 Victims are simply the first medium that transmits the psychological impact to
the larger target audience. The next step in transmission will depend on what media is
available, but will be planned, and will be frequently the responsibility of a specific
organization within the terrorist group to do nothing else but exploit and control the
news cycle.52
Some organizations can rely on friendly or sympathetic news outlets, but this is not necessary.
News media can be manipulated by planning around the demands of the “news cycle,” and
the advantage that control of the initiative gives the terrorist. Pressures to report quickly, to
“scoop” competitors, allow terrorists to present claims or make statements that might be
refuted or critically commented on if time were available. Terrorists often provide names
and details of individual victims to control the news media through its desire to
humanize or personalize a story. For the victims of a terrorist attack, it is a certainty that
the impact on the survivors (if there are any) is of minimal importance to the terrorists.
What is important is the intended psychological impact that the news of their death or
suffering will cause in a wider audience.
50
Ehud Sprinzak, “Rational Fanatics,” Foreign Policy, no. 120 (September/October 2000): 66-73.
51
Christopher C. Harmon, Terrorism Today (London: Frank Cass Publishers, 2000; reprint, Portland: Frank
Cass Publishers, 2001), 55-58.
52
1-5
Operations in Permissive Societies
Terrorists conduct more operations in societies where individual rights and civil legal
protections prevail. While terrorists may base themselves in repressive regimes that are
sympathetic to them, they usually avoid repressive governments when conducting operations
wherever possible. An exception to this case is a repressive regime that does not have the
means to enforce security measures. Governments with effective security forces and few
guaranteed civil liberties have typically suffered much less from terrorism than liberal states
with excellent security forces. Al Qaeda has shown, however, that a terrorist organization
with significant resources can span an extreme range of capability.
Illegality of Methods
Terrorism is a criminal act. Whether the terrorist chooses to identify himself with military
terminology or with civilian imagery (e.g., brotherhood, committee), a terrorist is a criminal.
Violations of civil criminal laws are self-evident in activities such as murder, arson, and
kidnapping, regardless of the legitimacy of the government enforcing the laws. Victimizing
the innocent is criminal injustice under a dictatorship or a democracy.53 If the terrorist claims
that he is justified in using such violence as a military combatant, he could be possibly
considered a de facto war criminal under international law and the military justice systems of
most nations.
Preparation and Support
Terrorist operations are usually the result of extensive preparation and support operations.
Media reporting and academic study have mainly focused on the terrorists’ goals and actions,
which is precisely what the terrorist intends. This neglects the critical but less exciting topic
of preparation and support operations. Significant effort and coordination is required to
finance group operations, procure or manufacture weapons, conduct target surveillance and
analysis, and deliver trained terrorists to the operational area. The need for dedicated support
activities and resources on relatively simple operations are significant and increases the
sophistication of plans and complexity of the target.
Differences between Terrorism and Insurgency
For the U.S. military, two related concepts that can overlap with terrorism are guerilla warfare
and insurgency. Although insurgencies and terrorism often have similar goals,54 closer
examination identifies specific differences between insurgency, guerilla warfare, and
terrorism. To begin with, an insurgency is a movement, that is, a political effort with a
specific aim to overthrow a constituted government. Both guerilla warfare and terrorism can
be viewed as methods available to pursue the goals of the political movement.
53
Cass Publishers, 2001), 190.
54
International Encyclopedia of Terrorism, 1997 ed., s.v. “Theories of Insurgency and Terrorism: Introduction.”
1-6
Another difference is there is nothing inherent in either insurgency or guerrilla warfare that
requires the use of terror. While some of the more successful insurgencies and guerilla
campaigns employed terrorism, and some developed into conflicts where use of terror tactics
and terrorism became predominant, there have
been other examples that effectively renounced the
use of terrorism. The deliberate choice to use Insurgency: (JP 1-02)(NATO)
terrorism considers its effectiveness in inspiring An organized movement aimed at
further resistance, destroying govern-ment the overthrow of a constituted
efficiency, and mobilizing support.55 Although government through the use of
there are places where terrorism, guerilla warfare, subversion and armed conflict.
and criminal behavior all overlap, groups that are
exclusively terrorist, or subordinate “wings” of Guerrilla Warfare: (JP1-02)
insurgencies formed to specifically employ terror (NATO) Military and para-
tactics, usually demonstrate differences in their military operations conducted in
objectives and operations. Disagreement on the enemy-held or hostile territory by
intended benefits of using terror tactics, or irregular, predominantly indigen-
whether terror operations are to be given ous forces.
primacy within the insurgency campaign, have
frequently led to the “urban guerilla” or
terrorist wings of an insurgency splintering off
to pursue a revolutionary goal by their own methods.
The ultimate goal of an insurgency is to challenge the existing government for control of all
or a portion of its territory, or force political concessions in sharing political power. When
employing guerilla tactics in an insurgency, the guerillas try to actually dominate territory.
This is a key element in guerilla strategy since control of territory provides the population for
recruitment, a logistical base, and the ground and infrastructure for establishing a regular
army.56 Terrorism normally does not contend for actual control of territory, but uses
psychological impact of their violent acts to force their will on their targets. Insurgencies
require the active or tacit support of some portion of the involved population. External support
such as recognition or approval from other countries or political entities can be useful to
insurgents, but is not required. A terror group does not require57 and rarely has the active
support or even the sympathy of a large percentage of the population. While insurgents will
frequently describe themselves as “insurgents” or “guerrillas,” terrorists will not refer to
themselves as “terrorists” but often describe themselves using military or political
terminology (“freedom fighters,” “soldiers,” “activists”). Terrorism relies on public
impact, and is therefore conscious of the advantage of avoiding the negative connotations
of the term “terrorists” in identifying themselves.58
Other differences relate to the unit size, types of arms, and types of operations. Guerillas
usually fight in small organized formations such as platoon or company size or larger units,
55
Walter Reich, ed., Origins of Terrorism: Psychologies, Ideologies, Theologies, States of Mind, rev. ed.
(Washington: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1998), 16-20.
56
Ariel Merari, “Terrorism as a Strategy of Insurgency,” Terrorism and Political Violence, Vol 5, No. 4 (Winter
1993): 224.
57
Reich, Origins of Terrorism, 17.
58
Hoffman, Inside Terrorism,, 29-33.
1-7
whereas terrorists normally operate in small cells.59 As a regional example, the Montoneros of
Argentina during the 1970s provide an example of tenuous distinctions between terrorism and
guerrilla warfare. Incidents of kidnapping high profile businessmen for ransom or
assassination of government officials blurred a widening array of terrorist actions that
eventually presented organized military-type operations. Cellular and compartmented groups
gave way to organized unit-type structure for sophisticated attacks against military forces.
One attack against an infantry regiment included Montoneros marshalling their force over 800
kilometers from previous urban enclaves, forming assault and support elements, conducting
the attack, evacuating the force with a hijacked airplane, providing medical treatment enroute
to the dispersal landing field, and vanishing among the population after landing.60
Terrorism does not usually attempt to challenge government forces directly, but acts to
change perceptions as to the effectiveness or legitimacy of the government itself. This is done
by ensuring the widest possible knowledge of the
acts of terrorist violence among the target audience.
“We have the right to kill four Terrorists, as a rule, avoid direct confrontations with
million Americans – two million government forces. A guerilla force may have
of them children.” something to gain from a clash with a government
Suleiman abu Ghaith
Al Qaeda Spokeman
combat force, such as proving that they can
effectively challenge the military effectiveness of the
government. Terrorists may target military or
security forces, but will not engage in an engagement resembling a “fair fight.” Terrorists use
methods that neutralize the strengths of conventional forces. Bombings and mortar attacks on
civilian targets where military or security personnel spend off-duty time, ambushes of
undefended convoys, and assassinations of poorly protected individuals are common tactics.
These types of terrorism action are a recurring dilemma of ongoing operations in Iraq.
Insurgency and guerilla warfare need not require the targeting of noncombatants, although
many insurgencies consider police and security personnel, in addition to military forces, as
targets in an expanded definition of combatants. There have been cases where guerillas
expanded the target list to include civilians. A Vietcong directive in 1965 detailed the types
of people who must be “repressed,” and stated, “The targets of repression are
counterrevolutionary elements who seek to impede the revolution and work actively for the
enemy and for the destruction of the revolution…Elements who actively fight against the
revolution in reactionary parties such as the Vietnamese Nationalist Party, Party for a Greater
Viet Nam, Personality and Labor Party, and key reactionaries in organizations and
associations founded by the reactionary parties and the US imperialists and the puppet
government.”61 Deliberate dehumanization and criminalization of the “enemy” in the
terrorists’ perspective justifies extreme measures against anyone identified as hostile.
Terrorists often expand their groups of acceptable targets and conduct operations against new
targets without any warning.
59
Merari, “Terrorism as a Strategy of Insurgency,” 224.
60
Alan C. Lowe, “Todo o Nada: Montonerosa Versus the Army: Urban Terrorism in Argentina,” ed. William G.
Robertson and Lawrence A. Yates, in Block by Block: The Challenges of Urban Operations (Fort Leavenworth,
KS: U.S. Army Command and General Staff College Press, 2003), 392-396.
61
Merari, “Terrorism as a Strategy of Insurgency,” 216.
1-8
Table 1-1 provides a comparison of the differences between guerilla warfare and terrorism,
and compares these types of conflict to conventional war.62
Table 1-1. Comparison of Conflict
Conventional War Guerilla Terrorism

Unit Size in Battle Large (armies, Medium (platoons, Small (usually less
corps, divisions) companies, battalions) than 10 persons)
Weapons Full range of Mostly infantry-type Hand guns, hand
military hardware light weapons but grenades, assault
(air force, armor, sometimes artillery as rifles and
artillery, etc) well) specialized
weapons, e.g., car
bombs, remote-
control bombs,
barometric pressure
bombs
Tactics Usually joint Commando-type Specialized tactics:
operations tactics kidnapping, assas-
involving several sinations, carbombs,
military branches hijacking, barricade-
hostage, etc.
Targets Mostly military Mostly military, State symbols,
units, industrial and police and political opponents
transportation administration staff, and the public at
infrastructure as well as political large
opponents
Intended Impact Physical Mainly physical Psychological
destructions attrition of the enemy coercion
Control of Yes Yes No
Territory
Uniform Wear uniform Often wear uniform Do not wear
uniform
Recognition of War limited to War limited to the No recognized war
War Zones recognized country in strife zones. Operations
geographical area carried out zones
world-wide
International Yes, if conducted Yes, if conducted by No
Legality by rules rules
Domestic Legality Yes No No
62
Ibid., 226.
1-9
Insurgents may use more than one form of violence to obtain their objective, and the
combination of terrorism and guerilla warfare are the most common.63 The situation in
Iraq in the fall of 2004 is a good example of how it is often difficult to separate a
terrorist from a guerilla in an insurgency. Although there are many views on the threat
in Iraq, one view sorts them into four groups with different tactics and goals. These include:64
• Iraqi nationalists, known as Former Regime Elements, fighting to reclaim secular

power lost when Saddam Hussein was deposed.
• Hardcore fighters, many of which are foreign, aligned with terrorist groups who want
to turn Iraq into another Afghanistan to be used as an anti-Western stronghold to
export Islamic revolution to other countries.
• Conservative Iraqis who want to install an Islamic theocracy, but stay away from
terror tactics.
• Ordinary criminals that are paid to conduct attacks, or who kidnap westerners and
sell them to the terrorists.
Real-world events can also present situations that are vague and open to multiple
interpretations for the same group. A common view of al Qaeda is that they are a
transnational terrorist group. Correspondingly, al Qaeda could be defined as a global
insurgency set to overthrow the current world order in regard to global economic
systems and globalization. Al Qaeda does have political objectives of removing the U.S.
from the Middle East to enhance their ability to overthrow “apostate” moderate Arab
regimes, such as the Saudi Arabia ruling family. A long-term vision seeks to
reconstitute the Caliphate. Using this religious power and the wealth of oil reserves and
production, the new Caliphate could serve as a means of further spreading a form of extremist
religion throughout the world.
Ultimately, the difference between insurgency and terrorism comes down to the intent of the
actor. Insurgency movements and guerilla forces can adhere to international norms regarding
the law of war in achieving their goals, but terrorists are by definition conducting crimes
under both civil and military legal codes. Terrorists routinely claim that were they to adhere to
any “law of war” or accept any constraints on the scope of their violence, it would place them
at a disadvantage vis-à-vis the establishment. Since the nature of the terrorist mindset is
absolutist, their goals are of paramount importance, and any limitations on a terrorist’s means
to prosecute the struggle are unacceptable.65
63
Bard E. O’Neill, Insurgency & Terrorism: Inside Modern Revolutionary Warfare (Dulles: Brassey’s, Inc,
1990), 26.
64
Jim Krane, “U.S. Faces Complex Insurgency in Iraq,” Duluth News Tribune.com, (4 October 2004); available
from http://www.duluthsuperior.com/mld/duluthsuperior/news/world/9833731.htm; Internet; accessed 16
November 2004; and Bruce Hoffman, Insurgency and Counterinsurgency in Iraq (Arlington: RAND
Corporation, 2004), 12-13.
65
Hoffman, Inside Terrorism, 33.
1-10
Use of Terror by Nation-States: Is There a Difference?
Is there a difference between terrorism and the use of specific tactics that exploit fear and
terror by authorities normally considered “legitimate”? Nations and states often resort to
violence to influence segments of their population, or rely on coercive aspects of state
institutions. Similar to the idea of equating any act of military force with terrorism described
above, there are those who equate any use of government power or authority against any part
of the population as terrorism. Suppression of a riot by law enforcement personnel may in fact
expose some of the population (the rioters) to violence and fear, but with the intent to protect
the larger civil order. On the other hand, abuse of the prerogative of legitimized violence by
the authorities is a crime.
However, there are times when national governments will become involved in terrorism or
utilize terror to accomplish the objectives of governments or individual rulers. Most often,
terrorism is equated with “non-state actors” or groups that are not responsible to a sovereign
government. However, internal security forces can use terror to aid in repressing dissent, and
intelligence or military organizations can perform acts of terror designed to further a state’s
policy or diplomatic efforts abroad.
A government that is an adversary of the United States may apply terror tactics in an effort to
add depth to their engagement of U.S. forces. Repression through terror of the indigenous
population would take place to prevent internal dissent and insurrection that the U.S. might
exploit. Military special operations assets and state intelligence operatives could conduct
terrorist operations against U.S. interests both in a theater and as far abroad as their
capabilities allow. Finally, attacks against the U.S. homeland could be executed by state
sponsored terrorist organizations or by paid domestic proxies. Three different ways that states
can engage in the use of terror are:
• Governmental or “State” terror
• State involvement in terror
• State sponsorship of terrorism
Governmental or “State” Terror: This is sometimes referred to as “terror from above,” where
a government terrorizes its own population to control or repress them. These actions usually
constitute the acknowledged policy of the government, and make use of official institutions
such as the judiciary, police, military, and other government agencies. Changes to legal codes
permit or encourage torture, killing, or property destruction in pursuit of government policy.
After assuming power, official Nazi policy was aimed at the deliberate destruction of “state
enemies” and the resulting intimidation of the rest of the population. Stalin’s “purges” of the
1930s are examples of using the machinery of the state to terrorize a population. The methods
he used included such actions as demonstration trials with predetermined verdicts on
opponents, punishing family or friends of suspected enemies of the regime, and extra-legal
use of police or military force against the population.66
66
International Encyclopedia of Terrorism, 1997 ed., s.v. “Stalin’s Great Terror.”
1-11
Saddam Hussein used chemical weapons on his own Kurdish population without any
particular change or expansion of policies regarding the use of force on his own citizens.
They were simply used as an act of governmental terror believed to be expedient in
accomplishing Hussein’s goals.
State Involvement in Terror: These are activities where government personnel carry out
operations using terror tactics. These activities may be directed against other nations’
interests, its own population, or private groups or individuals viewed as dangerous to the state.
In many cases, these activities are terrorism under official sanction, although such
authorization is rarely acknowledged openly as an official action. Historical examples include
the Soviet and Iranian assassination campaigns against dissidents who had fled abroad, and
Libyan and North Korean intelligence operatives downing airliners on international flights.67
Other types of these activities are “death squads” or “war veterans” as unofficial actions taken
by officials or functionaries of a regime (such as members of police or intelligence
organizations) to repress or intimidate their own population. While these officials will not
claim such activities and disguise their participation, information often makes clear that they
are acting for the state. Keeping such activities “unofficial” permits the authorities deniability
and avoids the necessity of changing legal and judicial processes to justify oppression. This is
different than “pro-state” terror conducted by groups or persons with no official standing and
without official encouragement. While pro-state terror may result in positive outcomes for the
authorities, their employment of criminal methods and lack of official standing can result in
disavowal and punishment of the terrorists, depending on the morality of the regime.
State Sponsorship of Terrorism: These activities occur when governments provide supplies,
training, and other forms of support to non-state terrorist organizations. This type affiliation
can be state-sponsored or state-directed. One of the most valuable types of this support is the
provision of safe haven or physical basing for the terrorists’ organization. Another crucial
service a state sponsor can provide is false documentation, not only for personal identification
(passports, internal identification documents), but also for financial transactions and weapons
purchases. Other means of support are access to training facilities and expertise not readily
available to groups without extensive resources. Finally, the extension of diplomatic
protections and services, such as immunity from extradition, diplomatic passports, use of
embassies and other protected grounds, and diplomatic pouches to transport weapons or
explosives have been significant to some groups.
An example of state sponsorship is the Syrian government’s support of HAMAS and

Hizballah in Lebanon. Syrian resources and protection enable training establishments in the
Bek’aa Valley. On a smaller, more discreet scale, the East German Stasi provided support and
safe-haven to members of the Red Army Faction (RAF or Baader Meinhof Gang) and neo-
fascist groups that operated in West Germany.68 Wanted members of the RAF were found
resident in East Germany after the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989.
67
68
1-12
Section II: Historical Overview of Terrorism

U.S. forces need to be aware that there is a historical perspective to terrorism and that
terrorists have directly targeted military personnel and facilities since the earliest times. In the
1980s, European and American radical terror groups targeted significant numbers of U.S.
service members.69 Greater involvement of U.S. military forces in terrorist related operations,
either as targets or combatants, makes attacks on military personnel and facilities more likely
than in the past.
Terror in Antiquity: First to Fourteenth Century A.D.
An organization that exhibited aspects of a modern terrorist organization was the Zealots of
Judea. Known to the Romans as sicarii, or dagger-men,70 they carried on an underground
campaign of assassination of Roman occupation forces, as well as any Jews they felt had
collaborated with the Romans. Their motive was an uncompromising belief that they could
not remain faithful to the dictates of Judaism while living as Roman subjects. Eventually, the
Zealot revolt became open, and they were finally besieged and committed mass suicide at the
fortification of Masada.
The Assassins were another group characterizing The word “Assassin” was
terrorism. A breakaway faction of Shia Islam called the brought back to Europe by
Nizari Ismalis adopted the tactic of assassination of enemy the Crusaders, and refers to
leaders because the cult’s limited manpower prevented the widespread rumor that
open combat.71 Their leader, Hassam-I Sabbah, based the the Nizari used hashish to
cult in the mountains of Northern Iran. Their tactic of produce the fanatical
sending a lone assassin to successfully kill a key courage their lone knife-
opposition leader at the certain sacrifice of his own life wielding killers repeatedly
inspired fearful awe in their enemies. demonstrated.
Even though both the Zealots and the Assassins operated
in antiquity, they are relevant today: aspects of motivation, organization, targeting, and goals
can be compared with contemporary threats. Whether historical or contemporary incidents,
both demonstrate the deep psychological impact terrorism can cause.
Early Origins of Terrorism: Fourteenth to Eighteenth Century
From the time of the Assassins (late thirteenth century) to the eighteenth century, terror and
barbarism were used widely in warfare and conflict.72 Until the rise of the modern Western
nation state after the Treaty of Westphalia in 1648, the sort of central authority and cohesive
society that terrorism attempts to influence barely existed. Communications were inadequate
and controlled, and the causes that might inspire terrorism (religious schism, insurrection,
ethnic strife) typically led to open warfare. By the time kingdoms and principalities
69
International Encyclopedia of Terrorism, 1997 ed., s.v. “Chronology of Terrorist Events.”
70
Franklin L. Ford, Political Murder: From Tyrannicide to Terrorism (Cambridge: Harvard University Press,
1985), 91.
71
International Encyclopedia of Terrorism, 1997 ed., s.v. “The Assassins: A Terror Cult.”
72
Caleb Carr, The Lessons of Terror: A History of Warfare Against Civilians: Why it has Always Failed and
Why it will Fail Again (New York: Random House, 2002), 52-63.
1-13
became nations, they had sufficient means to enforce their authority and suppress
activities such as terrorism.
The French Revolution provided the first uses of the words “Terrorist” and “Terrorism.” Use
of the word "terrorism" began in 1795 in reference to the Reign of Terror initiated by the
Revolutionary government. The agents of the Committee of Public Safety and the National
Convention that enforced the policies of “The Terror” were referred to as “Terrorists.” The
French Revolution provided an example to future states in oppressing their populations. It
also inspired a reaction by royalists and other opponents of the Revolution who employed
terrorist tactics such as assassination and intimidation in resistance to the Revolutionary
agents.73 The Parisian mobs played a critical role at key points before, during, and after the
Revolution. Such extra-legal activities as killing prominent officials and aristocrats in
gruesome spectacles started long before the guillotine was first used.74
Entering the Modern Era: The Nineteenth Century
During the late nineteenth century, radical political theories and improvements in weapons
technology spurred the formation of small groups of revolutionaries who effectively attacked
nation-states. Anarchists espousing belief in the “propaganda of the deed” produced some
striking successes, assassinating heads of state from
Russia, France, Spain, Italy, and the United States.
However, their lack of organization and refusal to “Propaganda of the Deed”
cooperate with other social movements in political “Acts of revolution, resist-
efforts rendered anarchists ineffective as a political ance, or violence that will
movement. In contrast, Communism’s role as an inspire the masses to act. It
ideological basis for political terrorism was just assumes that there is an
beginning, and would become much more significant in untapped force of revolutionary
the twentieth century. will in the population at large.”
Another trend in the late nineteenth century was the

increasing tide of nationalism throughout Europe, in which the nation (the identity of a
people) and the political state were combined. As states began to emphasize national
identities, peoples that had been conquered or colonized could, like the Jews at the times of
the Zealots, opt for assimilation or struggle.
A prominent nationalist conflict from this time is still unresolved - the multi-century struggle of
Irish nationalism. Nationalism, like communism, became a much greater worldwide and
ideological force in the twentieth century. The terrorist group from this period that serves as a
model in many ways for what was to come was the Russian Narodnya Volya (Peoples Will).75
This group displayed many of the traits of terrorism organization and conduct: clandestine,
cellular, impatient and unable to organize the constituents they claimed to represent; and a
tendency to increase the level of violence as pressures on the group mounted. However, they
would sometimes call off attacks that might endanger individuals other than their intended
target. Today, there are still many terrorist organizations that attempt to prevent collateral
73
International Encyclopedia of Terrorism, 1997 ed., s.v. “Terror in the French Revolution 1789-1815.”
74
Simon Schama, Citizens: A Chronicle of The French Revolution (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1989), 405 & 447.
75
International Encyclopedia of Terrorism, 1997 ed., s.v. “Russian Anarchist Terror.”
1-14
casualties in their operations. Unfortunately, many terrorist organizations appear to use

indiscriminate levels of violence as an effective technique to achieve notoriety and
media attention.
The Early Twentieth Century
The first half of the twentieth century saw two events that influenced the nature of conflict to
the present day. The effects of two World Wars inflamed passions and hopes of nationalists
throughout the world, and severely damaged the legitimacy of some international order
and governments.
Damaged Legitimacy
The total war practices of WWII provided further justification, in some people’s viewpoints,
of an “everybody does it” use of terror and violations of the law of war. The desensitization of
people and communities to violence that started in World War I accelerated during World
War II. The intensity of the conflict between starkly opposed ideologies led to excesses on the
part of many participants. New weapons and strategies that targeted the enemies’ civilian
population to destroy their economic capacity for conflict exposed virtually every civilian to
the hazards of combatants. The major powers’ support of partisan and resistance organizations
using terrorist tactics was viewed as an acceptance of their legitimacy. It seemed that civilians
had become legitimate targets, despite any rules forbidding it.76
Nationalism on the Rise
Nationalism intensified during the mid to late twentieth century throughout the world. It
became an especially powerful force in the subject peoples of various colonial empires.
Although dissent and resistance were common in many colonial possessions, results could be
achieved sometimes through dedicated nonviolence, such as in India. Other examples against
colonialism witnessed terrorism as a specific program of nationalist movements. In open
warfare, nationalist identities became a focal point for these actions. Gradually, as nations
became closely tied to concepts of race and ethnicity, international political developments
began to support such concepts. Members of ethnic groups whose states had been absorbed by
others or had ceased to exist as separate nations saw opportunities to realize nationalist
ambitions. Several of these groups chose terror as a method to conduct their struggle and
make their situation known to world powers they hoped would be sympathetic. In Europe,
both the Irish and the Macedonians had existing terrorist campaigns as part of their ongoing
struggle for independence, but had to initiate bloody uprisings to further their cause. The Irish
were partially successful, the Macedonians failed.
The Later Twentieth Century
Cold War Developments
The bi-polar world of the Cold War changed perception of conflicts throughout the world.
Relatively minor confrontations took on significance as arenas where the superpowers could
76
Martin L. Van Creveld, The Transformation of War (New York: The Free Press, 1991), 79.
1-15
compete without risking escalation to full nuclear war. Conflict in the form of “proxy wars”
between the East and the West took place on the peripheries, and was limited in scope to
prevent escalation. During the immediate postwar period, terrorism was more of a tactical
choice by leaders of nationalist insurgencies and revolutions.
Successful campaigns for independence from colonial rule occurred throughout the world,
and many employed terrorism as a supporting tactic. When terrorism was used, it was used
within the framework of larger movements, and coordinated with political, social, and
military action. Even when terrorism came to dominate other aspects of a nationalist struggle,
such as the Palestinian campaign against Israel, or the Jewish campaign against the British,
psychological stress and eroding an opponent’s resolve remained significant objectives in
support of principal aims.
Throughout the Cold War, the Soviet Union provided direct and indirect assistance to
revolutionary movements around the world. Many anti-colonial movements found the
revolutionary extremism of communism attractive. Leaders of these “wars of national
liberation” saw the advantage of free weapons and training. They also realized that the
assistance and patronage of the Eastern Bloc meant increased international legitimacy. Many
of these organizations and individuals utilized terrorism in support of their political and
military objectives. The policy of the Soviet Union to support revolutionary struggles
everywhere, and to export revolution to non-communist countries, provided extremists willing
to employ violence and terror as the means to realize their ambitions.
The Internationalization of Terror
The age of modern terrorism might be said to have begun in 1968 when the Popular Front for
the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP) hijacked an El Al airliner en route from Tel Aviv to Rome.
While hijackings of airliners had occurred before, this was the first time that the nationality of
the carrier (Israeli) and its symbolic value was a specific operational aim. Also a first was the
deliberate use of the passengers as hostages for demands made publicly against the Israeli
government. The combination of these unique events, added to the international scope of the
operation, gained significant media attention. The founder of PFLP, Dr. George Habash
observed that the level of coverage was tremendously greater than battles with Israeli soldiers
in their previous area of operations. In a 1970 interview, Habash stated that although his cause
did not receive much media coverage prior to the highjacking, “At least the world is talking
about us now.”77 Following the El Al highjacking, international real-time notoriety became
more the norm. The 1970 PFLP destruction of a passenger aircraft, with passengers already
removed, was presented on live international television. However, probably the most well
known terrorist incident that propelled a cause from obscurity to the international stage was
the murder of Israeli athletes by Palestinian terrorists during the Munich Olympics in 1972.
Another aspect of this internationalization is the cooperation between extremist organizations

in conducting terrorist operations. Cooperative training between Palestinian groups and
European radicals started as early as 1970, and joint operations between the PFLP and the
Japanese Red Army (JRA) began in 1974. Since then international terrorist cooperation in
training, operations, and support has continued to grow, and continues to this day. Motives
77
1-16
range from the ideological, such as the 1980s alliance of the Western European Marxist-
oriented groups, to financial, as when the IRA exported its expertise in bomb making as far
reaching as Colombia. To highlight a recent historical snapshot of international nature of
terrorism, Chart 1-1 depicts the number of international terrorist incidents by region for
1997 through 2003, and Chart 1-2 shows the number of casualties by region over the
same timeframe.78
Chart 1-1: International Terrorist Incidents by Region 1997 - 2003
250
201
192
200 1997
1998
Incidents
150 1999
128
122
111
2000
101
98
100 2001
85
80
72
68
67
2002
55
53
52
49
48
46
42
50 2003
37
35
33
33
35
31
31
30
29
26
21
21
20
20
17
14
13
11
9
8
6
6
4
3
2
2
0
0
0
0
0
Africa Asia Eurasia Latin Middle East North Western
America America Europe
Region
Chart 1-2: Total International Casualties by Region 1997 - 2003

5379
6000
4465
5000 1997
1998
4000
Casualties
1999
3000 2000
1823
2001
1427
2000
1283
2002
1047
928
904
690
651
2003
635
615
1000
513
480
405
344
195
185
150
102
103
79
78
67
68
54
28
27
31
20
17
16
20
14
12
11
10
8
5
6
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
Africa Asia Eurasia Latin Middle East North Western
America America Europe
Region
78
Department of State, Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism, Patterns of Global Terrorism 2003
(Washington, D.C., April 2004, revised 22 June 2004), 177-178; and Patterns of Global Terrorism 2002
(Washington, D.C., April 2003), 162-163.
1-17
This internationalization of terrorism has had a direct impact on the United States. Figures 1-
1 through 1-4 reflect what the U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Public Affairs considers
significant terrorist incidents from 1970 through the end of 2003
Total Events = 16 U.S. Involved = 9
September 1972 February 1979

Munich Olympic US Ambassador
July 1970 July 1972 Massacre March 1973 to Afghanistan
May 1973 June 1976
USAID Adviser "Bloody Firday" US Ambassador January 1975 March 1978 Assassinated November 1979
US Consul General Entebbe Hostage
Kidnapped & Killed IRA attack in Assassinated Wall Street Italian Prime Minister Grand Mosque Seizure
Kidnapped in Mexico Crisis
in Uruguay Belfast in Sudan Bombing Kidnapped & Assassinated in Saudi Arabia
in Uganda
1971 1972 1973 1974 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979

1970 September 1976
1980
August 1974 January 1975
Chilean Foreign November 1979
December 1973 US AmbassadorUS State Dept
Minister US Embassy Seized
Attack on Rome to Cyprus Bombed
February 1970 Killed in Washington in Iran
Airport Assassinated
Attack on Munich
Airport
Figure 1-1: Significant Terrorist Incidents 1970 through 1979

Source: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian, Bureau of Public Affairs, March 2004

April 1984
Bombing of US June 1985 September 1986
Servicemen in June 1985 FMLN Attack in Kimpo Airport
October 1983 Torrejon, Spain Air India El Salvador Bombing
South Korean Delegation Bombing in Seoul December 1987
September 1982 Bombed in Rangoon November 1985 Servicemen's Bar
Lebanese Prime Minister October 1984 Egyptian Airline Bombing in June 1988
Assassinated in Beirut November 1983 Prime Minister Gandhi Hijacking in Athens Barcelona US Defense Attache
US Naval Officer Assassinated in India Killed in Greece
December 1981 Assassinated April 1986
August 1981 April 1983 June 1985 April 1987 April 1988 April 1989
US Missionaries Murdered Berlin Discoteque
Ramstein AB Bombed US Embassy Bombed in Greece TWA Hijacking Bus Bombing USO Bombing US Army Officer
in El Salvador Bombing in
in Germany in Beirut in Rome in Athens in Naples Killed in Manila
Germany
1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989

1980 February 1985 1990
DEA Agents March 1986 November 1987
October 1983 February 1988
April 1983 Kidnapped & TWA Bombing Korean Airlines September 1989
Marine & French USMC Officer
US Citizen Kidnapped Killed in Mexico in Athens UTA Flight
Barracks Bombing over Kidnapped and Murdered
in Colombia Bombing over
Bombed Indian Ocean in Lebanon
June 1984 Niger
October 1981 in Beirut
May 1983 Golden Temple December 1988
President Sadat Assassinated September 1985 November 1989
US Naval Officer Seizure in PanAm 103
in Egypt Soviet Diplomats German Bank
Assassinated Amritsar, India December 1985 Bombing over
in El Salvador Kidnapped in Beirut Lockerbie, Scotland Chairman
Airport Attacks in
Assassinated
March 1984 Rome and
in Frankfurt
US Embassy Official Vienna
October 1985
Kidnapped & Murdered Achille Lauro
in Beirut Hijacking in the
Mediterranean Sea

There were 16 significant events in the decade of the 1970s, with 9 of those events involving
the United States or its citizens in some fashion. The decade of the 1990s shows an increase
in total incidents of nearly 500% over that of the 1970s, and an increase of 644% in incidents
involving the United States. In just the first four years of the decade of the 2000s, there was
1-18
an increase of 750% over that of the 1970s in overall terrorist incidents, and an increase of
411% in incidents involving the United States. 79(Incidents in red/italics involve the U.S.)
March 1992
April 1993 February 1999
Israeli Embassy December 1994
Attempted Assassination Greek Embassy
Bombed in Air France
of President Bush Seizure in March 1999
Argentina Hijacking
in Kuwait Vienna US Citizens &
January 1990 January 1991 January 1992 in Algeria Others June 1999 October 1999
January 1993 January 1999
US Embassy Attempted Bombing US Businessmen Kidnapped & Bombing of Shell Burmese
US Missionaries February 1994 UN Plane December 1999
Bombed of US Ambassador Kidnapped in Killed in Oil Platform Embassy
Kidnapped in Massacre of Moslems Shot Down in US Citizen Kidnapped
in Peru to Indonesia Philippines Uganda in Nigeria Seizure
Colombia in Hebron Angola in Colombia
in Bangkok
1991 1992 1993 1994 1999 2000

1990 1995
December 1999
January 1991 February 1993 September 1994 February 1999 March 1999 August 1999
Indian Airlines
May 1990 Attempted Bombing January 1992 World Trade Center US Citizen Pipe Bomb US Citizen Kidnapped Kidnapping of UN
Hijacking in
US Air Force at USIS Library US Businessmen Bombing in Kidnapped in Attack in in Colombia Personnel in
Kathmandu
Personnel Killed in Manila Kidnapped in New York Colombia Uganda Sierra Leone
in Philippines Colombia
February 1999
US Citizens Kidnapped
& Killed in Venezuela

September 2001
World Trade Center
December 2000 & Pentagon Attacks August 2003
May 2000 UN
Bomb Exploded April 2001 Marriott Hotel
Personnel
Near US Embassy Bomb Attack October 2001 Bombing in Jakarta
Kidnapped in August 2002
in Manila on Bus in Anthrax Attacks February 2003 October 2003
January 2000 Sierra Leone Christian School
Israel Nightclub Bombing Bomb Attack on
Car Bombing June 2000 Attack in Pakistan
June 2001 in Colombia US Diplomats
in Spain US Citizen Kidnapped January 2001
Bomb Attack January 2002 March 2002 October 2002 May 2003 in Gaza Strip
in Colombia Airport Attack
on Nightclub Shooting at U.S. Shooting in Car Bomb Truck Bomb
in India Consulate in
in Israel Colombia in Bali Attacks in Riyadh
India
2000 June 2000 2001 2002 2003

UN Personnel May 2001 August 2001 January 2002 June 2002 November 2002
Kidnapped in Philippines Bomb Attack Daniel Pearl Suicide Bombing SA7 Attack on March 2003
Sierra Leone Hostage on Restaurant Kidnapped in
2004
in Jerusalem Arkia Airlines Suicide Bombing
May 2000 Incident in Israel Pakistan in Haifa November 2003
October 2002
US Journalist March 2001 December 2001 May 2002 August 2003 Grenade Attacks
Attack on
Killed in Car Bombing October 2000 Bomb Attack Suicide Bombing Parade Bombing French Tanker UN HQ Bombing in Bogota,
in Sierra Leone USS Cole on BBC Studio in Israel in Russia in Baghdad Colombia
Attacked in in London
Yemen

Source: U.S. Department of State, Office of the Historian,Bureau of Public Affairs, March 2004
79
Department of State, Office of the Historian, Bureau of Public Affairs, Significant Terrorist Incidents, 1961-
2003: A Brief Chronology (Washington, D.C., March 2004), 1-19; available from
http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/pubs/fs/5902pf.htm; Internet; accessed 19 April 2004.
1-19
Chart 1-3 consolidates the data from Figures 1-1 through 1-4 and reflects the growing trend of
terrorist incidents since the 1970s. If you project out the actual statistics for the first 4 years of
the decade of the 2000s to the end of December 2009, the total number of terrorist incidents
for this first decade of the twenty-first century would be 300, with 92 of them involving the
United States.
State Sponsorship of Terrorism
State sponsorship of the use of terror is not a strictly modern occurrence. Serbian intelligence
officers provided support to the assassins who killed Arch Duke Franz Ferdinand of Austria,
and precipitated World War I.80 Germany provided arms to Irish nationalists during WW I to
use against the British.81 Since then, state assistance to terrorists was used both as a means of
surrogate warfare between states, and also as an international diplomatic tool. State
sponsorship renders terrorism decidedly more effective. Access to a government’s resources
of weapons, information, money, and expertise, and use of its privileges in diplomatic travel,
transportation, and protection made identifiable state sponsored acts eight times as lethal in
the 1980s than non-state attacks. State sponsorship also increases lethality by reducing the
need for support from constituent populations, leaving the terrorist free to operate without fear
of backlash due to excessive violence.82 The low cost and deniability of this technique has led
to its adoption by nations with ambitious foreign policy goals and limited means.
Chart 1-3: Significant Terrorist Incidents by Decade
140
120
120
Number of Incidents
100
79
80 Total Events
58 U.S. Involved
60
37 37
40
23
16
20 9
0
1970s 1980s 1990s 2000s
Decade (2000's only through Dec 2003)
80
International Encyclopedia of Terrorism, 1997 ed., s.v. “Assassination at Sarajevo 1914.”
81
Ibid., s.v. “State Sponsored Terrorism.”
82
1-20
During the 1970s and 1980s, the Soviet Union provided significant assistance to a wide
variety of organizations and individuals involved in terrorism. Attempts to destabilize
governments through the use of sponsored terrorist groups to some extent replaced “wars of
national liberation” as a method of the Soviet Union during this period.83 Although the USSR
officially denounced terrorism, it provided support directly and via surrogates. Commonly,
training in revolutionary theory and practical skills were provided to promising individuals
from other countries, some of whom the KGB or GRU recruited for intelligence service. Safe
havens were provided for members of terrorist groups in East bloc countries such as East
Germany and Czechoslovakia. Weapons and explosives were given to radical regimes such as
Libya, with the knowledge that they would likely end up in the hands of terrorist groups.
The example provided by the Soviet experience led other countries to adopt state sponsorship.
Ranging from tenuous diplomatic support internationally, to direct operational control of a
terrorist organization, state involvement in terror can be a flexible, low-risk tool for a variety
of policy goals. Iran in particular has found sponsorship of terror to particularly suit its
objective of militant Islamic revolution. The incidence of state sponsorship declined
somewhat after the collapse of the Soviet Union due to isolation and retaliation on other
identified state sponsors. However, this type of support shows no signs of completely going away.
Current State of Terrorism
Currently terrorism continues its process of evolution. Although future trends in terrorism are
discussed in Chapter 6, we are seeing the beginning of many of those trends in current
conditions. Shifts in the dominant motivations for terrorists; changes in organizational
structures; and the changes in response to world developments such as the global economy
and the development of information technology have altered considerably the nature and
tactics of terrorism.
Changes in Dominant Ideologies
Religious ideology has replaced political and nationalist ideologies as a principal cause for
terrorist groups. The critical assessments of communism after the failure of the USSR caused
a specific depreciation of leftist ideologies. One practical reason was the absence of major
funding from the USSR for such leftist movements. Although political and nationalist
rationales still exist, religious and right wing ideologies have gained more support in recent
decades. To cite one example, international terrorist groups espousing religious ideologies
went from three percent of total international terror groups in 1980, to forty six percent of
international groups by 1995.84 And the trend is accelerating. Also, the emergence of “single
issue” movements, limited to a single concern such as environmentalism or anti-globalization,
has started to supplant revolutionary ideology.
For many of the social revolutionaries, the failure of the Soviet Union, and of virtually all of
the Eastern bloc communist governments, severely discredited Marxist-Leninist ideologies.
The loss of supportive governments also impacted the viability of the left-wing groups in
Europe. Also, nationalist movements that might have previously turned to terrorism have had
83
Uri Ra’anan, ed., et al., Hydra of Carnage; International Linkages of Terrorism (Lexington: Lexington Books,
1986), 11.
84
1-21
success in realizing their goals in the post Cold War world. A large number of separatist
movements were accorded international recognition and acceptance as the old world order
shifted. Although in some areas, such as the former Yugoslavia, this process has been
anything but peaceful, it has not seen long campaigns of insurgent warfare and terrorism
previously associated with nationalist struggles.
Changes to Organizational Structures
In response to improvements in counter-terror capabilities, and increased cooperation between

governments, terrorist groups are moving to networked organizational models, rather than
hierarchical structures. Similar to the “leaderless resistance” model of the American right
wing and “eco-terror” domestic groups, this decentralized organization takes advantage of
uniform ideology or beliefs to guide the efforts toward the group’s goals. The huge advances
made in personal communication and privacy technology have enabled this change to a
networked organization. It will be discussed in Chapter 3, but features:
• Increased security, due to fewer communications, no identifiable leadership or

command structures, and less required coordination between elements not directly
involved in operations.
• Faster response cycles to new countermeasures and tactics.
• Increased deniability, as actions can be acknowledged or disavowed depending on

the results.
Changes to Global Conditions
Information technology has provided significant increases to the operational capabilities of

terrorists, and also tightened the symbiotic relationship between terrorism and the media. The
spread of information technology together with the rise of globalization has enhanced the
terrorist capability to communicate, collect intelligence, operate and spread its message.
Terror tactics have expanded in scope, and increased in effectiveness in proportion to the
development of global media and information technology. The transmission of the message
has likewise become easier and more amenable to manipulation by the terrorist.
Today, terrorists are organizing themselves in more fluid ad hoc amalgamations of individuals
who appear to have been brought together for a specific, “one time only” mission. Fewer
barriers between countries for people and finances are intended to improve commerce, global
trade, and freedom of movement, but are enabling factors for modern terrorists and contribute
to the development of ad hoc, limited duration alliances and relationships.85 These terrorist
groups may emerge from obscurity to strike, and then just as suddenly disappear.
Terrorism historically flourishes in areas that are permissive. The presence in the modern
world of failed states, or dysfunctional governments, has given the terrorist a replacement for
state sponsorship, with few of the disadvantages. Weak governments attract criminal activity
and outcast movements. Terrorist organizations, such as Hizballah in southern Lebanon,
85
David Newman, ed., Boundaries, Territory and Postmodernity (Portland: Frank Cass Books, 1999), 17-20.
1-22
build popular support by providing services to the local population. In this developing
relationship, terror organizations can become local power brokers, commanding more money
and technical expertise than the “legitimate” government. In return for assistance from the
terrorists, the government provides physical refuge and the protection the status of a sovereign
government provides against retaliation and arrest.
U.S. Legal Status of Terrorist Organizations
Within the global community, there are legal categories that define terrorist organizations
according to legal statutes or in relation to national or international laws. Legal categories
usually define a state’s or group of states’ relation to the terrorist organization. Such a
relationship may range from toleration of activities that do no harm to the state in question to
proscribing membership or support of such an organization as a criminal act. In the United
States, two particular legal categories are:
• DFTO (Designated Foreign Terrorist Organization); this is a political designation

determined by the U.S. Department of State. Listing as a DFTO imposes legal penalties
for membership, prevents travel into the U.S., and proscribes assistance and funding
activities within the U.S. or by U.S. citizens.86
• Organizations, individuals or entities identified under Executive Order 13224. 219 as of

November 2002. This Executive Order imposes penalties on the specific individuals and
organizations named as terrorists and supporters of terrorism. It was designed primarily as
a method of disrupting terrorist financing. Since it is an Executive Order, it may be
updated to reflect changing conditions.
Other countries and the United Nations have similar, if varied, legal categories of
“proscribed” organizations and individuals. Inclusion of a group on such lists of legally
designated groups is at the discretion of, and for the interests of, the state or organization
compiling the list.
Conclusion
The intent of this chapter was to provide the reader with basic background information
concerning the nature and history of terrorism. Terrorism is a particular tactic in political
conflicts that is usable by individuals as well as nations. Due to its complexity it is difficult to
define, but can be understood through varied combinations of description, observation, and
terrorism historical review. Understanding the larger phenomenon of terror and terrorism is
necessary before proceeding to the study of terrorists and their behaviors, motivations, and
characteristics in Chapter 2.
Terrorism is foremost a political problem. Terminology and definition assists in determining

the policy and processes to preclude, combat, or resolve acts of terrorism. To establish an
appropriate national or international action plan to terrorism, action must consider aspects of
86
Department of State, Patterns of Global Terrorism 2001 (Washington, D.C., May 2002), 144.
1-23
terrorist activity that include political resolve and demonstration, criminal conduct, and
possible links to paramilitary operations or low intensity conflict.87
To understand terrorism, the psychological impact of terror on a target audience must be

viewed as a means to an end.
87
Long, The Anatomy of Terrorism, 11 and 13.
1-24
Chapter 2
Terrorist Behaviors, Motivations, and Characteristics
Terrorists and terror groups constitute the enemy in the current Global War on Terrorism the
United States finds itself engaged in today. However, despite decades of study, the nature of
terrorists and their behaviors are a wide ranging set of data. In addition to the difficulty in
analyzing secretive, conspiratorial groups and individuals, the variety of motivations,
ideologies, and behaviors involved are diverse. Common characteristics or clearly defined
traits may be apparent in simplistic comparison, but significant contrasts are more the norm.
Yet, there are benefits to studying terrorist motivations and behaviors, both at the individual
and group level. Observations on human nature and group dynamics under the conditions of
stress, excitement, and social isolation can give insight into the causes of particular behaviors.
Also, understanding the various types of motivations for particular terrorists allows
assessment of stated aims against their actual intent.
This chapter is organized into three sections. The first section is a discussion of terrorist
behaviors and psychology at both individual and group level. The second examines the impact
of group goals and motivations on their planning and operations. The third section consists of
observations of general terrorist characteristics.
Section I: Terrorist Behavior

A common view of the terrorist is usually the unpredictable, viciously irrational stereotype
emphasized by media images and sensationalism. However, as our examination of the nature
and history of terrorism in Chapter 1 shows, terrorism is a rationally selected tactic, employed
in the pursuit of political aims. To lend some truth to the cinema stereotype, individuals or
small organizations that employ terrorist tactics may not always be concerned with particular
causes or avowed ideology. Some terrorists may be motivated purely by a need to be
terrorists, in whatever cause suits them, or as a “gun for hire” serving a variety of causes.
This contradiction is summed up in the two most common approaches in analyzing terrorist
group and individual behavior. They are:
• The psychologically compelled (sociopath or psychopath) model: This supposes that

terrorists engage in terrorism because it fulfills a psychological need (not exclusively a
need for violence) on their part. This terrorism treats avowed ideology and political
causes, as after the fact justifications for behaviors the terrorist will commit anyway.
• The rational choice model. Terror is a tactic selected after rational consideration of the
costs and benefits in order to achieve an objective. The individual chooses participation in
terrorist activities by a conscious decision (although they may not know what they are
getting into). While it acknowledges that individuals or groups may be predisposed to
violence, this is not considered the determining factor in the choice to use or
renounce terror.
2-1
Neither of these descriptions is universally applicable, with all groups or individuals

conforming to one or the other. Aspects of both theories are observed in groups and
individuals. As usual, the real world provides instances of both theories, and they should both
be kept in mind when examining the actions of terrorists.88
Individual Terrorist Behaviors
“An opinion can be argued with; a conviction is best shot.”

T.E. Lawrence (of Arabia)
No one profile exists for terrorists in terms of their backgrounds or personal characteristics.
The differences in the origins of terrorists in terms of their society, culture, and environment
preclude such a universal approach for foreign or domestic terrorists. The profiles developed
for the typical West German Red Army Faction (RAF) member 15 years ago is irrelevant to
predicting the nature of an Indonesian al Qaeda recruit. Trying to predicatively profile
potential terrorists, even within the same culture, is a task beyond the scope of this work.
Utopian Worldview
“…the time after victory, that is not our concern …We build the
revolution, not the socialist model.”
Gudrun Ensslin, co-leader, Red Army Faction
Terrorists typically have utopian goals, regardless of whether their aims are political, social,
territorial, nationalistic, or religious. This utopianism expresses itself forcefully as an extreme
degree of impatience with the rest of the world that validates the terrorists’ extreme
methods.89 This philosophy may be best expressed as “Tear everything up; change now and
fix later.” The individual commonly perceives a crisis too urgent to be solved other than by
the most extreme methods. Alternately, the perception is of a system too corrupt or ineffective
to see or adopt the “solution” the terrorist expounds. This sense of desperate impatience with
opposition is central to the terrorist worldview. This is true of both secular and religiously
motivated terrorists, although with slightly different perspectives as to how to impose
their "solutions.”
There is also a significant impractical element of associated with this utopian mindset.
Although their goals often involve the transformation of society or a significant reordering of
88
(Washington: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1998), 3 & 30.
89
Ibid., 30.
2-2
the status quo, individual terrorists -- even the philosophical or intellectual leaders -- are often
vague or uncaring as to what the future order of things will look like or how aims will be
implemented. Change, and the destructive method by which change is brought about, may be
much more important than the end result.
Interaction with Others
Terrorists interact within their groups with both other members and leadership. It is common
for individuals forming or joining groups to adopt the “leader principle.” This amounts to
unquestioning submission to the group’s authority figure. This is true of both hierarchical and
networked organizations, and of large or small groups. It explains the prevalence of individual
leaders of great charisma in many terrorist organizations.90 With a predisposition to view
leaders and authority figures within the group as near ideal examples, such leaders can demand
tremendous sacrifices from subordinates. This type of obedience can cause internal dissension when
a leader is at odds with the group, or factions arise in the organization.91
Another adaptation the individual makes is accepting an “in-group” [us against the world]
mentality. This results in a presumption of automatic morality on the part of the other
individual members of the group, and the purity of their cause and righteousness of their
goals. The view of the wider world may be perceived as aggressively attacking or persecuting
the individual and his compatriots. Thus, violence is necessary for the “self-defense” of the
group and carries moral justification. In some cases, the group comes to identify completely
with their use of violence, and it becomes to them the defining characteristic of their existence
on both the individual and collective level. Groups in this mind-set cannot renounce violence,
since it would equal renouncing their own reason for being.92
De-humanization of Non-Members
“Dear animal killing scum! Hope we sliced your finger wide open and
that you now die from the rat poison we smeared on the razor blade.”
Anonymous letter rigged with rat poison covered razor blades sent to 65 guide outfitters across
British Columbia and Alberta from the “Justice Department” (radical animal rights group),
January 1996
There is a de-humanization of all “out-group” individuals. This de-humanization permits

violence to be directed indiscriminately at any target outside the group. Assuming that all
those outside of the group are either enemies or neutral, terrorists are justified in attacking
anyone. And since anyone outside the group is a potential enemy, circumstances can change
90
Sabil Frances, “Uniqueness of LTTE’s Suicide Bombers,” Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies, Article no.
321 (4 February 2000): 1; available at http://www.ipcs.org; Internet; accessed 7 September 2002.
91
92
(Washington: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1998), 38.
2-3
that permit any restraints that the terrorists might have observed to be broken in the
name of expediency.
De-humanization also removes some of the onus of killing innocents. The identification of
authority figures with animals makes murder a simple slaughter of inferior life. The continual
picture held up to group members is that there are oppressors and oppressed; they are fighting
inhuman opponents in the name of the oppressed.
This is the other aspect of de-humanization. By making “the oppressed” or “the people” an
abstract concept, usually an ignorant mass, it permits the individual terrorist to claim to act on
their behalf. The terrorist believes these acts further the interests of some “un-awakened”
social or ethnic constituency that is too oppressed or misinformed to realize its interests. They
see themselves as leading the struggle on behalf of the rest of whatever constituency they
represent. This view on the part of terrorists is common to all shades of the political spectrum.
It is variously identified as “the revolutionary vanguard” or “true patriots,” but involves the
terrorists acting for the good of either a silent or ignorant mass that would approve of their
struggle if they were free to choose or if they understood.
Lifestyle Attractions
The lifestyle of a terrorist, while not particularly appealing for members of stable societies,
"There’s something about a good bomb."

Bill Ayers, Former Weather Underground Leader
in his memoir “Fugitive Days”
can provide emotional, physical and sometimes social rewards. Emotional rewards include the
feelings of notoriety, power, and belonging. In some societies, there may be a sense of
satisfaction in rebellion; in others there may be a perceived increase in social status or power.
For some, the intense sense of belonging generated by membership in an illegal group is
emotionally satisfying.93 Physical rewards can include such things as money, authority, and
adventure.94 This lure can subvert other motives. Several of the more notorious terrorists of
the 1970s and 1980s, such as Abu Nidal,95 became highly specialized mercenaries, discarding
their convictions and working for a variety of causes and sponsors. Abu Nidal is a nom de
guerre for Sabri al-Banna and an international terrorist group named after its founder “Abu
Nidal” – Abu Nidal Organization (ANO).96 Sabris al-Banna rose in notoriety in the Palestine
Liberation Organization (PLO) but broke away from the PLO to form his own terror
organization in the mid-1970s. The group’s goals center on the destruction of the state of
Israel, but the group has served as a mercenary terrorist force with connections to several
93
Ibid., 34-35.
94
Ibid., 271.
95
96
“Abu Nidal,” Encyclopedia of the Orient [database on-line]; available from http://i-
cias.com/e.o/abu_nidal.htm; Internet; accessed 24 February 2004.
2-4
radical regimes including Iraq, Syria, and Libya.97 ANO activities link to terrorist attacks in
20 countries with killing about 300 people and injuring hundreds of additional people totaling
estimates of about 900 victims.98
Lifestyle attractions also include a sense of elitism, and a feeling of freedom from societal
mores. “Nothing in my life had ever been this exciting!” enthused Susan Stern, member of
the Weather Underground, describing her involvement with the group.99
Behaviors Within Organizations
People within groups have different

behaviors collectively than they do as Motivation for Destruction
individuals. This is as true of terrorists Committing destructive acts for purely personal
as it is of audiences at concerts or gratification is not confined to the alienation present in
members of book clubs. Terrorist modern society. The Temple of Artemis at Epheseus
was one of the ancient world’s most famous buildings.
organizations have varying motives and It was renowned both for the richness of the furnishings
reasons for existence, and how the and the splendor of the architecture. However, because
group interprets these guides or of this fame, it became a target for an individual whose
determines internal group dynamics. contribution to world history was self-aggrandizing
destruction. Herostratus destroyed the Temple in 356
B.C.E., allegedly stating that the name of the man who
Groups are collectively more daring had built it would be lost to history, but that the name of
and ruthless than the individual the man who destroyed such a wonder would live forever.
members. No individual wishes to
appear less committed than the others,
and will not object to proposals within
the group they would never entertain as an individual.100 Leaders will not risk being seen as
timid, for fear of losing their influence over the group. The end result can be actions not in
keeping with individual behavior patterns as far as risk and lethality, but dictated by the
pressure of group expectations and suppression of dissent and caution.
Group commitment stresses secrecy and loyalty to the group. Disagreements are discouraged
by the sense of the external threat represented by the outside world, and pressure to conform
to the group view. Excommunication from the group adds to the group’s loathing and hatred
of doubters or deserters.101 Even the slightest suspicion of disloyalty can result in torture and
murder of the suspect. The ideological intensity that makes terrorists such formidable
enemies often turns upon itself, and some groups have purged themselves so effectively that
they almost ceased to exist.102 Frequently, the existence of the group becomes more important
than the goal they originally embraced. If the group nears success, it will often adjust
objectives so as to have a reason for continued existence. In some cases, success can mean
97
“Abu Nidal Organization,” Terrorism Questions and Answers [database on-line]; available from
http://cfrterrorism.org/groups/abunidal.html; Internet; accessed 24 February 2004.
98
“Abu Nidal Organization (ANO),” FAS Intelligence Resource Program [database on-line]; available from
http://www.fas.org/irp/world/para/ano.htm; Internet, accessed 24Febraury 2004.
99
100
101
David C. Rapoport, ed., Inside Terrorist Organizations (New York: Columbia University Press, 1988), 157.
102
2-5
disbanding the organization, an option to be rejected by individuals or factions whose

fundamental identity and personal worth is derived from being a terrorist. Factions that
advocate keeping to the original objective will inspire bitter in-fighting and schism in the
group. The resulting splinter groups or dissenting individual members are extremely volatile
and run the risk of compromising the original group’s purpose.
In cases where the terrorists are not tied to a particular political or social goal, groups will
even adopt a new cause if the original one is resolved. When first formed, many of the Euro-
terror groups such as the Red Army Faction (Germany) and Communist Combatant Cells
(Belgium) grew out of the 1960s student protest movement. The initial motivations for their
actions were supposedly to protest U.S. involvement in Vietnam and support the North
Vietnamese government. When American involvement in Vietnam came to an end, the radical
left in Europe embraced Palestinian and pro-Arab causes rather than disband. Later, they
conducted attacks against research facilities supporting the U.S. Strategic Defense Initiative,
and to prevent deployment of the Pershing IRBM (Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile) in
Germany. These examples of liberal, very left-wing viewpoints illustrate that groups can
align themselves with causes in keeping with their own goals and the way they visualize
group value.
Organizations that are experiencing difficulties may tend to increase their level of violence.
This increase in violence can occur when frustration and low morale develops within the
group due to lack of perceived progress or successful counter-terrorism measures that may
limit freedom of action within the terrorist group. Members attempt to perform more
effectively, but such organizational and cooperative impediments usually result in poor
operational performance. The organization hopes that a change to more spectacular tactics
or larger casualty lists will overcome the group’s internal problems.103 An example of this
occurred in Kashmir in 2003. After an increase in suicide attacks, the chief military leader of
India’s northern command in Kashmir stated that militants were launching attacks to lift the
morale of their cadres, because continued Indian army operations were killing six to eight
militants a day, thus weakening the groups.104
Another example of this phenomenon is the terrorist group, al Qaeda in the Arabian
Peninsula. This regional arm of al Qaeda in Saudi Arabia is one of several associated sub-
groups in a larger global reach terrorist organization, al Qaeda. During a 13-month period,
this al Qaeda sub-group sustained a number of arrests and killings of their members, including
the group’s leader being killed and replaced four times. In May and June 2004, the sub-group
conducted a wave of hostage taking, beheadings, and gruesome murders. An interview by
Sawt Al-Jihad, an al Qaeda identified journal, was conducted with the commander of the Al-
Quds Brigade, a subordinate unit of the group that took responsibility for the May 29, 2004
Oasis Compound attack at al-Khobar, Saudi Arabia where 22 people were killed. During this
interview, the terrorist commander claimed they had either beheaded or cut the throats of
103
104
“Kashmir’s Army Chief Fears Increased Suicide Attacks by Rebels,” South Asia Monitor, 6 August 2003, 2;
available from http://www.southasiamonitor.org/focus/2003/july/24rebels.html; Internet; accessed 20 April
2004.
2-6
more than 12 of the victims.105 Al Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula was also responsible
for a number of other murders, including the killing of Robert Jacobs, an American
employee of Vinnell Corporation, and the beheading of Paul Johnson, an American
employee of Lockheed-Martin. In both of these, the terrorist group released gruesome
videos of the murders.
Section II: Impact of Terrorist Goals & Motivations on Planning

Practical strategies against terrorists require consideration of the terrorist’s point of view in
his targeting and operations. Understanding the opponents’ preferences and capabilities
allows better defense and promotes an active approach to the threat. Total interdiction of all
possible targets is impossible, since the defender cannot protect everything. While consistent
prediction is unlikely, accurate determination of what risks are acceptable must consider the
terrorists’ values, particularly their estimate of the target’s value, and the costs of the terrorist
operation necessary to successfully hit it.
The proliferation of terrorism expertise, and the breakdown in restraint and observance of
international norms allow many more groups and individuals to use terror as a viable tool106 in
order to achieve their goals. With more potential terror users, the U.S. will often be a terrorist
target for several reasons.
There has been an increase in transnational radicalism as compared to recent historical

conflicts. As the most prominent secular democracy and largest single economic, military, and
political power in the world, the U.S. becomes an easy and appealing target for extremists.
Additionally, since the United States declared the Global War on Terrorism, the U.S. has
become the principal opponent of extremists throughout the world. Much of the current
thinking and literature on terrorism developed when terrorism was closely tied to
revolutionary movements and separatist movements concerned with influencing events in
relation to one nation. Newer causes and ideologies, such as religion, economic concerns, or
environmental issues are international, transnational, or even global in scope.
Further, the perception that the U.S. is the single most powerful nation in the world invites
targeting by terror groups regardless of ideology to demonstrate their power and status. In the
worldview of many terrorist groups, the perceived power and influence of the U.S.
encourages targeting to force the U.S. to extract concessions from third parties (e.g., prisoner
release, policy changes). Although some people may question why a comparatively small
terrorist group believes it can successfully confront the United States, part of the answer lies
in the Afghanistan jihad fighters and their success against the Soviet Union. Many of these
Islamic fighters were persuaded that they alone had defeated the Soviet Union in Afghanistan
(even though the U.S. provided substantial support) and that they could do the same to the
United States.107
105
Al-Qaeda in the Arabian Peninsula: Shooting, Hostage Taking, Kidnapping Wave – May/June 2004
(Alexandria: Tempest Publishing, LLC, 2004), 46-60.
106
Martha Crenshaw, “The Logic of Terrorism: Terrorist Behavior as a Product of Strategic Choice,” in Origins
of Terrorism: Psychologies, Ideologies, Theologies, States of Mind, rev. ed., ed. Walter Reich (Washington:
Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1998), 14.
107
Gilles Kepel, Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam (Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University
Press): 10,17.
2-7
Another reason to expect greater use of terrorism against the U.S. is that possible competitors
may feel that they cannot openly challenge or defeat the U.S. with any other technique.
Nations have employed state sponsored terrorism to produce results that could not have
otherwise been achieved against U.S. opposition. The current supremacy of American
military power leaves adversaries with few options to challenge U.S. interests. Adding non-
state groups of formidable capability and few restraints to the roster of potential adversaries of
the U.S. increases the likely use of terror against our forces.
Many potential adversaries view the U.S. as particularly vulnerable to the psychological
impact and uncertainties generated by terror tactics in support of other activities.108 Terrorism
and terror tactics have already been used against U.S. forces in support of conventional and
insurgent warfare, as well as against U.S. forces during stability and peace support operations
in attempts to influence policy.
“We are an instrument for the hostages… We force the

Administration to put their lives above policy.”
Lesley Stahl, CBS White House correspondent
during the TWA flight 847 hostage crisis, 1985
Lessons drawn from previous uses of terror against the U.S. have led to some commonly held
perceptions about the effectiveness and impact of terrorism versus the U.S. Some of these
perceptions may or may not be valid, but are still widely held. Consequently, terrorist groups
are likely to try to capitalize on what they may perceive as vulnerabilities. They include the
beliefs that:
• The U.S. is extremely casualty averse. Any loss of life takes on significance out of
proportion to the circumstances.
“We have seen in the last decade the decline of the American
government and the weakness of the American soldier who is ready to
wage Cold Wars and unprepared to fight long wars. This was proven
in Beirut when the Marines fled after two explosions. It also proves
they can run in less than 24 hours, and this was also repeated in
Somalia.”
Usama bin Laden interview by ABC News’ John Miller, May 1998
• The U.S. Government policies and policy makers are overly influenced by public opinion,
which in turn is particularly susceptible to the adverse psychological impact of terrorism.
108
Qiao Liang and Wang Xiangsui, Unrestricted Warfare, trans. Department of State, American Embassy
Beijing Staff Translators (Washington, D.C., 1999).
2-8
• The U.S. economic performance is perception driven, and therefore equally vulnerable to
the adverse psychological impact of terrorism.
“Whoever has stolen our wealth, then we have the right to destroy
their economy.”
Usama bin Laden’s “Letter to America”
Sunday November 24, 2002
• The U.S. cannot sustain long-term efforts, or exhibit public sacrifice in pursuit of difficult
national goals.
“Those youths are different from your soldiers. Your problem will be
how to convince your troops to fight, while our problem will be how to
restrain our youths to wait for their turn in fighting and in operations.”
Usama bin Laden, “Declaration Of War Against The Americans
Occupying The Land Of The Two Holy Places” August 26, 1996
The growing polarization of some domestic political issues means that the U.S. is also likely
to see increased terror attacks on its own soil by a variety of “home-grown” groups. These
groups may target U.S. forces either as symbols, sources of weapons and equipment, or at the
behest of other terrorist groups in exchange for money or support elsewhere.
Terrorist Asset Cost versus Target Value
Despite some popular perceptions, there are finite limits to the number of terrorists in the U.S.
Homeland and abroad. Terrorist groups require recruitment, preparation, and integration into
the operational structure of the group. Recruits also require extensive vetting to ensure that
they are not infiltrators from enemy security forces. A group’s leadership will not employ
assets without serious consideration of the relationship between the cost of using (and
possibly losing) the asset, and the potential benefits to the group. While some groups may
have a greater supply of personnel assets than others, no group can expend them
injudiciously.109 Therefore terrorist operational planning focuses on economies of personnel,
and balances the likelihood of losses against the value of a target and the probability of success. For
example, suicide bombings are on the increase – effective target results for relatively low cost.
109
2-9
In any terrorist operation, extensive pre-operational surveillance and reconnaissance,

exhaustive planning, and sufficient resources will be committed to the operation.110 The
potential risk of exposure of these resources, and the demands on their time, are factored into
the equation when deciding to commit to an attack.
Operational Intent of Terrorism
Terrorism is a psychological act that communicates through the medium of violence or the
threat of violence. Terrorist strategies will be aimed at publicly causing damage to symbols
or inspiring fear. Timing, location, and method of attacks accommodate media
dissemination and ensure “newsworthiness” to maximize impact.
A terrorist operation will often have the goal of manipulating popular perceptions, and will
achieve this by controlling or dictating media coverage. This control need not be overt, as
terrorists analyze and exploit the dynamics of major media outlets and the pressure of the
“news cycle.”111 A terrorist attack that appears to follow this concept was the bombing of
commuter trains in Madrid, Spain in March 2004. There has been much speculation as to the
true objective behind these bombings. One view is that Islamic terrorists who specifically
planned to influence the political process in Spain conducted the attacks. They believed that
the large percentage of the Spanish population opposed the war in Iraq and would feel that the
current government was responsible for the bombings, and would therefore vote for the
opposition. The attacks occurred during morning rush hour just three days prior to national
elections. The timing facilitated maximum casualties on the trains (killing 191 people and
injuring more than 1800), plus immediate news coverage throughout the world of the carnage
resulting from this terrorist attack. Although it cannot definitively be linked to the bombings,
an anti-war Socialist prime minister was elected who quickly withdrew Spain’s military
forces from Iraq.
In considering possible terrorist targets, recognize that a massively destructive attack

launched against a target that cannot or will not attract sufficient media coverage to impact the
target audience is not a viable target for terrorists. A small attack against a “media accessible”
target is better than a larger one of less publicity. However, the spread of the global media
makes many locations attractive targets that would not have been remotely considered thirty
or forty years ago. The 1998 bombings of the American embassies in Kenya and Tanzania
illustrate how these two relatively unimportant posts created a global sensation because of the
media coverage. Forty years ago it would have taken days for the international news media to
get still photographs and some text from these locations, making them much less attractive
targets. However, with today’s modern technology, media reporters were able to provide
immediate broadcast coverage of the bombings. Since the Islamist factions that conducted the
attacks used religious justifications for their actions, the worldwide coverage of these attacks
made it possible for these terrorists to pose as champions of a cause, even in the absence of
any effective work at the grassroots level of society.112 The September 11, 2001 bombing of
110
Rohan Gunaratna, “Suicide Terrorism: a Global Threat,” Jane’s Intelligence Review (20 October 2000): 1-7;
available from http://www.janes.com/security/international_security/news/usscole/jir001020_1_n.shtml;
Internet; accessed 7 September 2002.
111
112
Press): 320.
2-10
the World Trade Center in New York City was observed by millions of people worldwide on
live television as the successive attacks occurred and sensational mass destruction followed.
Ideology and Motivation Influences on Operations
Ideology and motivation will influence the objectives of terrorist operations, especially
regarding the casualty rate. Groups with secular ideologies and non-religious goals will often
attempt highly selective and discriminate acts of violence to achieve a specific political aim.
This often requires them to keep casualties at the minimum amount necessary to attain the
objective. This is both to avoid a backlash that might severely damage the organization, and
also maintain the appearance of a rational group that has legitimate grievances. By limiting
their attacks they reduce the risk of undermining external political and economic support. A
good illustration of a group that discriminates on target selection is the Revolutionary
Organization 17 November. This is a radical leftist organization established in 1975 in Greece
that is anti-Greek establishment, anti-United States, anti-Turkey, and anti-NATO. Its
operations have included assassinations of senior U.S. officials, Greek public figures,
European Union facilities, and foreign firms investing in Greece. Although a violent
organization, reports are the group did not kill a bystander until 1992. In total, 17 November
is believed to have been responsible for over 100 attacks, but just 23 fatalities between 1975
and 2000. 113 Groups that comprise a “wing” of an insurgency, or are affiliated with
sometimes legitimate, political organizations often operate under these constraints. The
tensions caused by balancing these considerations are often a prime factor in the development
of splinter groups and internal factions within these organizations.
In contrast, religiously oriented and millenarian groups typically attempt to inflict as many
casualties as possible. An apocalyptic frame of reference may deem loss of life as irrelevant
and encourage mass casualty producing incidents. Losses among their co-religionists are of
little account, because such casualties will reap the benefits of the afterlife. Likewise, non-
believers, whether they are the intended target or collateral damage, deserve death, and killing
them may be considered a moral duty. The Kenyan bombing against the U.S. Embassy in
1998 inflicted casualties on the local inhabitants in proportion to U.S. personnel of over
twenty to one killed, and an even greater disparity in the proportion of wounded (over 5000
Kenyans were wounded by the blast; 95% of total casualties were non-American).114 Fear of
backlash rarely concerns these groups, as one of their goals may be to provoke overreaction
by their enemies and potentially widen the conflict. In the case of the Embassy bombing in
Kenya, the suicide bomber failed in his attempt to penetrate the Embassy's outer perimeter,
thanks to the refusal of local guards to open the gates. This resulted in the large casualty rate
amongst local Kenyans. With numerous dead and maimed Kenyans, the terrorists issued a
statement attempting to qualify a rationale for the deaths and to mollify critics.
The type of target selected will often reflect motivations and ideologies. For groups
professing secular political or social motivations, their targets are highly symbolic of
authority; government offices, banks, national airlines, and multinational corporations with
direct relation to the established order. Likewise, they conduct attacks on representative
113
“Revolutionary Organization 17 November (17N),” CDI Terrorism Project, 5 August 2002; available from
http://www.cdi.org/terrorism/17N-pr.cfm; Internet; accessed 24 September 2004.
114
2-11
individuals whom they associate with economic exploitation, social injustice, or political
repression. While religious groups also use much of this symbolism, there is a trend to
connect it to greater physical devastation. There also is a tendency to add religiously affiliated
individuals, such as missionaries, and religious activities, such as worship services, to the
targeting equation.
Another common form of symbolism utilized in terrorist targeting is striking on particular

anniversaries or commemorative dates. Nationalist groups may strike to commemorate battles
won or lost during a conventional struggle, whereas religious groups may strike to mark
particularly appropriate observances. Many groups will attempt to commemorate
anniversaries of successful operations, or the executions or deaths of notable individuals
related to their particular conflict. Likewise, striking on days of particular significance to the
enemy can also provide the required impact. For instance, Timothy McVeigh conducted the
bombing of the Murrah Federal Building on April 19th, the anniversary of the end of the
Branch Davidian siege near Waco, Texas. Since there are more events than operations,
assessment of the likelihood of an attack on a commemorative date is only useful when
analyzed against the operational pattern of a particular group or specific members of a group’s
leadership cadre.
Section III: Terrorist Characteristics

No singular personality profile of a terrorist exists, and no predictive test exists that can
guarantee identification of a terrorist. Numerous terrorism-related studies have analyzed the
biographical and social data on known terrorists in an attempt to develop some form of
terrorist profile. Studies have shown that in general, terrorists are people who often feel
alienated from society and have a grievance or regard themselves as victims of an injustice.
They are devoted to their political or religious cause and do not regard their violent actions as
criminal, showing no pity or remorse for their actions. Although their level of sophistication
will vary depending on the individual and the specific terrorist group, terrorists are people
who are skillful and ruthless in conducting terrorist acts.115 In addition to the above traits,
there are some general characteristics that are fairly common among terrorists. There are also
some common stereotypes and misperceptions regarding terrorists.
Status
Contrary to the oft-repeated charge that terrorism is a product of poverty and despair,
terrorists are most commonly from middle class backgrounds, with some actually coming
from extreme wealth and privilege. While guerilla fighters and gang members often come
from poor and disadvantaged backgrounds, and may adopt terrorism as a tactic, terrorist
groups that specifically organize as such generally come from middle and upper social and
economic strata. Marc Sageman, a Senior Fellow at PFRI and a former CIA case officer in
Afghanistan, conducted a study of 400 Islamic terrorists. He found that 75% came from the
upper or middle class and 90% came from caring, intact families.116 The leadership may use
less educated and socially dispossessed people to conduct acts of terrorism. Even in terrorist
115
Rex A. Hudson, The Sociology and Pshychology of Terrorism: Who Becomes a Terrorist and Why?
(Washington: Library of Congress Federal Research Division, 1999), 50.
116
Marc Sageman, “Understanding Terror Networks,” 3.
2-12
groups that espouse the virtues of “the people” or “the proletariat,” leadership consists
primarily of those of middle class backgrounds. However, this characteristic must be considered in
context with the society the terrorist originates from. “Middle class” or “privilege” are relative terms
and will, for example, mean completely different levels of income between Western Africa and
Western Europe.
Education and Intellect
Terrorists in general have more than average education, and very few Western terrorists are
uneducated or illiterate.117 Some leaders of larger terrorist organizations may have minimal
education, but this characteristic is not the norm. Left wing terrorists, international terrorists,
and the leadership echelon of right wing groups are usually of average or better intelligence,
and have been exposed to advanced education. In fact, terrorist groups are increasingly
recruiting members with expertise in areas such as communications, computer programming,
engineering, finance, and the sciences.118 The Sageman analysis reflected 63% of his group
had gone to college and three-quarters were professionals or semi-professionals.119 (Usama
bin laden a civil engineer; Ayman Zawahiri a physician; and Yasir Arafat was at one time a
civil engineer.) These terrorists generally have had exposure to higher learning, although they
are usually not highly intellectual, and are frequently dropouts or possess poor academic
records. Again, this is subject to the norms of the society they originate from. In societies
where religious fundamentalism is prevalent, the higher education may have been advanced
religious training.120
Domestic and right wing terrorists tend to come from lower educational and social levels,
although they are not uneducated. It was right wing domestic groups in the U.S. that first
explored the communication and organizational potential of the Internet. They will typically
have received a high school level education, and be very well indoctrinated in the ideological
arguments they support.
Age
Terrorists tend to be young. Leadership, support, and training cadres can range into the 40-50
year old age groups, but most operational members of terrorist organizations are in the 20-35
year old age group.121 The amount of practical experience and training that contributes to
making an effective operative is not usually present in individuals younger than the early 20s.
Individuals in their teens have been employed as soldiers in guerilla groups, but terrorist
organizations do not tend to accept extremely young members, although they will use them as
non-operational supporters. Groups that utilize suicide operations will employ very young
individuals as suicide assets, but these youths are not actually members of the organization,
but simply exploited or coerced into an operational role.122 Many countries in the developing
117
Rex A. Hudson, The Sociology and Psychology of Terrorism: Who Becomes a Terrorist and Why?, 48.
118
Ibid., 4.
119
Marc Sageman, “Understanding Terror Networks,” 3.
120
121
122
2-13
world subjected to ethnic, political, and religious violence; however, are seeing younger
members being recruited by terrorist organizations. Pre-teens and adolescents are often
receptive to terrorist recruiting because they have witnessed killings and see violence as the
only way to deal with grievances.123 An example is the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam
(LTTE) in Sri Lanka. They have recruited children to offset a manpower shortage due to
casualties. Assessments by the Sri Lankan Directorate of Military Intelligence indicate a large
percentage of fighters are below 18 years of age.124
Gender
Terrorists are not exclusively male, even in groups that are rigorously Islamic. Women’s roles
in these groups will often be constrained to support or intelligence work, but some
fundamentalist Islamic groups use women in operational roles. In groups where religious
constraints do not affect women’s roles, female membership may be above fifty percent, with
women fully integrated into operations. Female leadership of terrorist groups is not
uncommon, and female terrorists lack for nothing in terms of violence and ruthlessness. For
example, one-third of the LTTE cadre is made up of women and it is reported that nearly
4,000 have been killed since they began taking part in combat in 1985, over 100 of those
killed belonging to the dreaded Black Tiger suicide squad.125
In August 2004, female Chechen suicide bombers were responsible for detonating IEDs while
on Russian commercial flights that resulted in two aircraft crashes and the death of all people
on board. Within one week, another female Chechen suicide bomber detonated an IED near
metro station in northeast Moscow causing extensive property damage and injuring many
people in the area.126
Again, there is an exception to this general observation in some right wing groups,
particularly those with neo-Nazi and Christian Identity oriented ideologies. Female
participation and leadership is much less common in these groups.
Appearance
Terrorists are often unremarkable in individual characteristics. Racial diversity in

organizations such as al Qaeda signal that attempts to racially profile likely terrorist group
members is not an effective indicator. They usually do not appear out of the ordinary, and
are capable of normal social behavior and appearance. Over the long term, elements of
fanatical behavior or ruthlessness may become evident, but they are typically not
immediately obvious to casual observation. An excellent example of this is the group 17
November in Greece. When the police captured 14 suspected members in 2002, the most
striking characteristic was their ordinary nature. Among the group were a schoolteacher,
a shopkeeper, a telephone operator, and other members that appeared to be members of
123
Rex A. Hudson, The Sociology and Psychology of Terrorism: Who Becomes a Terrorist and Why?, 48.
124
“Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE),” South Asia Terrorism Portal, n.d., 2; available from
http://www.satp.org/satporgtp/countries/shrilanka/terroristoutfits/Ltte.htm; Internet; accessed 7 July 2004.
125
Ibid., 2.
126
Billy Alfano, Briefing: “Terrorism Strikes Russia, Summary of the Attacks from August 24 to September 3,
2004,” Department of state, Diplomatic Security, Overseas Security Advisory Council, International Security
Specialist for Western Europe, n.d.
2-14
mainstream society.127 Although members of sleeper cells or other covert operators may
marry as part of their persona, most terrorists do not marry, even though there have been
cases of married couples within terrorist organizations.
Conclusion
This chapter provided a discussion of some aspects of terrorist behavior and group dynamics.
This information will allow the reader to place these behaviors in context with the
descriptions of terrorist organizations in Chapter 3.
127
“Revolutionary Organization 17 November (17N),” CDI Terrorism Project, 5 August 2002; available from
http://www.cdi.org/terrorism/17N-pr.cfm; Internet; accessed 24 September 2004.
2-15
2-16
Chapter 3
Terrorist Group Organization
This chapter examines terrorist group organization. Joint Publication 3-07.2 Joint Tactics,
Techniques, and Procedures (JTTP) for Antiterrorism (Revised First Draft) states that, “The
terrorist organization’s structure, membership, resources, and security determine its
capabilities and reach.” A general knowledge of the prevalent models of terrorist
organizations leads to a better understanding of their overall capabilities. Knowledge of the
different labels and systems of classification that have been applied to groups and individuals
aid us in discarding useless or irrelevant terms, and correctly using the commonly accepted
descriptions of terrorism.
“There’s nothing wrong with being a terrorist, as long as you win.”

Paul Watson, Sea Shepard Conservation Society
Traditionally, a popular image of a terrorist group operating according to a specific political

agenda and motivated by ideology or the desire for ethnic or national liberation dominated our
understanding of terrorism. While still true of some terrorist organizations, this image is no
longer universally valid. Also, a generational change in leadership of established groups is in
many cases ushering in a more destructive and relentless type of organization.
When examining the overall structure of terrorist groups, there are two general categories of
organization: networked and hierarchical. A terrorist group may employ either type or a
combination of the two models. Newer groups tend towards organizing or adapting to the
possibilities inherent in the network model. Ideology can have an effect on internal
organization, with strict Leninist or Maoist groups tending towards centralized control and
hierarchical structure. Within the larger structure, though, virtually all groups use variants of
cellular organizations at the tactical level to enhance security and to organize for operations.
Terrorist groups that are associated with a political activity or organization will often require a
more hierarchical structure, in order to coordinate terrorist violence with political action. It
also can be necessary for a politically affiliated group to observe cease-fire agreements or
avoid particular targets in support of political objectives. This can be difficult to enforce in
networked organizations.
Terrorist groups can be at various stages of development in terms of capabilities and

sophistication. Newer groups with fewer resources will usually be less capable, and operate in
permissive areas or under the tutelage of more proficient organizations to develop proficiency.
Change in terrorist leadership, whether through generational transition or as a response to
enhanced security operations, may signal significant adjustments to organizational priorities
and means of conducting terrorism. Also, groups professing or associated with ethnic or
nationalist agendas and limiting their operations to one country or a localized region tend to
require fewer capabilities. Larger groups can coalesce from smaller organizations, or smaller
groups can splinter off from larger ones.
3-1
Section I: Terrorist Group Structure

Levels of Commitment
There are typically different levels of commitment within an organization: passive supporters,
active supporters, cadre, and leadership. Figure 3-1 shows how each successive level of
commitment has fewer members. This pyramid diagram is not intended as an organizational
picture, but to show the relative number of people in each category. This image of overall
density holds true for networks as well as hierarchies. Passive supporters may intermingle
with active supporters and be unaware of what their actual relationship is to the organization.
• Leaders provide direction and policy; approve goals and objectives; and provide
overarching guidance for operations. Usually leaders rise from within the ranks of any given
organization, or create their own organization from scratch.
• Cadres are the active members of the terrorist organization. This echelon plans and
conducts not only operations, but also manages areas of intelligence, finance, logistics,
information operations, and communications. These activities all occur in the active
membership. Mid-level cadres tend to be trainers and technicians such as bomb makers,
financiers, and surveillance experts. Low-level cadres are the bombers and similar direct
action terrorists in an attack.
• Active Supporters are active in the political, fund-raising, and information activities of the
group. Acting as an ally or tacit partner, they may also conduct initial intelligence and
surveillance activities, and provide safehaven houses, financial contributions, medical
assistance, and transit assistance for active members of the organization. They are usually
fully aware of their relationship to the terrorist group but do not commit violent acts.
• Passive Supporters are typically individuals or groups that are sympathetic to the
announced goals and intentions of the terrorist organization, but are not committed enough
to take action. They may not be aware of their precise relation to the terrorist group, and
interface with a front that hides the overt connection to the terrorist group. Sometimes fear
of reprisal from terrorists is a compelling factor in passive support. Sympathizers can be
useful for political activities, fund raising, and unwitting or coerced assistance in
intelligence gathering or other non-violent activities.
Terrorist groups will recruit from populations that are sympathetic to their goals. Often
legitimate organizations can serve as recruiting grounds for terrorists. Militant Islamic
recruiting, for example, is often associated with the proliferation of the radical Wahhabi sect.
This recruiting is conducted on a worldwide basis via Wahhabist schools financed from both
governmental and non-governmental donations and grants.128 Some recruiting may be
conducted for particular skills and qualifications, and not be tied to ideological characteristics.
Of particular concern are attempts of terrorist organizations to recruit current or former
members of the U.S. armed forces, both as trained operatives, and as agents in place.
128
Victor N. Corpus, “The Invisible Army” (Briefing presented at Fort Leavenworth, KS, 5 November 2002),
TRADOC ADCSINT-Threats Files, Fort Leavenworth, KS.
3-2
Recruitment can gain operatives from many diverse social backgrounds. At times, the approach to
radical behavior or direct actions with terrorism can develop over the course of years or decades.
One example is John Walker Lindh, the U.S. citizen captured by U.S. military forces in the war in
Afghanistan. His notoriety jumped into international attention, as did the situation of individuals
from several counties that were apprehended in combat actions of Afghanistan. Lindh’s change
from an unassuming middle-class adolescent in the Western United States to a member of a
paramilitary training camp in Pakistan and subsequent support for Taliban forces in Afghanistan
spotlights that general profiling should be tempered with specific instances and a broad perspective.
In the case of Jose Padilla, his simple and voluntary efforts to detonate a bomb in the U.S. may
illustrate al Qaeda techniques to support, finance, and use less than sophisticated means to conduct
terrorist acts.
Terrorist Organizational Structure

Support Structure
h Leaders
h Operational Cadre
h Active Supporters
h Passive Supporters
Figure 3-1. Typical Levels of Support
Some groups will also use coercion and leverage to gain limited or one-time cooperation from
useful individuals. This cooperation can range anywhere from gaining information to
conducting a suicide bombing operation.129 Blackmail and intimidation are the most common
forms of coercion. Threats to family members are also employed. Coercion is often directed at
personnel in government security and intelligence organizations.
129
3-3
Tactical-level Cellular Organization
The smallest elements at the tactical level of terrorist organizations are the cells that serve as
building blocks for the terrorist organization. One of the primary reasons for a cellular or
compartmentalized structure is security. The compromise or loss of one cell should not
compromise the identity, location, or actions of other cells. A cellular organizational structure
makes it difficult for an adversary to penetrate the entire organization. Personnel within one
cell are often unaware of the existence of other cells and, therefore, cannot divulge sensitive
information to infiltrators or captors. The home page of the Earth Liberation Front is an
excellent example of this cellular organization. It states, “Modeled after the Animal
Liberation Front, the E.L.F. is structured in such a way as to maximize effectiveness. By
operating in cells (small groups that consist of one to several people), the security of
group members is maintained. Each cell is anonymous not only to the public but also to
one another. This decentralized structure helps keep activists out of jail and free to
continue conducting actions.”
Terrorists may organize cells based on family or employment relationships, on a geographic

basis, or by specific functions such as direct action and intelligence. The terrorist group may
also form multifunctional cells. The terrorist group uses the cells to control its members. Cell
members remain in close contact with each other in order to provide emotional support and to
prevent desertion or breach of security procedures. The cell leader is normally the only
person who communicates and coordinates with higher levels and other cells.
A terrorist group may form only one cell or may form many cells that operate locally,
transnationally, or internationally. The number of cells and their composition depend on the
size of the terrorist group. A terrorist group operating within one country frequently has
fewer cells and specialized teams than does an international terrorist group that may operate
in several countries.
Group Organizational Structure
As stated earlier, there are two basic models used when examining the overall organizational
structure of a terrorist group. These are the hierarchical and the networked models. A terrorist
group may employ either type or a combination of the two models.
Hierarchical Structure
Hierarchical structure organizations are those that have a well-defined vertical chain of
command linkage and responsibility. Data and intelligence flows up and down organizational
channels that correspond to these vertical chains, but may not move horizontally through the
organization. This is more traditional, and is common of groups that are well established with a
command and support structure.
Hierarchical organizations feature greater specialization of functions in their subordinate cells

(support, operations, intelligence). Usually, only the cell leader has knowledge of other cells
or contacts, and only senior leadership has visibility of the organization at large. In the past,
terrorism was practiced in this manner by identifiable organizations with a command and
3-4
control structure influenced by revolutionary theory or ideology. Radical leftist organizations

such as the Japanese Red Army, the Red Army Faction in Germany, the Red Brigades in Italy,
as well as ethno-nationalist terrorist movements such as the Palestine Liberation Organization,
the Irish Republican Army and the Basque separatist ETA group, conformed to this stereotype
of the "traditional" terrorist group. These organizations had a clearly defined set of political,
social or economic objectives, and tailored aspects of their organizations (such as a “political”
wing or “social welfare” group) to facilitate their success. The necessity to coordinate
actions between various “fronts,” some of which were political and allegedly non-
violent, and the use of violence by terrorists and some insurgents, favored a strong and
hierarchical authority structure.
Networked Structure
Terrorists are now increasingly part of far more indistinct and broader system of networks
than previously experienced. Groups based on religious or single-issue motives lack a specific
political or nationalistic agenda; they therefore have less need for a hierarchical structure to
coordinate the achievement of their goals. Instead, they can depend and even thrive on loose
affiliation with like-minded groups or individuals from a variety of locations. General goals
and targets are announced, and individuals or cells are expected to use flexibility and initiative
to conduct the necessary action.
Terrorist Organizational Categories
Hierarchical Networked
Figure 3-2. Typical Categories of Terrorist Organization
3-5
Basic Concepts.
Networks consist of nodes. A node may be an individual, a cell, another networked

organization, or a hierarchical organization. They may also consist of parts of other
organizations, even governments, which are acting in ways that can be exploited to achieve
the network’s organizational goals.
The effectiveness of a networked organization is dependent on several things. The network

achieves long-term organizational effectiveness when the nodes share a unifying ideology,
common goals or mutual interests.130 When there is failure to accept the overall goals of the
organization, pieces of the network will drop out. This is less catastrophic than a splintering
within a hierarchical group.
Another difficulty for network organizations not sharing a unifying ideology is that nodes can
pursue objectives or take actions that do not meet the goals of the organization, or are actually
counterproductive. In this instance, the independence of nodes fails to develop synergy
between their activities or contribute to common objectives.
Networks distribute the responsibility for operations, and provide redundancies for key
functions. The various cells need not contact or coordinate with other cells except for those
essential to a particular operation or function. The avoidance of unnecessary
coordination or command approval for action provides deniability to the leadership and
enhances operational security.
Networks are not necessarily dependent on the latest information technology for their effect.
The organizational structure and the flow of information inside the organization are the
defining aspects of networks. While information technology can make networks more
effective, low-tech means such as couriers and landline telephones can enable networks to
operate effectively in certain circumstances.
Basic Types.
There are various types of networked structure, depending on the ways in which elements are
linked to other elements of the structure. There are three basic types: chain, hub, and all-
channel. A terrorist group may also employ a hybrid structure that combines elements of
more than one network type.
• Chain Networks
Each node links to the node next in sequence.

Communication between the nodes is by
passing information along the line. This
organization is most common among networks
that smuggle goods and people or launder money.
Figure 3-3. Chain Network
130
John Arquilla and David Ronfeldt, ed., Networks and Netwars (Santa Monica: RAND, 2001), 9.
3-6
• Hub or Star and Wheel
Nodes communicate with one central node.

The central node need not be the leader or
decision maker for the network. A variation
of the hub is a wheel design where the outer
nodes communicate with one or two other
outer nodes in addition to the hub. A wheel
configuration is a common feature of a
financial or economic network.
Figure 3-4. Hub - Wheel Network
• All-Channel
All nodes are connected to each other. The

network is organizationally “flat,” meaning
there is no hierarchical command structure
above it. Command and control is distributed
within the network. This is communication
intensive and can be a security problem if the
linkages can be identified or reconstructed.
However, the lack of an identifiable “head”
confounds targeting and disruption efforts
normally effective against hierarchies. Figure 3-5. All Channel Network
Despite their differences, the three basic types will most likely be encountered together in
hybrid organizations, where the particular organizational capability of a hybrid network type
is most appropriate. Thus, a transnational terrorist organization might use chain networks for
its money-laundering activities, tied to a wheel network handling financial matters, tied in
turn to an all-channel leadership network to direct the use of the funds into the operational
activities of a hub network conducting pre-targeting surveillance and reconnaissance.
Organizational structure that may appear very complex during initial assessments of terrorist
groups may be more understandable when viewed in the context of chain, hub variants, or all-
channel networks.
Section II: Categories of Terrorist Organizations

There are many different categories of terrorism and terrorist groups that are currently in use.
These categories serve to differentiate terrorist organizations according to specific criteria,
which are usually related to the field or specialty of whoever is selecting the categories. Also,
some categories are simply labels appended arbitrarily, often by the media. For example,
every terrorist organization is by definition “radical,” as terror tactics are not the norm for the
mainstream of any group. While this guide does not employ these categories in describing the
operational aspect of terrorist groups, some categories do provide pertinent descriptive
3-7
information. Doctrinal terrorism can be described as based on a universalistic political

ideology or religious dogma. This is in contrast to nationalist-ethnic terrorism that centers on
national or ethnic identity.131 This section addresses many of the more common
classifications, and provides explanation of terms and their relationship.
Government Affiliation Categories
Categorizing terrorist groups by their affiliation with governments provides indications of

their means for intelligence, operations, and access to types of weapons. U.S. joint
doctrine identifies three affiliations: non-state supported, state-supported, and state-
directed terrorist groups.132
• Non-state supported. These are terrorist groups that operate autonomously, receiving no
significant support from any government.
• State-supported. These are groups that generally operate independently but receive
support from one or more governments.
• State-directed. These groups operate as an agent of a government and receive substantial

intelligence, logistic, and operational support from the sponsoring government.
Motivation Categories
Motivation categories describe terrorist groups in terms of their ultimate goals or objectives.
While political or religious ideologies will determine the “how” of the conflict, and the sort of
society that will arise from a successful conclusion, motivation is the “what”; what the end
state or measure of success is. Some of the common motivation categories are:
• Separatist. Separatist groups are those with the goal of separation from existing entities
through independence, political autonomy, or religious freedom or domination. The
ideologies separatists subscribe to include social justice or equity, anti-imperialism, as
well as the resistance to conquest or occupation by a foreign power.
• Ethnocentric. Groups of this persuasion see race as the defining characteristic of a society,
and therefore a basis of cohesion. There is usually the attitude that a particular group is
superior because of its inherent racial characteristics.
• Nationalistic. The loyalty and devotion to a nation, and the national consciousness derived
from placing one nation’s culture and interests above those of other nations or groups is
the motivating factor behind these groups. This can find expression in the creation of a
new nation, or in splitting away part of an existing state to join with another that shares
the perceived “national” identity.
131
Long, The Anatomy of Terrorism, 65.
132
Joint Pub 3-07.2. Joint Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for Antiterrroism, 17 March 1998, II-6.
[Revision First Draft dated 9 April 2004 exists at time of publication]
3-8
• Revolutionary: These groups are dedicated to the overthrow of an established order and
replacing it with a new political or social structure. Although often associated with
communist political ideologies, this is not always the case, and other political movements
can advocate revolutionary methods to achieve their goals.
Ideological Categories
“From fanaticism to barbarism is only one step.”

Denis Diderot
Ideological categories describe the political, religious, or social orientation of the group.
While some groups will be seriously committed to their avowed ideologies, for others,
ideology is poorly understood, and primarily a rationale used to provide justification for their
actions to outsiders or sympathizers. It is a common misperception to believe that ideological
considerations will prevent terrorists from accepting assistance or coordinating activities with
terrorists or states on the opposite side of the religious or political spectrum. Quite often
terrorists with differing ideologies have more in common with each other than with the
mainstream society they oppose.133 Common ideological categories include:
Political
Political ideologies are concerned with the structure and organization of the forms of
government and communities. While observers outside terrorist organizations may stress
differences in political ideology, the activities of groups that are diametrically opposed on the
political spectrum are similar to each other in practice.
• Right wing: These groups are associated with the reactionary or conservative side of the
political spectrum, and often, but not exclusively, are associated with fascism or neo-
Nazism. Despite this, right-wing extremists can be every bit as revolutionary in intent as
other groups, the difference being that their intent is to replace existing forms of
government with a particular brand of authoritarian rule.
• Left wing: These groups are usually associated with revolutionary socialism or variants of
communism (e.g., Maoist, Marxist-Leninist). With the demise of many communist
regimes, and the gradual liberalization of the remainder towards capitalism, left-wing
rhetoric can often move towards and merge with anarchistic thought.
• Anarchist: Anarchist groups are anti-authority or anti-government, and strongly support

individual liberty and voluntary association of cooperative groups. Often blending anti-
capitalism and populist or communist-like messages, modern anarchists tend to neglect
the problem of what will replace the current form of government, but generally promote
that small communities are the highest form of political organization necessary or
desirable. Currently, anarchism is the ideology of choice for many individuals and
133
3-9
small groups who have no particular dedication to any ideology, and are looking for
a convenient philosophy to justify their actions.
Religious
Religiously inspired terrorism is on the rise, with a forty-three percent increase of total
international terror groups espousing religious motivation between 1980 and 1995.134 While
Islamic terrorists and organizations have been the most active, and the greatest recent threat to
the United States, all of the major world religions have extremists that have taken up violence
to further their perceived religious goals. Religiously motivated terrorists see their objectives
as holy writ, and therefore infallible and non-negotiable.
Religious motivations can also be tied to ethnic and nationalist identities, such as Kashmiri
separatists combining their desire to break away from India with the religious conflict
between Islam and Hinduism. The conflict in Northern Ireland also provides an example of
the mingling of religious identity with nationalist motivations. There are frequently instances
where groups with the same general goal, such as Kashmiri independence, will engage in
conflict over the nature of that goal (religious or secular government).
Christian, Jewish, Sikh, Hindu and a host of lesser known denominations have either seen
activists commit terrorism in their name, or spawned cults professing adherence to the larger
religion while following unique interpretations of that particular religion’s dogma. Cults that
adopt terrorism are often apocalyptic in their worldview, and are highly dangerous and
unpredictable. It is interesting to note that religiously motivated terrorists are among the most
energetic developers of Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) for terrorist use. Also,
religiously inspired cults executed the first confirmed uses of biological and chemical
nerve agents by terrorists.
Social
Often particular social policies or issues will be so contentious that they will incite extremist
behavior and terrorism. Frequently this is referred to as “single issue” or “special interest”
terrorism. Some issues that have produced terrorist activities in the United States and other
countries are:
• Animal rights
“The overall threat posed by special interest extremism
• Abortion appears to be increasing.”
• Ecology/environment From “Terrorism in the United States, 1999” FBI

Publication #0308, Federal Bureau of Investigation
• Minority rights
134
3-10
Location or Geographic Categories
Geographic designations have been used in the past, and although they are often confusing,
and even irrelevant when referring to international and transnational terrorism, they still
appear. Often, a geographical association to the area with which the group is primarily
concerned will be made. “Mid-Eastern” is an example of this category, and came into use as a
popular shorthand label for Palestinian and Arab groups in the 1970s and early 1980s.
Frequently, these designations are only relevant to the government or state that uses them.
However, when tied to particular regions or states, the concepts of domestic and international
terrorism can be useful.
• Domestic or Indigenous. These terrorists are “home-grown” and operate within and
against their home country. They are frequently tied to extreme social or political factions
within a particular society, and focus their efforts specifically on their nation’s socio-
political arena.
• International or Transnational. Often describing the support and operational reach of a group,
these terms are often loosely defined, and can be applied to widely different capabilities.
- International groups typically operate in multiple countries, but retain a geographic

focus for their activities. Hizballah, for example, has cells worldwide, and has
conducted operations in multiple countries, but is primarily concerned with events in
Lebanon and Israel.
- Transnational groups operate internationally, but are not tied to a particular country, or
even region. Al Qaeda is transnational; being made up of many nationalities, having
been based out of multiple countries simultaneously, and conducting operations
throughout the world. Their objectives affect dozens of countries with differing
political systems, religions, ethnic compositions, and national interests.
An insurgency-linked terrorist group that routinely crosses an international border to

conduct attacks, and then flees to safe haven in a neighboring country, is
“international” in the strict sense of the word, but does not compare to groups that
habitually operate across regions and continents.
Section III: Knowledge Exchange and Proliferation Between Organizations

Terrorist groups increase their capabilities through the exchange of knowledge. These
exchanges occur both directly and indirectly. Direct exchange occurs when one group
provides the other with training or experienced personnel not readily available otherwise.
An example of direct exchange is the provision of sophisticated bomb construction
expertise by the IRA and ETA to less experienced groups. In 2001, three members
associated with the IRA were arrested in Colombia. Traveling on false passports and with
traces of explosives on their clothes and luggage,135 the three individuals appeared to be
an instance of inter-group terrorist support in use of explosives and other terrorist
135
Rachael Ehrenfeld, IRA + PLO + Terror [journal on-line] American Center for Democracy (ACD), 21
August 2002; available from http://public-integrity.org/publications21.htm; Internet; accessed 13 February 2004.
3-11
techniques. U.S. government reports state an IRA and FARC connection since at least
1998 with multiple visits of IRA operatives to Colombia. Terrorism techniques not
previously observed as a norm in FARC operations, such as use of secondary explosive
devices, indicate a transfer of IRA techniques.136
In order to disseminate much of this knowledge, terrorist organizations often develop

extensive training initiatives. Al Qaeda, for instance, has assembled in excess of 10,000
pages of written training material, more than 100 hours of training videos, and a global
network of training camps.137 This training material can be distributed in both hard copy or
via the Internet.
Indirect transfer of knowledge occurs when one group carries out a successful operation and
is studied and emulated by others. The explosion of hijacking operations in the 1970s, and the
similar proliferation of hostage taking in the 1980s were the result of terrorist groups
observing and emulating successful techniques. However, this type of knowledge transfer is
not restricted to just violent international terrorist groups. The same is true for many of the
single-issue groups located in the United States. The Stop Huntingdon Animal Cruelty
(SHAC) group uses tactics initially used by British activists, which targets the homes of
individuals that are related in some form to Huntingdon Life Sciences, an animal-testing lab.
They use tactics just short of physical violence in terrorizing families and entire
neighborhoods, such as showing up with sirens and bullhorns at 3 a.m., plastering the
neighborhood with photographs of mutilated dogs, and posting home and work phone
numbers on the Internet. An Oregon-based watchdog group, Stop Eco-Violence, stated that
they are seeing a copycat effect within the eco-terror movement, with other groups now using
the same tactics.138
These examples of knowledge exchange highlight the fact that assessments of terrorist threat
capabilities cannot only be based upon proven operational abilities. Military professionals
must evaluate potential terrorist threats according to what capabilities they may acquire
through known or suspected associations with other groups. Also, consideration must be
given to capabilities that can reasonably be acquired through the study and employment of
techniques and approaches that have proven successful for other terrorist organizations.
A development related to this is the proliferation of specialized knowledge useful to terrorists

over the last decade. The reductions in military and intelligence establishments after the Cold
War have made expertise in sabotage, espionage, small unit tactics, and other useful skills
readily available. Similar reductions in research and development institutions make technical
and scientific expertise in weapons of mass destruction, information technology, and
electronic countermeasures more accessible, either through direct contacts or intermediaries
such as rogue or dysfunctional states.
136
Jan Schuurman, Tourists or Terrorists? [press review on-line] Radio Netherlands, 25 April 2002; available
from http://www.rnw.nl/hotspots/html/irel020425.html; Internet; accessed 13 February 2004.
137
Targets (Alexandria: Tempest Publishing, LLC, 2003), 7.
138
Don Thompson, “British Ecoterror Tactics Spread to U.S. Activists,” The Mercury News, 10 May 2003, 1-2;
available from http://www.mercurynews.com/mld/mercurynews/news/local/5832723.htm?1c; Internet; accessed
21 April 2004.
3-12
Conclusion
This chapter provided descriptions of the common organizational models for terrorist groups.
It also presented an array of categories and descriptions of terrorists and terrorist groups, in
order to clarify the jargon that surrounds this topic, and to avoid those terms that are not
useful for the purposes of military professionals assessing the terrorist threat.
3-13
3-14
Chapter 4
Assessing Terrorist Capabilities and Intentions
Everything was absolutely ideal on the day I bombed the Pentagon. The sky was
blue. The birds were singing. And the bastards were finally going to get what was
coming to them.
Bill Ayers, Former Weather Underground leader in his memoir Fugitive Days
This chapter examines the nature of the terrorist threat to U.S. military forces. Principal
themes focus on the following aspects:
• Understand who will want to engage U.S. military forces utilizing terror tactics, and why
attacking military targets would be desirable.
• Explore why particular U.S. forces would be targeted, and how that targeting is
accomplished against U.S. forces.
• Provide context by categorizing U.S. forces based upon their status as Deployed Forces,
In-transit Forces (deploying or redeploying), and Institutional (Non-deployable) Forces.
• Clarify the categorization of various threats by categorizing terrorist groups by their

functional capabilities. Each threat should be examined in the context of its particular
operational environment. The nature of terrorist individual or group associations and
affiliations, the current or projected levels of training, the decisionmaking authority within
an organization to plan and act, and the sophistication of other emergent tactics,
techniques, and procedures are examples of several critical variables
When discussing terrorist attacks on “military targets,” targets include individuals or facilities
that are attacked because of their military identity. These type attacks include off duty
personnel in civilian settings specifically attacked because of their status as military
personnel. Normally, this does not address military personnel or activities that are victims of
attacks directed at non-military targets.
Clarifying terminology assists in understanding terrorist aims in the context of goals

and objectives.
Objective: The standard definition of objective is – “The clearly defined, decisive, and
attainable aims which every military operation should be directed towards.”139 Terrorist
objectives refer to the intended outcome or result of one or a series of terrorist operations or
139
Joint Publication 1-02, Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated
Terms, 12 April 2001, as amended through 9 June 2004.
4-1
actions at the tactical or operational levels of war as described in Joint Pub 1-02: activities of
battles and engagements to accomplish objectives, may imply a broader dimension of time or
space than tactics; and provide means to exploit success to achieve strategic objectives.
Goals: The term goals will refer to the strategic end or end state that the terrorist objectives
are intended to obtain. Organization goals equate to a strategic level as in Joint Pub 1-02.
The United States entered the twenty-first century as the single most influential nation in the
world. The world perceives the United States as the sole remaining superpower, the victor of
the Cold War. Some quarters view the United States as a hegemonic enforcer of its own brand
of order and stability.140 Because of this influence, anyone seeking to change the existing
world order through aggression, coercion or violence sees the United States as an eventual
adversary. As a result, they seek means to challenge the United States. Various forms of low
intensity conflict, and competition and conflicts short of war are seen by most of America’s
potential adversaries as the most promising methods of presenting this challenge.141 Terrorism
is a component of these strategies.
U.S. diplomatic, military, and economic interventions have become more frequent, and more
significant in the last several decades. Because of this U.S. presence and influence abroad,
some antagonists see terrorism as the only effective means of competing with the United
States. In terms of effectiveness, al Qaeda alone has killed more Americans with terrorist
attacks than all of the casualties suffered in all the campaigns and interventions since 1980,
including both Gulf Wars. The resulting effects on the United States have been immense, and
the unprecedented response by the U.S. to the threat of terrorism encourages the belief that the
asymmetric approach of terrorism is the only way of defeating the United States.
As part of the overall primacy of American power, United States military forces have
demonstrated dominant conventional capabilities through successful campaigns and
participation in multiple international interventions. Despite this level of preeminence, U.S.
military forces remain vulnerable to terrorist operations.
There are concrete reasons to consider terrorism as a specific and pervasive risk for U.S.
forces. Factors contributing to a greater danger of attack to military forces are:
Some groups have actually identified the U.S. military as targets. Al Qaeda has specifically
identified military targets as one of its two major priorities,142 and the FARC has stated that
any U.S. forces deployed in Colombia are considered targets.
The improved protection or “hardening” of many non-military targets. Formerly, non-military

targets were “softer” due to a lower degree of security consciousness and a lack of belief in a
credible threat. Frequent attacks on non-military personnel and organizations, both
government and corporate, have resulted in the imposition of improved security measures,
greater threat awareness, and acceptance of increased expenditures for protection on many of
140
Qiao Liang and Wang Xiangsui, Unrestricted Warfare, trans. Department of State,
American Embassy Beijing Staff Translators (Washington, D.C., 1999).
141
Ibid., Part III.
142
4-2
these targets. This increase in the level of difficulty to the terrorist has reduced the bias toward
non-military targets.
The increasing exposure of forward deployed and internationally based military forces can
encourage terrorist activities. As of February 2004, the United States had military forces
located in over 120 countries performing duties from combat operations, to peacekeeping, to
training foreign militaries.143 Clearly, increases in the operations tempo and the number of
overseas deployments raise the odds that U.S. forces will operate in areas that are more
accessible to terrorist groups than CONUS or established overseas bases. This is especially
true when the potential military target may in fact come directly to the terrorist, operating in
his stronghold due to mission requirements. Likewise, some countries where U.S. forces are
permanently based have groups of domestic terrorists that would not be a threat outside that
country, yet pose significant risk to units or individuals stationed there.
The symbolic value of successful attacks against military targets has often been a
consideration in terrorist planning. This is now particularly true of the U.S. military, widely
perceived as the premiere military in the world. The primacy of the U.S. Department of
Defense in the response to the September 11th attacks, and the operations in Afghanistan and
Iraq further raises the profile of the U.S. military. Improved public perceptions about the
military from the U.S. viewpoint increase their value as terror targets. To many regions,
however, the U.S. member in the Armed Forces is a symbol of imperialism. Consequently,
striking at a respected institution whose members have public sympathy at home, and who is
perceived as a threat in many regions of the world, and who constitutes a direct threat to
terrorist groups will become highly attractive. The potential status and psychological impact
of such a coup is a strong inducement to all types of terrorist groups. Additionally, terrorist
groups recognize that even relatively small losses of military forces from terrorist
attacks receive extensive media coverage and can destroy popular and political
support for military operations by Western governments. 144
The aims and methods of terrorists – particularly religious extremists – have grown more
radical, innovative and difficult to predict. A generational change in leadership can have
varied outcomes. In some cases, more destruction may result; in other cases, organizations
may simply lose their cohesion and cease to be a significant influence. Added to this is the
effect of extended periods of turmoil and conflict in many regions of the world for the past
two decades. This provides recruits and followers that have been desensitized to violence, and
who have known nothing but conflict and insecurity for all of their lives. Reading the works
of people such as Mawdudi, Qutb, and Faraj, and the further interpretations of various
universities and Muslin clerics, concepts of violence and religion as a supposed support
should not appear surprising.145 As noted in Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam, “The
dispersion all over the world, after 1992, of the jihadist-salafists formerly concentrated in
143
“Where are the Legions? [SPQR] Global Deployments of US Forces,” Global Security.org, 16 April 2004, 1;
available from http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/global-deployments.htm; Internet; accessed 21 April
2004.
144
145
Mark Juergensmeyer, Terror in the Mind of God (Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press,
2000), 81-82.
4-3
Kabul [Afghanistan] and Peshawar [Pakistan], more than anything else, explains the sudden,
lightning expansion of radical Islamism in Muslim countries and the West.”146
Section I: Potential Adversaries and Their Motivations

Potential Adversaries
There are a large number of terrorist organizations active in the world today, and a wide
variety of them are potential antagonists willing to attack U.S. military forces throughout the
world. Some of these groups, such as al Qaeda are transnational in nature, whereas others
such as the Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) are more regionally focused.
However, in both cases, they have identified the U.S. military as potential targets. Appendix
A contains a listing of specific terrorist groups and their operational range. The threat
environment for terrorism is too dynamic to discuss specific groups or individuals in this
context, but identifying situations that may exacerbate or trigger the motivations of potential
adversaries can assist in developing some idea of whose interests are served by such attacks.
• Presence – Many antagonists are opposed to the presence of U.S. military forces in a
particular area, or the presence of organizations U.S. forces are safeguarding.
Frequently, this opposition is because the U.S. presence is preventing particular
political, military, or criminal activities, but it can also be culturally inspired. Another
possibility is that the presence of U.S. forces is viewed as an opportunity to eliminate
or dominate rival factions, and attacks on U.S. forces would be staged in the hopes
that the U.S. would encourage the suppression or disarmament of rivals. Usama bin
Laden is an excellent example of someone opposed to U.S presence in an area, i.e., the
Arabian Peninsula. In particular, he sees the United States as invaders of the land of
Islam by “occupying the territory of the Two Holy Places” (U.S. military bases in
Saudi Arabia).
• Culture – Antagonists who are directly opposed to one or more major characteristics
of American culture, such as capitalism, secular democracy, polytheism, pop culture,
women’s rights, sexual freedom, or racial tolerance; will attack Americans wherever
found. Groups primarily motivated by cultural differences will not differentiate
between civilian and military targets, other than in their respective degree of risk
and difficulty to attack.
• State of Conflict – Groups that feel that they are “at war,” or in a social or political
conflict with the United States will target military personnel and facilities to gain
legitimacy and make statements. Likewise, states that are engaged in or anticipate
hostilities with the U.S. will use sponsored terrorist organizations or clandestine
military or intelligence assets to attack military targets.147
146
Press): 299.
147
4-4
In considering who may be our potential antagonists, several things must be kept in mind.
While a “threat” is normally considered to be an actor with both the capability and intention
to actively oppose the U.S.,148 both these factors can shift rapidly when dealing with
terrorist organizations.
Evaluate all known and suspected terrorist groups in a regional area of operations regardless
of their previous attitude toward the U.S. and U.S. military. Terrorism is dynamic, and
behavior patterns volatile. Groups that are neutral or that avoided targeting U.S. interests in
the past can change their attitudes rapidly. Announced or perceived U.S. policy may
antagonize previously neutral groups, if that policy conflicts with the goals or objectives of
the group. Changes in leadership or internal fractionalization of a group may cause changes in
targeting policies or priorities. Also, any organization amoral enough to utilize terrorism as a
tactic will not hesitate in exploiting an “ally” or partner if the benefits seem to warrant it. For
all these reasons, assumptions regarding previous attitudes of terrorists toward targeting U.S.
military assets should be reexamined frequently and with a highly critical mindset.
In assessing potential antagonists, avoid considering only those threats that are viewed as
particularly large or well known. There is a popular tendency to allow the amount of media
attention a group can command to determine how we perceive its effectiveness or lethality.
Because of the nature of the modern news media, as well as the acknowledged skill of
terrorist groups in manipulating it, this is an invalid approach. Small, little known groups,
especially the “want-to-be” groups, can pose threats that are as probable as larger groups, and
every bit as dangerous. This is particularly true when operating in a region or country not
previously accustomed to a U.S. military presence, and where domestic or indigenous groups
may suddenly be presented with the opportunity of gaining international attention through an
attack on U.S. forces.
Motivations to Attack U.S. Forces
During the post-colonial and nationalist insurgencies of the Cold War, terrorists might
consider one civilian casualty was more effective than several military casualties. This was
due to the fact that many insurgencies had simultaneous military and terror campaigns, so the
novelty and impact of
military casualties was
lessened.149 Even when not “One corpse in a [suit] jacket is always worth more
involved in hostilities, than twenty in uniform. “
military casualties delivered
less psychological impact Ramdane Abane, Senior FLN Terrorist Leader
because of expectations that
military personnel are “at-
risk” due to their profession. Terrorists also pursue soft targets, preferring unarmed, less
secure victims. A saying attributed to any number of terrorists is “Why hunt wolves when
there are so many sheep about?” While there are exceptions to this, such as the consistent
targeting of British soldiers and police by the IRA, targeting civilians was the clearly
preferred tactic.
148
FM 7-100, Opposing Force Doctrinal Framework and Strategy, May 2003.
149
4-5
As terrorism became less and less associated with classical insurgencies and more
international in scope, the preference for civilian targets became less pronounced. American
military installations and personnel were frequently targeted in the 1980s and 1990s by anti-
NATO European terrorists, and by state sponsored terrorists acting on behalf of a variety of
regimes.150 These attacks generally struck at military targets that were not engaged in
hostilities, but that were accessible to the terrorists due to their being based or deployed
overseas. This trend has accelerated, although the focus has shifted from Europe to the
Persian Gulf region.
There are two strategic factors in terrorists accepting the greater risks associated with
attacking military targets: accessibility and symbolic value.
• Accessibility – Military forces are often based or deployed into areas that are
“permissive” to terrorist operations. These environments need not be destabilized
regions or failed and dysfunctional states such as Bosnia, Lebanon or Somalia, but can
also be functioning states with liberal laws, permissive border controls, and
existing terrorist infrastructures.
• Symbolic Value – For the United States, commitment of military forces is a significant
indicator of national interest, and carries major political consequences. Targeting
military forces so committed can achieve a greater visibility and significance than
targeting existing civilian targets such as diplomats or commercial personnel and
facilities. Additionally, the presence of U.S. forces in some regions, allegedly
offending political or religious sensibilities, can be presented as a justification for a
demonstration or attack.
Section II: Considerations in Targeting U.S. Forces

A principal consideration in terrorist targeting is the psychological impact on the selected
audience. U.S. forces whose destruction or damage would provide a psychological impact that
serves the goals of the terrorist are therefore at risk. However, a key point must be understood.
Assessment of risk to potential targets must focus less on their military value, and more on
their value to the terrorist in terms of psychological impact.
Risk Assessment
U.S. military risk assessment normally looks at what is most militarily valuable (mission
essential) to us. Operationally vital systems and equipment, or key personnel are assumed to
be at greater risk based upon an estimation of their military worth in particular conditions.
However, the benefits for a terrorist organization do not lie in defeating our military aims. A
terrorist may view value as a function of the overall psychological impact that destruction of a
target will have on a population, as well as the cascading physical effects of damaging or
destroying a critical piece or aspect of an organization or infrastructure. The loss of a single
piece of equipment (such as an artillery targeting radar) has important military impact, but
little psychological impact outside the unit or organization that relies on it. For a terrorist,
150
4-6
expending assets to destroy such a piece of equipment would not make sense unless it were
tied to some other event or objective.
From a terrorist’s perspective, targeting individual soldiers, especially those that are not
perceived to be in imminent danger or engaged in hostilities, is very effective. Several
soldiers kidnapped and gruesomely murdered would have a small overall military impact, but
a potentially huge psychological payoff for the terrorist. With the atrocity recorded as digital
video and streamed via multiple sources on the Internet to bypass any self-censorship news
networks might exercise, it would be accessible throughout the world. Palestinian groups have
conducted this tactic with varying degrees of success against Israeli soldiers and various
terrorist groups have used it against American civilians.
Consider the amount of media attention given the abduction and eventual murder of reporter
Daniel Pearl in 2002, and how the video of his murder was nearly presented on cable
television networks. Use of this tactic continued in 2004 when two Americans were
kidnapped and beheaded by terrorists. Nicholas Berg was an American businessman seeking
telecommunications work in Iraq when he was kidnapped and beheaded in May 2004.
Another American, Paul Johnson who worked for Lockheed Martin in Saudi Arabia, was
kidnapped and beheaded in June 2004. In both cases, the terrorists disseminated videos
(Berg) and pictures (Johnson) of the beheadings over the Internet.
Undoubtedly, the technique used in the three murders discussed above would be effective
even if soldiers were the victims. As a society, Americans value life and are often believed to
be adverse to any casualties. Terrorists understand this American trait, and as stated in
Chapter 2, view our aversion to casualties as a vulnerability. A case in point occurred during
the air campaign against Serbia in the spring of 1999. Three U.S. Army soldiers patrolling the
Yugoslav-Macedonian border during this period became separated from a larger patrol and
were captured by the Serbians. Serbian President Slobodan Milosevic orchestrated an
international media campaign during the capture and month long captivity of the three.
Maintaining an ambiguous stance on the status of the prisoners, and their possible fate,
Milosevic eventually scored a coup by releasing the three to an unofficial mission of
prominent American political figures, resulting in even more media coverage. In this case, the
political and psychological impact far outweighed any operational impact caused by the
capture of three soldiers and one vehicle. While Milosevic enjoyed some advantages as a head
of state that few terrorist organizations will possess, proper media manipulation can make up
this deficiency.
The media and sensational incidents can acquire a life of their own as reports and speculations
sometimes create an event far beyond the actual incident. Although not terrorist related, the
2003 publicity surrounding the wartime capture, rescue, and subsequent medical rehabilitation
of U.S. soldier Jessica Lynch quickly erupted as a major storyline and continued to stage
headlines for months after the combat action. Months later, she was still receiving national
and international news coverage on particular aspects of the capture.151
151
“Too Painful” ABC News [news on-line] 11 November, 2003; available from
http://abcnews.go.com/sections/Primetime/US/Jessica_Lynch_031106-1.html; Internet; accessed 12 February
2004.
4-7
Reasons for Targeting
With the variety of terrorist motivations and goals, the reasons to target U.S. military units or
individual personnel are equally varied. The most common motivations in recent history are
discussed below.
Demonstration of Capability
This is a method to demonstrate a group’s ability to deliver on its threats, and to establish a
level of effectiveness as a future threat. Targets may be selected for either military or
symbolic value, but the true intent is to show that the terrorist has the capability to negate a
U.S. military advantage and concurrently promote their organizational agenda. Senior military
officials are often a target. The Red Army Faction (RAF) conducted numerous terrorist
activities against military presence in Germany and countries of the North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO) in the 1970s and 1980s. Shifting from goals for a complete revolution
of German society, the RAF concentrated much of their capabilities on a campaign to reduce
NATO and U.S. military presence in Germany as a way to possibly build a more sympathetic
understanding for societal change in Germany.152
In 1979, the RAF attempted to assassinate General Alexander Haig, the Supreme Allied
Commander in Europe and NATO. A remotely controlled bomb had been placed in a road
culvert near Casteau, Belgium that was used frequently by General Haig. A detonator of nine-
volt batteries and a household switch connected the bomb via 500 feet of wire that was
camouflaged by earth and grass. The blast lifted the general’s car into the air and damaged the
accompanying security vehicle; three guards in the security vehicle were lightly injured.153
In 1981, General Frederick Kroesen and his wife were slightly injured when their car was
attacked by terrorists, believed to be associated with the RAF, with rocket propelled grenades
and gunfire. The assassination attempt occurred near Heidelberg, Germany, as the general was
enroute to his headquarters as the Commander in Chief of United States Army Europe and
Commander of NATO’s Central Army Group. One site about 200 yards from the target point
evidenced terrorist surveillance activity with an abandoned tent, radio transmitter, sleeping
bag, and food.154 Fortunately the terrorists failed in their attempts to assassinate General
Kroesen and General Haig; however, these attacks are examples of terrorist groups
demonstrating their capabilities to deliver on their threats.
A more recent and more successful example is the Khobar Towers attack in Saudi Arabia. To
Islamic fundamentalists, the presence of U.S. military forces in Saudi Arabia is considered
particularly offensive due to the religious importance of the Saudi city of Mecca. In June of
1996, a housing facility for U.S. Air Force personnel near Dhahran, Saudi Arabia was
attacked with a large truck bomb. The Khobar Towers attack killed nineteen U.S. Air Force
152
153
John Vinocur, “Bomb Attempt on Gen. Haig’s Life Not Tied to Major Terrorist Groups,” New York Times,
27 June 1979, p. A13.
154
John Vinocur, “U.S. General Safe in Raid in Germany,” New York Times. 16 September 1981, p. A1.
4-8
personnel and wounded about 400 other U.S. military members,155 and demonstrated terrorist
ability to back up threats with effective action. Members of Saudi Hizballah, a member of
Lebanese Hizballah, and an unnamed Iranian were indicted by the U.S. Department of Justice
for this act of terrorism. On the heels of this attack, terrorists declared war on American forces
in the Persian Gulf region in August 1996, and announced that all U.S. forces must be
withdrawn, or suffer further attacks.
Influence U.S. Policy
Terrorists can attack military forces with the intent to force a change in U.S. policy. Hizballah
and their Syrian sponsors were concerned that the deployment of international peacekeeping
forces into Lebanon in the spring of 1983 would reduce their freedom of action in the ongoing
Lebanese Civil War. Near-simultaneous suicide truck bomb attacks on the U.S. Marine and
French paratroop barracks in October of 1983 killed 241 U.S. servicemen, and 60 French
paratroopers. Combined with an earlier bombing campaign against the embassies of the U.S.
and other countries, these attacks resulted in the withdrawal of the international military force.
Domestic Politics
The desire to discredit U.S. Federal, state,

and local governments can result in military
units and personnel being targeted by
domestic groups. Anti-war extremist groups
targeted ROTC detachments, draft board
offices, and university facilities involved in
military research during the Vietnam War.156
The Weather Underground likewise targeted
recruiting offices in the late 70’s. Both of
these campaigns were undertaken to
influence U.S. domestic politics. In more
recent times, various anti-government
groups have targeted CONUS military bases
believing them to be staging areas for
United Nations directed foreign military Figure 4-1. U.S. Marine Barracks, Beirut
forces. During the twenty-year period from (Source: USMC Photo)
1980 to 1999 (inclusive), thirteen specifically domestic military targets were struck by
terrorist activity. This does not count military facilities or personnel who were collocated in
the other 101 U.S. Government targets that were attacked.157
155
156
International Encyclopedia of Terrorism, 1997 ed., s.v. “Student Terror: The Weathermen “
157
Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation, Counterterrorism Threat Assessment and Warning
Unit, Counterterrorism Division, Terrorism in the United States 1999, Report 0308, (Washington, D.C., n.d.),
53.
158
Colonel James “Nick” Rowe (Psychological Operations Web Site, n.d.); available at
http://www.psywarrior.com/ rowe.html; Internet; accessed 7 January 2003.
4-9
Reduce Military Capability
Military forces can be targeted to reduce or remove a specific capability or impair

effectiveness. Killing one key or very effective individual can also reduce the motivation for
others to accept responsible positions or perform above the norm, and thereby risk becoming
targets. This tactic will usually be combined with some symbolic justification, such as
“justice” applied by the terrorists because of alleged “war crimes” perpetrated by the victim.
The assassination of Colonel Nick Rowe in Manila provides a good example of this. Colonel
Rowe was in charge of the Joint U.S. Military Assistance Group for the Philippines. His two
years there had been spent contributing to the improvement of the Philippine Army’s
counterinsurgency capability, and the insurgent New People’s Army (NPA) felt he was doing
his job too well. He was assassinated in April of 1989 in a moving ambush where small arms
fire defeated the protection of his armored official vehicle. The NPA announced that the
reason for the assassination was Colonel Rowe’s notable Vietnam service record. The NPA
hoped this would draw the parallel that the Philippines were becoming “another Vietnam.”
This justification was not stressed at the time, and seems to have been of much
less importance to the NPA than the elimination of the threat posed by Colonel
Rowe’s activities. 158
Prevent or Delay Deployment
During Operation Desert Shield, Saddam Hussein called for terrorist activity to be directed
against the countries of the coalition preparing to invade Iraq. Attacks conducted by
indigenous terrorist groups Dev Sol and 17 November took place against U.S. staging areas in
Turkey and Greece. Iraq directly supported these overseas attacks with weapons components
delivered via diplomatic pouch and other assistance.159 Although Saddam Hussein did not
have the influence to convince or compel a larger Mideast surge in terrorism, terrorist
activities in general did increase during the period of the air campaign and subsequent
invasion of Iraq, totaling 275 incidents.160 Due to extensive counter-terrorism efforts and
international coordination, the overall effort to disrupt coalition deployments was ineffective.
However, this period is a vivid example of the threat that both deployed and deploying units
may face in the future.
In addition to terrorist activities outside Iraq, the Iraqi government conducted what amounted
to the largest hostage taking in modern time. They seized 10,000 Kuwaiti citizens, and
hundreds of foreigners resident in Iraq, as “human shields” immediately after the start of
Operation Desert Shield and during preparations for the liberation of Kuwait. Fortunately,
most of the hostages were released before the initiation of Desert Storm.161
Other terrorist incidents indicate the potential for disrupting deployments or materiel in
transit. The tensions of political, environmental, and economic impacts add to the specific
damage or destruction of an incident. The terrorist suicide boat bombing in 2002 of the
159
Christopher C. Harmon, Terrorism Today (London: Frank Cass Publishers, 2000; reprint,
Portland: Frank Cass Publishers, 2001), 52.
160
Ibid., 52.
161
4-10
French tanker ship Limburg near Ash Shihr and east of Aden spilled 90,000 barrels of oil
into the ocean and contaminated 45 miles of coastline.162 One immediate economic impact
of this small boat and TNT detonation next to the Limburg was a maritime insurance
increase in rates that tripled in the Yemeni area.163 Another incident involved the suicide
boat bombing of the USS Cole in 2000 while the ship was moored at a refueling point in
Aden, Yemen. Terrorists exploited access control measures and perimeter security
vulnerabilities of waterside approaches to the naval ship while near the coastline. The result,
besides the international media attention, was 17 sailors killed, 42 crewmembers wounded,
as well as extensive damage to the ship.164 In more recent military operations, during the
preparation for and conduct of Operation Iraqi Freedom, threat of terrorist attacks
contributed to decisions by Turkey that significantly limited U.S. use of Turkish territory,
facilities, and materiel.
Section III: Categorizing Terrorist Groups by Capability

As discussed in Chapter 3, there are many different terms and labels used to describe terrorist
organizations. Most of these terms provide little or no information of value to the military
professional in assessing the true threat of a terrorist group as an adversary. For the unit at risk
of terrorist attack, it is important to understand the capabilities the groups have that can be
employed against the military unit.
In this section we will discuss a method to assist armed forces personnel in the rapid and clear
assessment and comparison of terrorist threats based upon militarily relevant criteria. It is
designed to help describe terror groups by their capabilities to target and attack U.S. military
“Asymmetric challenges can arise across the spectrum of conflict that

will confront US forces in a theater of operations or on US soil.”
"Global Trends 2015: A Dialogue About the Future With Nongovernment

Experts" Report (December 2000).
forces, rather than by legal status, political or religious characteristics, or other value-based
criteria. Capability-driven group descriptions are desirable for a variety of reasons.
Descriptions of Capabilities are Neutral. Terms describing capabilities are less likely to be
emotionally charged. Attaching politically or socially relevant descriptions to a group allows
162
“Evidence Points to Yemen Terror Attack,” CBS News.com [database on-line]; available from
http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/10/06/world/main524488.shtml; Internet; accessed 21 January 2004.
163
“The Terrorism Maritime Threat,” United Press International 2 December 2003 [Militarycom database on-
line]; Internet; accessed 21 January 2004; and, “French Tanker Explosion Confirmed as Terror Attack,”
[database on-line]; available from http://www.ict.org.il/spotlight/det.cfm?id=837; Internet; accessed 21 January
2004.
164
Statement Before the 107th [U.S.] Congress, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Senate Armed Services
Committee May 3, 2001; [database on-line] available from
http://www.dtic.mil/jcs/chairman/3MAY01_SASC_CJCS.htm; Internet; accessed 18 February 2004.
4-11
value judgments to be made relative to those terms. Also, like legal categories and other
methods of classifying terrorists, they do not contain much useful information for leaders and planners.
Descriptions of Capability do not Constrain. Accepting descriptions that focus on

ideological or religious motivations for terrorist groups can be misleading, and encourage
false assumptions. Ideological considerations do play a part in determining if a group will
target U.S. forces, but they have no effect on that group’s capability to do so. Any group can
become a threat because it’s announced objectives or ideology can change or are misleading,
perhaps even unimportant.165 Also, changes to the political situation, U.S. policy, or the role or
mission of U.S. forces may cause formerly neutral or ideologically allied groups to become hostile.
A relatively recent example is Afghanistan following the 1979 Soviet intervention. Initially,
the United States provided massive aid to help the Afghan resistance after the Soviets invaded
in December of 1979. Many of these Afghan fighters confronted the Soviets as a corrupting
Western influence and the fatwas issued by the ulemas interpreted the Soviet intervention as
an invasion of the territory of Islam by the impious. However, these same fighters willingly
accepted Western aid in fighting the Soviet occupation. Perceptions of both the United States
and the mujahedeen changed, though, following the defeat of the Soviets. After the Soviets
withdrew in 1989, the Afghan cause lost some of its strategic importance and the U.S.
changed its view on its support to these “freedom fighters.” Washington reduced financial
support, and the U.S. Congress became concerned with the drug trade and involvement by
mujahedeen leaders. Consequently, these mujahedeen leaders were classified as extremists
and the supply of U.S. arms stopped.166 From the viewpoint of the mujahedeen, they had
defeated the Soviets and seemed to forget the support they received from the United States.
Many of these jihad veterans became followers of a new breed of Islamist ideology, jihadist-
salafism, whose perception of the world involved religious doctrine and armed violence and
whose first doctrinal principle was to rationalize the existence and behavior of militants.
Although their anti-Western sentiment was set aside while the United States supported
them in their jihad against the Soviets, this attitude returned after the Soviets withdrew
and their primary target became the United States, who was perceived as the greatest
enemy of the faith.167
Measures of Capability are Militarily Significant. Most systems used to classify terrorists
are militarily irrelevant. For the most part, knowing the legal status, social orientation, or
political theory of a potential truck bomber is of less value than knowing what sort of
explosive devices he can afford, where in the operational area he can strike, and what level of
local support and sympathizers he can expect. Motivations and behaviors are important to
long term terror and counter-terror strategies, but play a minor role in the tactical activities of
terrorists and the true threat opposing our forces.
165
166
Press): 136-150.
167
Ibid., 218-220.
4-12
Specific Measures of Capability
In describing the capabilities of a terrorist group, simple, measurable, concrete terms have
been selected for use. These are the objective, levels of support, training, and operational
presence of a particular group. These factors drive the capabilities of a terrorist organization,
not the ideology, religion, or status as determined by U.S. legislation or UN resolution. This
method is not intended to add another layer of nomenclature to an already thick coat that
covers terrorism analysis. It is designed to be a method by which unit leaders and planners can
organize pertinent, objective data about potential threats. This data must be researched or
obtained from available intelligence information on specific threats within the AOR (Area Of
Responsibility) as the unit prepares to conduct operations.
Objective
By determining what the group wishes to accomplish, the likelihood and circumstances under
which that group would target U.S. forces or facilities can be determined.
The objective may be derived from both communications of the organization and the actions
it undertakes. Group communications must be examined with a critical eye toward the use of
rhetoric and dogma. As mentioned in Chapter 2, ideological material may be unimportant to
the actual objectives of a group. Actual indicators in terrorist communiqués are likely to be:
what potential targets are concretely threatened and what organizations or individuals are
identified with negative concepts or de-humanizing language. A group may declare itself to be
“anti-colonialist”, but in fact ignore targets associated with a nation that has colonies, and associate
“colonialism” with another organization such as NATO, which they intend to target.
A 2004 training publication by al Qaeda is an illustration of organizational communications

transmitting the objectives of the group. In March 2004, al Qaeda released new targeting
guidance to its members and other jihad groups around the world. The guidance was in a 9-
page article called “The Targets Inside the Cities” and focused on urban targets. The
document listed the various categories of targets, the rationale for striking them, and examples
of targets within each category. It also explained the advantages of conducting operations
against cities, as well as the disadvantages. 168
Support
There are several types of support that provide information about a terrorist group’s
capabilities. These are measures of the strength of financial, political, and popular support for
a group, as well as the number of personnel and sympathizers it has. These factors indicate an
organization’s abilities to conduct and sustain operations, gather intelligence, seek sanctuary
and exploit the results of operations.
168
Ben N. Venzke, al-Qaeda Targeting Guidance – Version 1.0 (Alexandria, VA: IntelCenter/Tempest
Publishing, LLC, 2004), 3-11.
4-13
• Financial: Is the organization well funded? Money is probably the greatest “force
multiplier” of terrorist capabilities, and a well financed group can trade money for virtually
any imaginable object or ability that their objectives require, especially weapons and
equipment (discussed below). Financial support is a question of both income and
expenditures. Many of the nationalist terror groups of significant durability (IRA, Hizballah)
have incredibly large budgets, but they also have the infrastructure costs and political or social
support obligations that come with building an alternative government or social structure.
HAMAS is an example of a terrorist organization that has strong financial backing. Although
the actual amount of money available to HAMAS is difficult to determine, estimates are that
they receive several tens of millions of dollars per year. Sources for their funding includes
unofficial sources in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf states, including approximately $3 million per
year from Iran. They also receive funds from several charities and from some profitable
economic projects.169
• Political: Does the organization have political sponsors or representation, either within
international, state, or sub-state political bodies? This measures the degree to which a group is
state sponsored or supported. It also considers whether the organization has its own political
representatives or party that supports its aims (if not its methods). Political support blurs the
lines between terrorism and other forms of conflict, and can generate sympathy and reduce
negative consequences.
Iran is probably the most active state supporter of terrorism. As reported in the State
Department’s 2002 Patterns of Global Terrorism, Iran provided Hizballah and several
Palestinian rejectionist groups, including HAMAS, the Palestine Islamic Jihad, and the
Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine-General Command, with funding, safehaven,
training, and weapons.170
• Popular: Popular support is the level of sympathy and passive or active support for the
organization among populations it affects to represent, or operates within. Support from a
constituency increases the effectiveness of other types of support. It makes funds go farther,
and increases the legitimacy and visibility of a group. Popular support from populations the
terrorists operate within reduces the security risks, and complicates the tasks of detection and
defeat for the security forces.
The United Self-Defense Forces of Colombia, or AUC, is an example of a terrorist

organization with strong popular support. Its leaders reported that between 2002 and 2003,
AUC strength grew from 8,000 to 14,000 combatants. Once backed mostly by wealthy
business and ranching interests and former military leaders, it is receiving increasing support
from poor Colombians.171
169
“Hamas,” International Policy Institute for Counter-Terrorism, Profiles of International Terrorist
Organizations, n.d., 5-6; available from http://www.ict.org.il/inter_ter/orgdet.cfm?orgid=13; Internet; accessed
26 April 2004.
170
(Washington, D.C., April 2003), 77.
171
Scott Wilson, “A Transfer of Power in Colombia: Paramilitary’s Rise Unintended Outcome of U.S.
Assistance,” Washington Post Foreign Service, 27 December 2001, 2; available from
4-14
The number of personnel and sympathizers: These are the actual workers and operators for
the group, both active and “sleeper.” This bears more upon the number of operations a group
may undertake than the type of operations. The size of a group in terms of the number of
personnel is important, but less so than other aspects of support. A small, well-funded, highly
trained group may effectively attack targets in CONUS, whereas a larger, poorly funded,
untrained group may be no direct threat to U.S. targets other than those in immediate
proximity to its base area of operations. For instance, the Japanese Red Army (JRA)
conducted numerous attacks around the world in the 1970s, including an attempted takeover
of the U.S. Embassy in Kuala Lumpur. In 1988, the JRA was suspected of bombing a USO
club in Naples, where 5 people were killed, including a U.S. servicewoman. Concurrent with
this attack in Naples, a JRA operative was arrested with explosives on the New Jersey
Turnpike, apparently planning an attack to coincide with the attack of the USO. Although the
JRA conducted attacks around the world, the JRA only has six hard-core members, and at its
peak, only had 30-40 members.172
Training
Training is the level of proficiency with tactics, techniques, technology and weapons useful to
terrorist operations. It measures the abilities of a group in terms of specific operations and
activities that threaten friendly forces. Keep in mind that innovative application of tactics can
render moderately innocuous activities threatening. For example, the ability to stage a
peaceful demonstration may be used to set the conditions for a riot that will provide cover for
sniper assassinations of responding security forces.
The proliferation of expertise and technology has enabled groups that do not possess
particular skills to obtain them relatively rapidly. In addition to the number of terrorists and
terror groups that are willing and available to exchange training with one another, there are
also experts in the technical, scientific, operational, and intelligence fields willing to provide
training or augment operational capabilities for the right price.
Al Qaeda is well known for its extensive training. They have assembled thousands of pages
of written training material and hundreds of hours of training videos. Training tapes have
shown al Qaeda operatives conducting live fire exercises for a number of scenarios. These
scenarios include assassinations, kidnappings, bombings, and small unit raids on various types
of targets. Additionally, they conduct detailed planning, diagramming, and walk-through
rehearsals prior to the actual live-fire exercise.
In the technology area, Aum Shinrikyo, has demonstrated its ability with chemicals and
biological agents. It’s most notable terrorist action was the release of sarin gas in five
different subway trains in Tokyo in March 1995. However, it had released sarin previously in
a Matsumoto residential area in June 1994. The cult has also cultured and experimented with
http://www.colhrnet.igc.org/newitems/may02/wp_transfer_power_27dec01.htm; Internet; accessed 26 April

2004.
172
(Washington, D.C., April 2003), 137.
4-15
numerous biological agents, to include botulin toxin, anthrax, cholera, and Q fever.
Fortunately they were unsuccessful.173
Operational Presence
This indicates where a group can operate, and what limits there are to expansion of its
operational area. It considers the physical locations of a group’s assets, and the capability to
move and conduct activities beyond those locations. Although the physical presence of group
members is an important factor for determining operational presence, it must be noted that a
terrorist cell can have a variety of functions, and not all cells have direct action capability.
Many terrorist organizations have extensive support networks within the continental United
States, but have not developed an operational capability to match. Their infrastructure within
the U.S. is designed primarily to acquire funding and equipment. Yet they could contribute to
a rapid expansion of operational capability into the U.S. if required.
For most groups today, their operational presence is determined by their strategic goals,
operational objectives, and funding levels, rather than by physical constraints such as
geographical distance. Terrorists have exploited the increasing economic, information, and
transportation linkages around the globe to expand their presence. The tools available to
terrorists to defeat travel controls include support or sponsorship from rogue states, alliances
with criminal trafficking and smuggling networks, technologically enhanced forging
operations, and simple bribery.
Weapons and Equipment
The weaponry and equipment available is an important part of any capabilities assessment of
organizations that use violence. A separate measure of these categories has not been included
in our measures above due to the rapidity of change in this area, and the relation of weapons
and equipment capabilities to financial strength. Whereas conventional military organizations
rely upon standardization, and often have the problem of “legacy” systems that must be used
in lieu of the most modern technologies, terrorists rely upon weapons and equipment tailored
to each new operational requirement. If a simple weapon such as a RPG-7 will do the job, it
will be used. If not, an appropriate system will be purchased. Since terrorists do not have to
go through long acquisition processes like conventional militaries, their only limitation in
obtaining state-of-the-art systems is financing, availability of the equipment, and training.
Terrorists use a broad range of weapons. Virtually any type of firearm can be employed, plus
a wide variety of improvised explosive devices and conventional military munitions that are
adapted for use for specific operational requirements. Additionally, some terrorists have
employed both chemical and biological agents. Appendices D-G are provided as an
introduction to various types of terrorist weaponry and their attack capabilities.
173
Kyle B. Olson, “Aum Shinrikyo: Once and Future Threat?” Emerging Infectious Diseases, no. 4 (July-August
1999): 513-514.
4-16
Proxies
Terrorist capabilities are solely a function of the individual group or organization. As

previously mentioned, many groups maintain links to rogue states, criminal gangs, activist
groups, and other organizations that can expand their capabilities. This expansion may exceed
the traditional areas of training and logistic assistance. It can include the actual conduct of
operations, with one group acting as a proxy for the other. This is extremely dangerous, as it
grafts the motivation and objectives of the group requesting an operation onto the capabilities
and characteristics of the organization executing the operation.
Revolutionary groups such as the Baader-Meinhof Gang and the JRA provided operational
personnel or undertook specific missions for Palestinian groups in the 1970s in exchange for
training and support. Iraqi efforts to instigate terrorist activities as part of their strategy during
the Gulf War174 have been mentioned previously. Many of these attacks were instigated out of
shared anti-U.S. objectives, whereas others were in exchange for the support Iraq provided the
terrorist groups. In many cases there were previous linkages, and due to the expectation that
Iraq would attempt to use the terrorism weapon, security and counter-terrorism forces were
alert to these proxy activities.
While proxies generally share some goals or ideological basis with their sponsors or clients,
this need not be the case. Purely mercenary proxy operations are possible, and sometimes
even ideological opposites can find points where they can cooperate. The American Neo-Nazi
and Christian Identity movements would seem to have nothing in common with Islamic
fundamentalist groups, but in fact they have been cautiously exploring their shared anti-
Semitism. Under the right conditions, this may prove to be enough agreement to lead to a
proxy relationship.
For U.S. military forces, the most significant threat from a proxy attack is similar to the Gulf
War scenario discussed above. A local or regional terrorist group could accept incentives to
strike U.S. staging areas inaccessible to a hostile power against which the U.S. is deploying.
Unlike Desert Storm, it is likely that some of these terrorist operations in the future will take
place against units and facilities within the U.S. itself.
Conclusion
In this chapter we placed the threat to U.S. forces in a conceptual framework that allows unit
planners and leaders to organize and interpret the threat information available to them. We
have shown some of the motivations and objectives that exist for attacking military targets,
and introduced a method of understanding terrorist organizations in a militarily useful
manner. In Chapter 5 we will look at the various categories of U.S. military forces in relation
to terrorist threats.
174
4-17
4-18
Chapter 5
Terrorist Targeting of U.S. Military Forces
This chapter examines the threats to U.S. military forces. The intention is to provide a survey
of likely terrorist actions. The descriptions are neither a region specific intelligence product
nor an exhaustive list of terrorist scenarios, but does present techniques that have been used
against U.S. forces in particular situations. Assessment and insight may assist risk
management and situational awareness of potential terrorist activities.
Reviewing the 2004 casualty statistics from terrorist operations in 2003, there was an increase
of nearly 140% in total casualties from 2002. Of the 4,271 casualties in 2003, the military
accounted for 1% of the worldwide figures. Although this is relatively small compared to the
large number of casualties in the “other” category (primarily civilians), Chart 5-1
demonstrates that government targets, which include the military, are definite objectives of
terrorist attacks. Further, despite only three attacks directed at military facilities, versus 15 at
diplomatic targets, military casualties exceeded diplomatic casualties by over five-to-one.175
This indicates a significantly higher casualty rate per attack for military targets.
Chart 5-1: Total Casualties by Type 2003
Business
1%
Military
(29)
1%
Diplomat (44)
0% Government
(8) 8%
(355)
Other
90% Total Casualties: 4,271
(3,835)
The 2004 data analyzed in 2005 cannot be compared to the previous year’s information in
Patterns of Global Terrorism. Starting in 2005, the National Counterterrorism Center (NCTC)
provides a chronology of international terrorism, A Chronology of Significant International
Terrorism for 2004, but qualifies that this chronology is not a complete accountability of
175
(Washington, D.C., April 2004, revised 22 June 2004), 5.
5-1
global terrorist activity. The NCTC also cautions against using incident data alone to gauge
success in the War on Terrorism. Criteria for qualifying incidents in this 2005 report have
many conditions that include political, religious, philosophical, and cultural motivations;
noncombatant definitions; and types of criminal actions that are excluded. Notwithstanding,
data in the report and how terrorist attacks were conducted may include incidents against
members of the U.S. Armed Forces, and civilians and police, outside of war zones or warlike
settings. For a perspective on methods used in the 64 significant international terrorists
attacks involving U.S. citizens or U.S. facilities in 2004, the National Counterterrorism
Center’s A Chronology of Significant International Terrorism for 2004 presents numbers and
percentages that indicate bombing and armed attack are the most common methods.
Kidnapping is the next most recurring method.176
Section I: Categories of U.S. Forces

In discussing the likelihood of particular threats to U.S. forces, situations are grouped in a
simple classification of a military unit as deployed, in-, or institutional -- an organization that
is nondeployable and operates permanently from a fixed location such as an installation or
base. This system was used since terrorist targeting of U.S. vulnerabilities may be more
concerned with the situational context of the unit at a particular place and time than with the
unit’s mission. Sections II through IV discuss each situation in detail.
Deployed Forces
This category consists of units that are deployed to locations other than their permanent base.
Units that are normally stationed in Germany or Korea do not fit in this category. Because
they are located overseas in those countries, U.S. forces have the infrastructure and local
familiarity similar to a unit located at a continental U.S. (CONUS) post, base, or installation.
Deployed units are assumed to be operating away from their permanent bases, on either
operational missions or training exercises. This category includes named contingency
operations, fixed rotations into stability operations, and training assistance to foreign
militaries, but is not intended to address individual assignments to overseas locations such as
attaches or foreign study students.
In Transit Forces (Deploying or Redeploying)
These units are either preparing for or in the process of deployment and redeployment
operations. This includes active component units within CONUS or permanently based
overseas, even if not currently identified for movement, and reserve component units that are
identified for named operations or notified for mobilization.
176
National Counterterrorism Center, A Chronology of Significant International Terrorism, “Statistics on
Significant International Terrorism, “ 27 April 2005, 85.
5-2
Institutional (Non-Deployable) Forces
These are active and reserve component garrisons, training and logistic facilities, and other
activities and installations that do not deploy to accomplish their organizational mission.
Section II: Terrorist Threat to Deployed Forces

In this chapter, risk to deployed forces is identified as primary, potential, and possible threats.
These threats are expressed in general terms without actual terrorist group names, but include
likely tactics, techniques, and procedures used against U.S. forces. Within this concept, terrorists
understand normal measures of U.S forces operational security and force protection.
Environments and Conditions
Terrorists prefer to function in

environments that reinforce their
strengths and negate enemy The Impact of Martial Law
advantages. They want to maintain The Battle of Algiers
secrecy while discovering enemy
information, and focus on their In the post-WWII surge of nationalist insurrections, the
objective while denying their adversary most notorious use of military authority to combat
terrorism was the campaign waged by the French 10th
a concentration to strike and achieve Colonial Parachute Division against the urban terrorists
surprise. In some cases urban terrain of the Algerian insurgent movement FLN in the capital
favors the terrorist in accomplishing city of Algiers.
these ends. Cities provide the terrorist
with a population to conceal personnel, Algeria was one of the French colonies expecting to
gain increased local rule, or perhaps independence, in
structures and facilities to hide and the aftermath of WWII. When this did not occur, a
store equipment or weapons, and nationalist insurgency began. By 1957 the nationalist
transportation nodes for movement. groups, particularly the FLN, had been successfully
carrying out a campaign of intimidation and terror that
One example of terrorism in an urban they felt would drive the French out of Algeria. The
French responded by allowing the Army, in the person
environment is the Algerian quest for of General Massu and his paras [soldiers], to employ
sovereignty in a violent period of post- legalized barbarity against the FLN and suspected
World War II nationalism. (See text sympathizers. This included torture, mutilation, and
box below) Regardless of the locale, murder.
terrorists will try to choose environ-
The resulting campaign of terror and counter-terror has
ments that are familiar to the terrorist become known as the “Battle of Algiers,” as much of
but are unfamiliar to U.S. forces. the activity was initially concentrated in the capital city.
Additionally, terrain and locations that re- While the French military scored significant successes,
strict the full use of military capabilities and broke the terrorist and guerilla forces in battle, they
can be used to the terrorist advantage. lost the war. Political support for the brutal suppression
of the Algerians was eventually lost which directly
contributed to the fall of the French constitution. After
Terrorists prefer an environment that is two attempted coups by French colonists in Algeria
chaotic. A fluid, poorly policed or un- fearing that the mother country [France] was giving in,
controlled situation often permits France finally granted Algerian independence in 1962.
suspicious activities to go unnoticed.
As a norm, terrorists prefer that the
5-3
environment is not completely or continuously hostile. Hostile environ-ments put military

forces on their guard, reduce the opportunities to get close to targets without being challenged
or detained, and increase the difficulty of achieving any degree of operational surprise.
Terrorist groups will normally avoid operating as terrorists within actual combat-like
environments. Doing so negates advantages and allows significant military strength to be used
against terrorist operations. These capabilities include battlefield intelligence and detection
systems, weapons firepower, and reduced legal constraints on the use of force and the
authority to arrest and detain, such as martial law or some variation of control.
However, terrorist operations can be successful during close combat operations. Chechen
terrorists and paramilitary forces added psychological stress to Russian conventional
operations in 1994-1995 during the attacks in the Grozny region. Separating terrorist activities
from military action was difficult as tanker trucks were booby-trapped with explosives, roads
were mined, and civilians were held hostage. Chechens were sent to misinform Russian forces
about Chechen tactical plans, while some Chechens acted as a network of informers on
Russian movements. Reports spoke of Chechen men and women swearing an oath to commit
subversive and terrorist actions in far away Moscow.177 Examples of terror and counter-terror
among military, paramilitary, and civilian populations are not unique to the Chechen issue.
Terrorists may use the advantages of surprise and security by hiding within a population.
Sometimes terrorists may forego specific terror activities and operate as guerillas in areas of
active combat operations. They can also operate as part of an insurgency force in combat
operations. In Operation Iraqi Freedom, al Qaeda or foreign terrorists associated with al
Qaeda have been involved in insurgency operations in Iraq since the inception of the war.
Terrorists know that deployed military forces will usually operate in one of two general
environments of base camps or tactical (field) locations. Base camps are characterized by
fixed facilities, either constructed or requisitioned, to provide shelter, support, and defensive
capabilities to the units operating from them. This may include fixed airfields and port
facilities. Base camps of military forces provide a much more stable and predictable target for
terrorist planning. Of note, terrorist attacks carried out on U.S. units in Beirut (1983) and
Khobar Towers in Saudi Arabia (1996) were in fixed billeting areas attacked by “purpose
built” vehicle-borne improvised explosive devices (VBIEDs).
Tactical environments are considered to be those where the unit operates with only organic
support in the field and no fixed facilities other than what the unit can improvise or what structures
happen to be on the terrain. Units in tactical conditions have experienced casualties from
gunfire and explosives but nothing comparable to the damage to the fixed facilities and
related deaths of military members and civilians.
Terrorist incidents such as the sea-surface bombing of the USS Cole (2000) in Yemen
illustrate the innovation of tactics and techniques against naval forces. Although Aden Harbor
was not a permanent facility, the USS Cole was moored to a fixed refueling facility while in
transit to its operational mission area. The Navy had been using the harbor for over a year for
177
KS: U.S. Army Command and General Staff College Press, 2003), 176-177.
5-4
refueling operations. Terrorists had been conducting surveillance of these types of refueling
operations and knew how long the ship would probably be in a fixed position in order to
conduct a bomb attack.
Although deployed U.S. forces will be located in areas that are conducive, at times, to terrorist
operations, these same forces have some advantages that can mitigate the risks of being
targeted for terrorist operations. Several significant aspects are as follow:
• They are typically in a significantly enhanced force protection posture. Higher levels of
alertness, control of approaches and access routes, and implementation of defensive
measures reduce the likelihood of terrorist success, increase the costs to an attacker, and
mitigate damage from successful attacks.
• They conduct appropriate planning and training to defeat or control hostile action. While
this preparation may not specifically address terrorism, it does increase the
probability of effective defense against attack, and reduces the casualties and
damage if an attack should occur.
• Deployed units typically have increased access to intelligence assets and products. This
information increases the effectiveness of the unit’s own intelligence, counter-intelligence,
and force protection efforts.
Primary Threats
The primary threats to deployed forces will normally come from existing in-theater terrorist
groups. This will often be in response to the U.S. military presence, or an attempt to influence
U.S. policies in a region. Terrorist groups may try to minimize their movement of personnel
and equipment into the area of
operations after the arrival of U.S.
forces to avoid detection. Whenever
possible they will attempt to pre-
position operational assets.
A most dangerous form of attack

historically used against deployed
U.S. forces is the large vehicle-borne
improvised explosive device (VBIED).
This tactic has been used primarily
against units in a base camp
environment. The setback and
protection common to deployed unit
Figure 5-1. Khobar Towers Dhahran, 1996 perimeters requires a powerful
(Source: DOD Photo) weapon to produce the large number
of casualties and blast effects the
terrorists want to achieve. A means to
deliver adequate explosive weight to offset or negate layered security measures is a
vehicle. VBIEDs equaling thousands of pounds of explosive power can produce the blast
wave and secondary missile effects needed to cross security distances and still cause
5-5
significant damage. The Khobar Towers VBIED was estimated to be the explosive
equivalent of 20,000 pounds of TNT.178 Table E-2 in Appendix E has a DOD chart that
details the various size explosive devices with their comparable evacuation distances to
avoid casualties.
A report in April 2004 by Jordanian intelligence indicated they thwarted an al Qaeda plan to
detonate a large bomb in Amman with chemical weapon effects. The attack was targeting the
Jordanian intelligence headquarters, as well as the U.S. Embassy and Jordanian prime
minister's office. The exact type of bomb device was not disclosed, however, initial on-
site estimates stated that tens of thousands of people could have been killed by this
attack. Several trucks were seized with modified plows and several tons of explosives
and chemicals. Several terrorists were killed or captured. The planned tactics indicate
terrorists would ram through barriers and detonate the explosives near or at buildings for
optimum effects. Subsequent analysis of the incident questions whether the chemicals
were intended for use as a chemical weapon or as a means to increase the damage of a
conventional explosion.179
While possible that a unit in a field environment would be attacked by a large VBIED, it is
much less likely than attacking a fixed facility. Preparation and deployment of such a weapon
requires time that would likely be wasted if the target unit moved or improved its positions.
This does not rule out the use of smaller IED weapons with faster preparation cycles if they
can be effectively delivered and detonated. Lapses in security procedures, insufficient
distance of personnel and facilities from a security perimeter, or habitually assembling units
(convoys, patrols, road marches, etc.) in unsecured locations outside perimeters will be
observed by terrorists as they seek a key vulnerability in security.
Delivering either a large or small explosive device by means of a suicide asset may or may
not increase the effectiveness of such a weapon. The attack on the U.S. Marine Corps
barracks in Beirut illustrates a successfully executed technique against a fixed facility. The
suicide driver breached the gate and delivered the VBIED directly to the target. In this case,
the use of a suicide bomber increased the probability and eventual effectiveness of the attack.
Conversely, at the Khobar Towers complex in Saudi Arabia, the vehicle access point was not
considered an acceptable risk for breaching with a VBIED. Therefore, terrorists selected a
point on the perimeter closest to the target buildings and people that allowed easy positioning
of the VBIED, and a quick escape for the terrorists before the bomb exploded.
Variations of suicide attacks have been used to defeat specific perimeter security positions.
One suicide asset acts as a breaching element in the first assault of a point. A second suicide
asset follows immediately through the breach as an assault team with supporting fire from
overwatch positions. This suicide element detonates the bomb to destroy a key target
concentration within the target area.180
178
Department of Defense, Report on Personal Accountability for Force Protection at Khobar Towers, by
William S. Cohen, (Washington, D.C., July 31, 1997), 2.
179
CNN.com, 26 April 2004, “Jordan says major al Qaeda plot disrupted,” available from
http://www.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/meast/04/26/jordan.terror; Internet; accessed 9 August 2005, 1-3.
180
Rohan Gunaratna, “Suicide Terrorism in Sri Lanka and India,” in Countering Suicide Terrorism (Herzliya,
Israel: Interdisciplinary Center Projects Publishing House, 2002), 107.
5-6
The most common form of attack used against deployed forces is the light weapons ambush,
involving grenades, small arms, light bombs, and rocket launchers.181 Additionally, IEDs are
being used more often in these type attacks. These attacks have successfully caused U.S.
military casualties and gained recurring international media coverage. They are the easiest and
quickest type of attack to plan and stage.
The light weapons type of attack described above may be deliberately launched from a group
of civilians. Attacks by combatants in civilian clothes can merge into civilian crowds. Attack
may come from the cover of civilian centers like mosques, schools, or hospitals as occurred
repeatedly during Operation Iraqi Freedom (OIF). This provides concealment for terrorists, as
well as complicating a reaction from U.S. forces, since engaging a combatant, when shielded
by non-combatants, could result in civilian casualties. Terrorists exploit civilian casualties for
publicity and propaganda value. If the U.S. forces attempt to apprehend or neutralize an
attacker without inflicting collateral non-combatant casualties, the U.S. action may be
ineffective and expose the force to other attackers concealed within the group anticipating the U.S.
attempt to limit civilian casualties.
In assessing the terrorist threat to a deployed force in a particular area of operations, the
effectiveness of poorly resourced local groups should not be underestimated. Capabilities in
terrorist organizations can differ significantly in their effects. Combined with intent and
resolve, terrorist acts can be a major influence on U.S. national level decisionmaking on
reinforcement or removal of U.S. forces from areas, as demonstrated in Beirut (1983) and
Somalia (1992). While Somalia was not the result of planned terrorist action, the exploitation
of the casualties and psychological impact from the failed U.S. mission are classic terrorist
media techniques. “Actors” from outside the immediate area of operations supported U.S.
adversaries in both of these incidents. Further, Somalia demonstrated the prestige that can be
associated with successfully challenging U.S. forces, and bring benefits to the groups
involved through increased support and improved perception by the local populace. These
positive results become incentives for further attacks.
Potential Threats
Less likely than attacks by the existing in-theater groups are attacks by organizations that
cannot otherwise reach U.S. targets either in CONUS or in other overseas areas. These groups
will take the opportunity to attack U.S. military forces exposed in a third country. This can
happen even if the U.S. forces are not a direct threat to the terrorist group, or are not
conducting activities that are “objectionable” to the terrorists. The terrorists’ attraction to the
opportunity target of U.S. forces in a country that is a “permissive environment” is obvious.
Such a country could be one with poor border control, a weak or unstable government, and
easy access to weapons or smuggling routes. An attack could be exploited for objectives
unrelated to the actual U.S. military mission.
In these circumstances the target of the attack may be more symbolic such as striking at
significant individuals occupying positions of power or influence. Targeting senior
181
5-7
commanders, particularly while in transit to or from a deployed unit in a permissive or

exposed environment has been a frequent objective of terrorists. Attempted assassinations of
key unit personnel should be considered a distinct possibility, with any number of methods
available to the terrorist.
An example of this sort of target of opportunity operation was the bombing of the USS
Cole in Aden harbor in October
of 2000.182 The presence of the
USS Cole was unwelcome to
extremists who conducted the
attack, and the situation created
an opportunity for terrorist
attack. The USS Cole was no
direct threat to terrorist
organizations ashore, and the
refueling operation conducted
in Aden was specifically meant
to be unobtrusive to local
sensibilities. However, the
vulnerability of the ship
indicated a high probability of
success against an obvious
symbol of the United States.
Although the terrorist intention Figure 5-2. Suicide Bomb Damage to USS Cole.
was probably to sink the (Source: U.S. Navy)
warship, the resulting
casualties and images of the
damaged warship accomplished publicity and a psychological message on an international
and worldwide audience.
The USS Cole bombing in 2000 used another VBIED, the vehicle in this case being a boat.
Deployed forces should not ignore the possibility of explosive devices or other attack methods
being delivered by boat or air. Various groups employed ultralight aircraft, powered and
unpowered hang gliders, small civilian aircraft, and remote control aircraft to deliver attack
teams, explosives, or suicide bombers to particular targets.183 A unit that successfully
interdicts or controls all surface approaches should neglect neither the possibility of an aerial
approach, nor assume that control of surface approaches is sufficient. The Tamil Tigers
(LTTE) have used suicide and remote controlled explosive motorboats against Sri Lankan
government targets. In 2000, they used suicide stealth boats to destroy a Sri Lankan fast
personnel carrier and damage another boat. Also in 2002, a Palestinian suicide boat, a fishing
182
John McWethy et al., no title, ABCNews.Com, (18 October 2000); available from
http://www.abcnews.go.com/sections/world/ DailyNews/cole001018b.html; Internet; accessed 9 January 2003.
183
5-8
boat packed with explosives,184 intending to sink an Israeli naval craft exploded prematurely
with insignificant damage to the Israeli craft.185
Several terrorist groups have successfully utilized divers in underwater infiltrations and
attacks. In 1975, the Montoneros terrorists in Argentina severely damaged the Argentine
Navy’s first modern missile-carrying frigate, the Santisima Trinidad. Divers approached the
frigate in a camouflaged boat, attached underwater demolition charges to the ship’s hull as it
berthed in a naval shipyard under guard. The damage caused by the explosion delayed the
ship’s operational deployment for at least one year. A corresponding psychological impact
accented a loss of confidence by the public in national military affairs.186 In recent years,
Israel has encountered terrorist divers attempting to enter through the sea.187 Indicators point
to subsurface terrorist attack as a recurring threat. Abu Sayaff terrorists kidnapped a diving
instructor and demanded diving lessons. Similarly, a group of men approached a diving
school in Kuala Lumpur to learn about underwater maneuvers but were uninterested in
learning the skill of decompression when resurfacing.188
A potential threat that has been employed against other nations’ military forces with some
success is the capture or kidnap of small units or individuals on missions that isolate them
from the larger unit. The individual soldiers may be used as hostages, tortured, or killed for
psychological effect. U.S. prisoners of war found themselves used as human shields, hostages,
and worse in previous conventional conflicts. However, a recent example of this type of threat
is the kidnapping and alleged killing of an American soldier in Iraq in June 2004. Specialist
Keith Maupin was captured during an ambush on a convoy in April 2004 and had been held
hostage for nearly three months. The Arabic television station Al-Jazeera initially aired a
video showing Maupin in captivity on April 16, 2004. In June 2004 Al-Jazeera reported that
Maupin had been killed by his captors. The television station aired a video showing a
blindfolded man, allegedly Specialist Maupin, sitting on the ground. Al-Jazeera said that in
the next scene, gunmen shot the man in the back of the head, in front of a hole dug in the
ground. The hostage-takers' statement claimed that Maupin had been executed "because the
United States hasn't changed its policy on Iraq and to avenge our martyrs in Iraq, Algeria and
Saudi Arabia," according to Al-Jazeera.
Individual U.S. government and military personnel have been kidnapped and exploited by
terrorists when serving on individual missions overseas. In 1981, members of the Red
Brigades abducted U.S. Army Brigadier General James Dozier in Verona, Italy. Terrorists
184
“Fishing boat explodes near Israeli vessel,” CNN.com./WORLD (22 November 2002); available from
http://www.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/meast/11/22/mideast/; Internet; accessed 21 January 2004.
185
“The asymmetric threat from maritime terrorism,” [database on-line]; available from
http://jfs.janes.com/public/jfs/additional_info.shtml; Internet; accessed 2 February 2004.
186
KS: U.S. Army Command and General Staff College Press, 2003), 395.
187
“CAMERA ALERT: CBS’ 60 Minutes Exposes “The Arafat Papers,” Committee for Accuracy in Middle East
Reporting in America; available from http://www.camera.org/index.asp?x_article=289&x_context=3; Internet;
accessed 2 February 2004.
188
Shefali Rekhi, “Next terror target,” Straits Times Interactive (16 October 2003); available from
http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&lr=&ie=UTF-
8&q=terrro+AND+attack+AND=underwater&btnG=Google+Search; Internet; accessed 21 January 2004.
5-9
entered the Dozier’s apartment, tied up his wife, and departed with General Dozier.189
Stuffing Dozier into a trunk, the terrorists drove away in a car and hid Dozier in a safehouse.
Eventually, they released a photograph to the media of a bruised and battered Dozier. With
significant U.S. intelligence and Italian anti-terrorist investigation, an elite Italian anti-
terrorism police unit rescued Dozier in a surprise assault on the safehouse.190
The uses of “atrocity videos”, such as showing the torture and murder of prisoners in the
Balkan, Algerian, and Afghan (Soviet) conflicts, are becoming common practice among
terrorist organizations to attract and indoctrinate recruits, and terrify the opposition.191 In
May and June 2004, the gruesome beheadings of two Americans and one Korean by terrorists
and the display of the murder on the Internet is a clear indicator that this tactic will continue
to be used to exploit captured personnel for terror effects.
Other Possible Threats
Other possible threats include provocations by external or internal politically affiliated

terrorist groups to induce U.S. action to achieve a desired outcome. In the Balkans, for
example, the various ethnic and religious factions continually attempt to blame each other for
harassment, graffiti, arson, and drive-by shootings. In fact, some groups would carry out
incidents against their own property and people, and attempt to implicate their opponents to
provide a suitable cause for SFOR (Stabilization Force) involvement.192 Their goal was to
provoke SFOR into suppressive action against their enemies.
Another potential threat is the possibility of punitive attacks against family members of
forward deployed personnel. This could be either retaliation for actions taken by U.S. forces,
or a preemptive action designed to lower morale and decrease unit effectiveness. It could also
be intended to provoke reprisals by U.S. soldiers against civilians in the area of operations.
Such attacks would depend upon the operational reach of the terrorist adversary, or their
ability to engage a proxy organization to conduct such an operation for them. If actual attacks
are impractical, threatening messages directed at family members could be employed to erode
soldier confidence and morale. Falsified emergency notifications and Red Cross messages
could be employed to the same effect. In fact, during OIF there were a number of cases
where families received false notification that their relatives had either been captured or
killed. In one week in April 2003, callers posing as American Red Cross workers informed
family members in California, Delaware, Michigan, and Alabama that their family member
had been killed in Iraq.193 Although these examples may not be terrorist inspired, the issue of
189
“Red Brigades Kidnap an American General in Verona,” New York Times, 18 December 1981.
190
“Operation Winter Harvest: The Rescue of Brigadier James Dozier,” Special Operations. Com; [database on-
line]; available from http://www.specialoperations.com/Counterterrorism/Dozier.html; Internet; accessed 26
February 2004.
191
Jason Burke, “You Have to Kill in the Name of Allah until You are Killed,” Guardian Unlimited (Observer
Special Report, 27 January 2002), 3; available from
http://www.observer.co.uk/islam/story/0,1442,640288,00.html; Internet; accessed 15 January 2003.
192
Department of Defense, 11th Psychological Operations Task Force After Action Report for SFOR X, by MAJ
Clint A. Venekamp, (Upper Marboro, MD, July 2002).
193
“False Calls on Casualties Upset Camp Pendleton Spouses,” Mustang Daily Online News, 11 April 2003;
available from http://www.mustangdaily.calpoly.edu/archive/20030411/print.php?story=inat; Internet; accessed
13 August 2004.
5-10
harassment and threats, as well as physical violence, can further stress an environment already
experiencing fear and anxiety.
Preventative Measures
The greatest deterrent to terrorist action is aggressive operations security (OPSEC) programs
emphasizing surveillance detection and counter-intelligence activities. While physical security
measures are essential, they can be neutralized or avoided by terrorists with adequate
preparation. Terrorists must have superior target intelligence to select targets, circumvent
security, and plan operations. Deny them this information, and they cannot operate
effectively. Detecting them collecting target data permits anticipation of possible terrorist
courses of action.
Information the deployed unit should consider obtaining includes any record of surveillance
incidents directed against U.S. diplomatic or commercial activities in the country. Correlation
of confirmed surveillance against these potential targets permits a deployed unit to identify
personnel, vehicles and techniques in use in that area prior to arrival. Terrorists have the
capability to use sophisticated tradecraft that will complicate this correlation, but they have
also been known to use the same personnel and vehicle repeatedly in surveillance tasks. The
Khobar Towers pre-attack surveillance was conducted using one vehicle for all surveillance
missions. That vehicle was observed and reported 10 times out of 40 separate uses as a
surveillance platform.194 Unfortunately, this information was not correlated and interpreted
correctly by U.S. forces.
Unit planners should seek out any record of actual terrorist activities in the area, whether
directed against U.S. interests or not, from intelligence, security and law enforcement sources.
Additionally, groups or individuals considered dormant or inactive should be reviewed
based upon the possible change in attitude or motivation that a U.S. deployment into the
area might cause.
Variation of a unit’s operational patterns is a basic but useful technique to deter attacks. It
prevents anticipation of target actions by the terrorist(s); it introduces uncertainty to his
planning, and sharpens the alertness and observations of unit personnel by avoiding routine.
Terrorist operations have been called off, and attacks in progress have been “blown” due to
simple changes in the routine or activity of a target.
This is by no means an exhaustive list of threats to deployed U.S. forces. Intelligence specific
to the area of operations must be studied and integrated into realistic threat assessments for
deployed units. However, terrorists have used the techniques mentioned in the scenarios
discussed here multiple times against deployed military forces. These techniques will
continue to be employed by terrorists in modified forms with innovations in weapons or
tactics as long as they continue to be effective.
194
Department of State, Bureau of Diplomatic Security, State Department Diplomatic Security Surveillance
Detection Program Course of Instruction [CD-ROM], (Washington, D.C., October 1999).
5-11
Section III: Terrorist Threat to Deployable Forces

This section discusses likely threats to U.S. forces in the deployable category. “Deployable
forces” are those units that are either preparing for or in the process of deployment and
redeployment overseas. These units include active component units both within CONUS and
permanently based overseas, (even if not currently identified for movement) and reserve
component units that are identified for named operations or notified for mobilization. The
purpose for identifying “deployable” units in this manner allows us to consider possible
threats to a unit ranging from their home station to their debarkation point during a
deployment. Additionally, this category addresses those threats directed at war fighting or
operational units not immediately slated for movement. Installations will be discussed in
Section IV.
Reserve component units identified for mobilization or participation in named operations

fall into this category even though their deployment may not be imminent. This is because
of the increase in training activity and resources they receive, as well as the possibility
that their participation in a particular operation will motivate an attack. When discussing
home station activities, attacks planned against off-duty personnel known to be military
members are also considered.
Primary Threats
Threats to deployable U.S. forces, either at home station or in transit to and from an
operational mission, may be from foreign or domestic terrorists. Foreign terrorist
organizations will be international or transnational groups with either an operational presence
already in the U.S., or support infrastructure in place to facilitate the arrival of operational
assets. They will possibly be state sponsored organizations, or organizations operating for
profit or for other material considerations on behalf of some government. In some cases they
could be state intelligence or covert military special operations forces. Domestic terrorist
groups may arise from any number of special interests with political, social, religious, or
environmental focus. While in raw numbers of past incidents, domestic terror groups were
responsible for more attacks and attempted attacks on U.S. military targets than external groups,
most of these attacks were directed against facilities and installations, not units and personnel.
However, state sponsors or transnational terror groups may also use domestic groups that can
be exploited through shared ideology or for monetary considerations to conduct operations in
the U.S. against military targets. For instance, the El Rukns group, a Chicago based gang,
negotiated with Libya to attack a domestic airliner with a surface to air missile in 1985.195
Apparently, Libya postponed the attack when the group purchased a light anti-tank weapon
from an undercover FBI agent. The group’s leader and six other El Rukns were arrested and
subsequently convicted of conspiracy to commit terrorism. Libya also directed and sponsored
lethal attacks by the Japanese Red Army (JRA) on U.S. military targets in CONUS and
abroad during the same period of time.196 In CONUS, a JRA member was apprehended in
1998 with three pipe bombs in his car, the target supposedly being a U.S. military base. In this
195
196
Bruce Hoffman, Inside Terrorism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), 188-189. The JRA
adopted the name “Anti-Imperialist International Brigades” for these operations.
5-12
case, Libya could probably have used a domestic U.S. group had one been available and
capable. Overseas, a 1998 JRA bombing of a U.S. servicemen’s club in Naples, Italy killed
five people including a U.S. servicewoman. Although these examples occurred in the last two
decades of the twentieth century, there is also evidence indicating that al Qaeda is
subcontracting to like-minded terrorist groups to conduct operations.
Home Station Threats
Threats to deployable units at their home station during pre-deployment activities will most
likely consist of attacks on units conducting movement to or from training activities, and
attacks upon off duty personnel during social gatherings. The intent would be to demonstrate
the capability to damage U.S. military forces, and weaken morale. The most likely methods of
attack would be a small to medium size improvised explosive device (IED), or an ambush
conducted with light weapons (automatic weapons, grenades, and anti-tank rockets).
Attacks on units training will most likely take place during movement because:
• The unit is concentrated during movement, and typically dispersed during training.
• Training areas are usually harder to access by non-military personnel than roads leading to
or from them.
• Units training have a greater degree of alertness than units in an administrative

road movement.
• Units conducting training have greater self-defense capabilities, especially if they are
training with live ammunition.
• Routes to and from training areas are well established, almost habitual, whereas
movement during training is more difficult to pattern.
Attacks on personnel at social gatherings can occur at clubs on post, or during unit functions
at private homes or commercial establishments off post. Traditional observances of
organizational days, town hall meetings, and family support briefings are often publicized in
advance and give attackers planning dates for possible gatherings in accessible locations.
Attacks at commercial entertainment establishments such as bars, clubs and restaurants off
post are less likely because the density of military personnel at a particular establishment is
usually not sufficient to gain the appropriate impact. The most likely attack method will be
a small to medium sized IED, although terrorists may employ improvised mortars or
other standoff weapons.
Deployment Preparation and Movement
Attacks on deployable units are likely to occur during actual preparation for deployment
activities. The specific mission may inspire an attack by a group who wishes to prevent the
deployment, or a potential adversary may attempt to extend the depth of the battlefield by
engaging units with unconventional terrorist attacks before they arrive in theater. Objectives
5-13
of these attacks will depend on the mission of the deploying unit and the context of the
mobilization, but may include:
• To delay or prevent mobilization or deployment.
• To render the unit non-mission capable for deployment.
• To decrease unit effectiveness when deployed.
Delay or Prevent Mobilization or Deployment
Operations aimed at this objective would involve either disrupting the unit enough to prevent
its movement on schedule, or disrupting the transportation cycle for the unit. Disruptions
sufficient to prevent the unit from making movement would probably also render it non-
mission capable for deployment.
Disruption of transportation may take place by sabotage or direct attack upon the unit being
transported and its conveyance. Methods of attack would be selected depending upon their
effectiveness versus the mode of unit transport. Air, rail and sea are the modes of transport
for long voyages, but frequently units must use ground conveyances such as buses or organic
vehicles to get to their embarkation point. Consequently, attacks may also occur against these
vehicular movements. Weapons likely to be employed include bombs, AT rockets, and
potentially, guided missiles. If sabotage is used in preference to direct attack, the sabotage
will be designed to produce maximum casualties in the ensuing crash, derailment, fire, etc. An
example of this type threat was demonstrated in January 2003 when intelligence sources
detected the targeting of chartered aircraft participating in the build up of forces against
Iraq.197 Additionally, domestic terrorists have derailed U.S. passenger and cargo trains,198 and
attacks on ships in port and at sea are well within the capabilities of most transnational and
international terror groups.
Destroying facilities such as docks, airfields, refueling facilities, and cargo terminals at
intermediate stops or at the final destination is another way for terrorists to prevent or delay
deployment. Attacking critical private infrastructure, both through physical and cyber means,
could cause similar effects. It is a method of adding depth to the battlefield during a conflict,
and does not require the projection of assets and weapons into more distant countries. If timed
to coincide with the arrival of incoming units, such destructive attacks could cause significant
casualties. The Montoneras terrorists, having advanced from individual terrorist acts to
paramilitary guerrilla operations, achieved significant psychological strikes to Argentine
military forces using this type of attack against an air force airfield in 1975 with spectacular
results. Placing explosives in an abandoned tunnel underneath the airfield runway, the bomb
was detonated as a C-130 aircraft carrying an antiguerrilla unit was starting its departure. The
C-130 was destroyed, resulting in four killed and forty injured, as well as damaging the
197
Thom Shanker, “Officials Reveal Threat to Troops Deploying to Gulf,” New York Times, 13 January 2003;
available from http://www.nytimes.com/2003/01/13/politics/13INTE.html; Internet; accessed 13 January 2003.
198
Jim Hill, “Sabotage Suspected in ‘Terrorist’ Derailment,” CNN.com, 10 October 1995; available from
http://www.cnn.com/US/9510/amtrak/10-10/; Internet; accessed 15 January 2003.
5-14
runway. At a minimum, this was a psychological blow to the Army’s image with its nation,
and a clear instance of a military force defeat.199
Render the Unit Non-mission Capable for Deployment
The objective here is to cause sufficient damage or disruption to the unit so that it will be
unable to deploy, or will be unable to function once deployed. The most direct way to do this
is to inflict casualties on the unit. IEDs, rocket launchers, and mortars directed at unit
assemblies such as formations, manifest calls, and other pre-deployment personnel
concentrations are the most likely scenario. A terrorist group with a rudimentary biological
weapons capability could infect enough of a unit with a contagious disease that it would have
to undergo quarantine, delaying deployment. Additionally, terrorist capability and suspected
or known intention to use biological weapons against U.S. military forces could cause
extraordinary processes for vaccination of U.S. military forces. These additional preventive
medicine and safety issues may result in longer deployment timeframes for U.S. military
forces. The use of biological weapons is a less likely and somewhat uncertain proposal from
the terrorist point of view, but could be used to bypass defenses designed to prevent other
forms of attack. Additionally, given al Qaeda’s statement that it is their “holy duty” to acquire
weapons of mass destruction, it is clearly an option that terrorists are pursuing.
Another possibility to consider is the destruction of a key piece of equipment or the

assassination of key personnel. This is less attractive to the terrorists because they cannot be
sure that such losses would not be rapidly replaced. Unless the terrorist group is aware of specific
personnel or equipment shortages, they will rely on the more certain method of mass casualties.
Decrease Unit Effectiveness When Deployed
This objective requires actions to undermine morale and destroy unit efficiency. It will be
characterized by less lethal, more harassing activities. Contaminating unit equipment with low
level radiation sources, infecting unit information processing equipment with viruses,
harassing or attacking soldiers’ family members, and inserting false messages of death or
illness into the various notification systems to both family and service members are all
possible scenarios. With the exception of actual attacks on service members’ families, these
activities do not require significant operational skill or resources.
Potential Threats
Home Station Vulnerabilities
Although less likely than transnational or international terrorists attacks, domestic groups who
object to U.S. military involvement overseas, or to the political goals of U.S. policy still have
potential to conduct attacks. Such groups would share the objectives listed above, with the
further aim of publicizing the domestic dissent to the particular mission or policy. Such
groups could develop capabilities very rapidly, and commit acts that disrupt, damage, or delay
institutional support to military forces. Although they are nearer to the targets and less visible
199
KS: U.S. Army Command and General Staff College Press, 2003), 395.
5-15
to casual suspicions than foreign personnel, domestic terrorists would be constrained in

conducting significant lethal attacks due to the possibility of severe backlash for actions
against fellow citizens.200 Actions would probably start out with symbolic and non-lethal
arson, vandalism, and sabotage. If these fail to ignite public support for the terrorists’ goals,
their organizations would increase in radicalization, and attacks would become more lethal, as
happened in the Vietnam-era anti-war movement.201 In 2003, a militant spokesperson openly
recommended that like-minded supporters “…Actively target U.S. military establishments
within the United States.” Stated goals are to “…disrupt the war machine, the U.S. economy,
and the overall functioning of U.S. society…”202
There is also the potential for domestic groups to attempt to obtain advanced military
technology or new equipment by raiding units during normal training activities. This threat is
most likely to come from groups who wish to rapidly increase their offensive capabilities in
anticipation of paramilitary operations. Groups whose ideology emphasizes insurrection,
social warfare, or “local” uprisings are most likely to attempt this type action. There are many
examples of this threat in the United States. In the mid-1990s, a militia member in Florida
was charged with planning to break into a National Guard armory to steal explosives and
firearms. These capabilities were to assist his intention of blowing up power transmission
lines that feed a large city and nuclear plant. The indictment also stated that the individual
plotted to kill a militia member suspected to be an informant. Federal authorities seized rifles,
handguns, and a large quantity of ammunition from the individual’s home.203 Also in the mid
1990s, members of the Michigan Militia were apprehended with a car containing 700 rounds
of ammunition, loaded rifles, night vision goggles, and other military-type equipment.204 In
2001, a white supremacist was charged with stockpiling bomb making materials and bank
robbing. This individual also attempted to use counterfeit paper currency. A notebook at his
lodging included recipes for bombs mixing fuel oil and fertilizer similar to the bomb used in
the Oklahoma City bombing of the Murrah Federal Building.205
This domestic threat is not just limited to small explosives and firearms. In 2003, a Texas
citizen pleaded guilty to possession of a weapon of mass destruction. In a Federal
investigation that started due to finding false government identification badges, subsequent
searches at the individual’s home and storage facility uncovered a sodium-cyanide bomb
200
201
International Encyclopedia of Terrorism, 1997 ed., s.v. “Student Terror: The Weathermen.”
202
Craig Rosenbraugh, “Craig Rosenbraugh on the Anti-War Struggle,” Houston Independent Media Center, 17
March 2003; available from http://houston.indymedia.org/news/2003/03/9125.php ; Internet; accessed 16
February 2004.
203
Larry Dougherty, “Indictment details plot to blow up power lines,” St. Petersburg Times, 9 December 1999;
available from http://www.sptimes.com/News/120999/TampaBay/Indictment_details_pl.shtml; Internet;
204
Tom Burghardt, “Leaderless Resistance and the Oklahoma City Bombing,” BACORR: Bay Area Coalition
for Our Reproductive Rights; available from http://nwcitizen.com/publicgood/reports/leadless.htm; Internet;
205
Shelley Murphy, “White Supremacist Accused of Targeting D.C. Museum,” Globe, 20 September 2001;
available from http://www.rickross.com/reference/supremacists/supremacists57.html; Internet; accessed 16
February 2004.
5-16
capable of killing thousands, a large amount of explosives, 500,000 rounds of ammunition, dozens
of illegal weapons, and a large number of white supremacist and anti-government literature.206
Deployment Preparation and Movement
As discussed above, domestic groups who object to U.S. military activity or U.S. policy could
conduct operations against deploying units. A key difference here is that attacks of this nature
would probably start out at the lethal end of the spectrum. This is because the domestic groups
are either conducting operations sponsored or directed by external actors, such as other
terrorist groups or nations, or because imminent deployment would increase the sense of
radicalization of these groups. Such groups would share the objectives for preventing or
delaying unit movements discussed under “Probable Threats,” with the further aim of using
such actions to publicize their dissent.
A particular specialty of domestic groups is their capability to conduct harassment campaigns

against individuals peripherally associated with or employed by activities these groups object
to. Such a campaign undertaken by a domestic group against service members’ families with
the objective to reduce unit morale and effectiveness would be extremely disruptive.
Harassment campaigns have included lethal and near lethal attacks, as well as disrupting the
victim’s daily life and instilling constant, pervasive fear in the victim. Such a campaign added
to the normal stresses associated to military careers and deployments could have extremely
negative consequences in both the long and short term.
Possible Threats
Possible threats to both home station activities and deployment activities could come from
U.S. resident aliens or citizens not specifically organized or affiliated with larger terrorist
networks. These groups may have loyalties to ethnic, religious, or nationalist causes hostile to
the U.S. or opposed to U.S. policies. Expatriate and immigrant ethnic groups threatened
action against government and military targets in the U.S. and Europe when Stabilization
Force (SFOR) activities or policies in Bosnia-Herzegovina were perceived as contrary to the
best interest of their ethnic “home” state or group. Other immigrant and expatriate groups
have provided support for various hostile activities directed against particular U.S. foreign
policies. While largely unorganized, even individuals with little support but high motivation
can have major impacts. Jordanian Sirhan Bishara Sirhan assassinated Senator Robert
Kennedy in 1968 because of his assumption that Kennedy would likely be the next U.S.
President, and he wished to prevent Kennedy’s expected support for Israel. Probably the best-
known example of an individual domestic terrorist incident, though, is Timothy McVeigh’s
bombing of the Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City. His hatred of the Federal
Government and his belief that U.S. Government policies and practices were unjust and
violated citizens’ Constitutional rights drove him to conduct this heinous act.
206
Kris Axtman, “The Terror Threat At Home, Often Overlooked,” Christian Science Monitor; 29 December
2003; available at http://ebird.afis.osd.mil/ebfiles/s20031229244982.html; Internet; accessed 29 December 2003.
5-17
Units Based Overseas
Units based in overseas locations have several special considerations. Because of different
conditions outside of continental U.S. locations, their home station routine is more vulnerable
to terrorist attack than similar units based inside the continental U.S. Europe is an excellent
example where attacks on U.S. service members have been extensive and lethal.207 Some
attacks were state sponsored or directed, which made them even more dangerous.208
There are two principal conditions contributing to the higher level of threat to overseas-based
units. The first condition is exposure. Countries that have permissive border controls,
countries that are located closer to states that harbor or sponsor terrorists, or that have active
terrorist groups within their borders, all increase the ability of terrorists to reach U.S. military
units and personnel based therein. This situation is best illustrated in Europe, where internal
border control between European Union (EU) nations is no longer required. Once the borders
of a EU member are penetrated, travel to all member countries becomes possible with
minimal control. The proximity of the EU to states sponsoring terrorism is much greater than
the U.S., and the smuggling and criminal trafficking routes used by terror groups pass through
or close by EU nations. Additionally, several EU nations still have very capable terrorist
organizations based within their borders.
Conditions may be posed by the host nation (HN) that constrains U.S. military forces from
implementing force protection measures such as stand-off distance, barricades, and patrols
outside a facility perimeter. U.S. military forces at Khobar Towers (1996) witnessed such constraints.
Also, criminal organizations loosely or closely linked to terrorist groups, can cause dispersal
of limited resources and capabilities such as U.S. military police, contracted security forces,
or other anti- and counter-terrorism assets.
The second condition is visibility. U.S. military members are usually highly visible in
overseas environments, particularly in countries that emphasize their homogeneity. This not
only aids in targeting U.S. personnel; but also contributes to another kind of visibility -
political visibility. U.S. military presence is frequently a contentious issue in local politics in
host nations. This political visibility can lead to resentment of the U.S. presence, and
ultimately to attacks against visible signs of that presence, such as military personnel. It is
often difficult, though, to determine if a terrorist element or just political activists within the
country instigate these attacks. Excellent examples are the common protests in South Korea
against the presence of American troops in the country. One occurrence happened in
November 2002, when South Korean activists hurled firebombs into a US military base in
protest against the acquittal of two American soldiers who ran over and killed two South
Korean girls. During the protests, American troops were kicked and beaten by the protesters
before they could be contained.
The most common threat to overseas-based units is attacks directed against off-duty
personnel, either at social gatherings or at entertainment establishments. This is different from
the home station situation for CONUS based units because personnel overseas tend to cluster
socially, frequenting particular establishments in large numbers. This density provides
207
208
5-18
sufficient military victims for the terrorist attack to achieve the desired effect. Also,
significant civilian casualties can be exploited as a wedge issue, to be driven between the host
nation populace and the U.S. military. To the terrorists, causing civilian casualties at a club in
an American town would simply be more dead Americans. Attempting to instill negative
feelings toward the military in the local community would be nearly impossible. However,
dead civilians from a host nation can be “blamed” on the U.S. presence by the terrorists, and
can raise the question in the host nation political system of the costs of hosting foreigners who
are going to attract political violence to their communities. This specific threat was
demonstrated in April 1988 when a car bomb exploded in front of the USO Club in Naples,
Italy. The explosion resulted in the death of five people, including a U.S. servicewoman.
Additionally, fifteen people were injured, including four U.S. servicemen. Junzo Okudaira, a
Japanese Red Army (JRA) member, was indicted for the bombing.
Other attacks that have been conducted against units based overseas have principally involved
rocket launchers, improvised mortars, and bombs directed against key leaders and on-duty
personnel. These attacks have ranged from the low end of sophistication to highly technical
operations. While unlikely, the possible use of chemical or biological weapons should be
acknowledged. The 1995 Tokyo subway nerve agent attack was conducted by the Aum
Shinrikyo cult, which was (and is) virulently anti-American. Aum Shinrikyo had a significant
interest in all forms of WMDs, and in addition to the nerve agent Sarin, had several other
types of chemical and biological weapons under development.209 Aum’s central philosophy
focused on the inevitability of nuclear Armageddon, and the cult occasionally considered provoking
such a conflict so they could fulfill their appointed role in such a disaster.
Vandalism, sabotage and arson attacks have also been used for symbolic effects, but are
usually intended to be non-lethal. These types of actions can occur during political
demonstrations against U.S. military presence as a provocation to host government police or
U.S. security personnel to further polarize attitudes.
Protection Measures
Denying terrorists the target information they require is the most certain deterrent.
Unlike deployed units, deployable units will have installation security measures,
functioning local law enforcement activities, and other non-military security and
investigation organizations operating in their environment. Therefore the unit
operational security (OPSEC), force protection, and security programs are not the only
reliable resources available to the unit planner.
Access control is one aspect of unit training that can assist in denying the terrorist target
information. Because units are stationed within functioning communities, there are many
interactions with non-military individuals and activities. Since there are multiple jurisdictions
involved, there are various legitimate permissions to access military posts. Unit personnel
should be familiar with the various types of access control documents they will encounter. If
required to establish or man access control points, unit leaders should become familiar with
the capabilities of common counterfeiting technologies and their effectiveness in duplicating
access control and identification documents. Due to advances in digital camera and image
209
5-19
enhancement technology, loss or theft of documents is no longer necessary for reproduction.

Likewise, electro-optical zoom lenses and hidden micro-cameras can gather keypad
combinations and PIN numbers for security systems.210 Unit planners need to understand
these new vulnerabilities in order to mitigate them where possible.
Deployable forces face a variety of threats, but most are relative to their role as war fighting
organizations either preparing for or moving to their missions. Their value as a terrorist target
is driven by policy decisions beyond their ability to affect and may be subject to attempts to
expand potential conflicts to the U.S. homeland. Therefore anticipation and alertness are the
most important factors in mitigating the threat.
Leaderless Resistance
Simply put, leaderless resistance involves individuals or extremely small groups (two or three persons) who
share common goals and values with a larger whole. They remain unaware of each other, and rely upon
themselves to conduct actions against the enemy. While it bears similarities to network style organizations,
the lack of communications links between nodes makes it more like a mob or riot phenomenon. Everyone
in it seems to know what to do collectively, with little communication.
There is usually an ideological center to such groups; an individual or cabal who sets the tone for the larger
mass. This center remains unaware of the radical members and their intentions. They outline an ideal
condition or future to be achieved, and then exhort their followers to obtain it, without going into specifics
on the method to be employed. “You know what to do” is the mission order in this environment, allowing
the “leader” to avoid incitement or conspiracy charges, while claiming credit for the work of the unknown
individuals or cells.
Section IV: Terrorist Threat to Institutional (Non-Deployable) Forces

This section focuses on threats as applied to U.S. forces in the non-deployable category. Non-
deployable forces consist of installations, fixed infrastructure, and training establishments. It
also includes National Guard and Reserve units and facilities not currently listed for
deployment. Since these activities are more or less permanently fixed, discussion considers
the likely threats for the United States and its’ territories. Also, since these activities provide
the logistic and power projection capabilities for any deployment of U.S. forces, they are
likely targets of terrorist groups.
Threats discussed in this section survey attack likelihood, covering primary, potential, and
possible threats. While deployable and deployed forces are particularly at risk during conflict
or times of international tension, non-deployable forces will experience threats based upon
domestic political tensions as well. These tensions could inspire action by a variety of social
and single-issue domestic extremists from all sides of the political spectrum.
210
Paul Kaihla, “Forging Terror,” Business 2.0 (December 2002): 3; available from http://www.business2.com/
articles/mag/0,1640,45486%7C5,00.html; Internet; accessed 22 November 2002.
5-20
Primary Threats
The most probable threats to non-deployable forces of all kinds will likely be domestic groups
with a variety of objectives. While the domestic terrorism landscape is cluttered with any
number of ideological and religious motivations, most U.S. domestic terror groups have
embraced the “leaderless resistance” model of organization. While this tends to limit the
complexity and sophistication of these operations, it also reduces the effectiveness of
infiltrating the group or developing informers, because of the decentralized nature of
operations (See below).211 As the Oklahoma City bombing conclusively showed, “simple”
attacks do not necessarily equal “ineffective” or “non-lethal” attacks.
One of the major threats in this category is an attack against U.S. military forces and
installations to obtain weapons or equipment. In the 1970s alone, enough small arms were
stolen from U.S. military facilities to outfit a force of approximately 8,000.212 These
operations are conducted by a variety of groups, but most recently groups associated with
white supremacists, various “Christian Identity” offshoots, or the “militia” movement
predominate in this area. They are conducted as “inside jobs” or theft more often than actual
overt raids or attacks, but the capability and inclination for violent operations is there. If the
terrorist group believes the objective warrants it, assault style robberies of military equipment
will occur.
Another likely threat is that transnational or state sponsored groups could target key
infrastructure or support installations to reduce the military’s power projection capabilities. In
fact, these type targets are on al Qaeda’s targeting list. In July 2001, Ahmed Ressam, who
was trained at al Qaeda camps in Afghanistan, testified that he had been trained to blow up
various types of targets, to include military installations, airports, railroads, electric plants,
and gas plants. Additionally, there are reports of al Qaeda surveillance of critical
infrastructure targets and an FBI Information Bulletin states that al Qaeda members have
sought information on Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems, which
are computer-controlled devices used to monitor and control much of our critical
infrastructure.213 These SCADA systems are potential targets of cyber-terrorism. (See Cyber
Operations handbook for more information on cyber-terrorism.)
Although a major attack has not occurred against U.S. critical infrastructure yet, al Qaeda has
a presence in the United States. This transnational presence was exhibited in 2002 when two
suspected al Qaeda cells were neutralized; one in Portland, Oregon and another in
Lackawanna, New York. Well-funded adversaries without a significant operational presence
in the U.S., or who desire deniability, could instigate attacks utilizing various domestic groups
as proxies. Money or common ideology or goals would provide the basis for this cooperation.
This sort of attack would have slightly different objectives than those discussed in Section III.
The destruction of critical logistics and transportation infrastructure such as rail lines,
211
18.
212
213
5-21
pipelines, and warehouses would emphasize arson and sabotage. Unfortunately, these
capabilities are highly developed in most of the domestic U.S. groups that could act as proxies for
a hostile foreign entity.
In looking at threats that involve facilities and infrastructure, consideration must also be given
to attacks on information systems and computer networks. Attacks directed against military
systems, and designed to damage, not annoy, took place during the NATO air campaign
against Serbia in 1999. Physical destruction of unprotected network components, or
increasingly available technology that interrupts or damages computer circuitry from a
distance may emerge as the most dangerous of these threats,214 although malicious hacking
and viruses will continue to be the most common. See Cyber Operations appendix for more
information on cyber-terrorism.
Another type of target that might be selected for the sheer psychological impact is the highly
symbolic target. The attack on the Pentagon in 2001 is an outstanding example of an attack
with this objective. Many other posts have less famous, but still symbolically significant
monuments and activities that could be subject to attacks under this scenario. In April 2004,
Department of Homeland Security Secretary Tom Ridge voiced his concerns over the
potential targeting of symbolic events that could be targeted by terrorists, including the
dedication of the World War II memorial, Fourth of July celebrations (which often include
military contingents), and the Democratic and Republican national conventions.215
Military installations with a high concentration of military personnel and families could be
attacked with some form of mass casualty weapon for the pure terror and psychological
impact on the military services as a whole. Although the personal devastation this could
cause would be serious enough, the resources required to counter future attacks could
significantly degrade war-fighting capabilities.
Potential Threats
Conflicts over domestic social policies have a probability of causing attacks on military
installations. While not participants in these policy debates, the U.S. military services have
been the instruments of major social reform at the direction of both Congress and the
Executive Branch. The military services have led the nation in implementation of social
policies such as complete integration of racial minorities and women. Groups on both sides of
contentious social issues in U.S. domestic politics watch various proposals regarding military
implementation of policies regarding their particular causes. Decisions by Congress for or
against military implementation of social policies on contentious domestic issues could very
likely spark violence by the more radical elements of either side in these debates. The
capabilities of groups involved in these issues, and the level of violence already displayed
214
40.
215
Adam Goldman, “Ridge Announces New Security Measures,” MyrtleBeachOnline.com, 19 April 2004;
available from
http://www.myrtlebeachonline.com/mld/myrtlebeachonline/news/special_packages/riskyrx/8466467.htm;
Internet; accessed 29 April 2004.
5-22
against other segments of society involved in a variety of contentious social issues make this a
significant concern.
The emergence of a radicalized, ostensibly “anti-war” movement is also a distinct possibility.

This sort of “anti-war” movement does not need an actual conflict to be initiated. “Anti-war”
rhetoric and agendas have been incorporated into large protest gatherings such as “The Battle
of Seattle” (Seattle World Trade Organization meetings in 1999) prior to the terror attacks on
the U.S. and the subsequent military retaliation. The recent shifting and redefining of the
traditional “radical left” ideological focus to an anti-capitalist, anti-globalization, and
“economic and social justice” agenda has made any military action by U.S. forces – whether
the mission is humanitarian, disaster relief, or actual combat – suspect in their eyes. Many of
the left wing and single-issue organizations that espouse the anti-capitalist, anti-globalization,
and anti-war rhetoric are branches or offshoots of international organizations.216 These
groups maintain ideological linkages and copy operational techniques from foreign groups.
The fact that the pace of military deployments on all missions has increased, and especially
with ongoing operations in Afghanistan and Iraq, is seen by many of these groups as “proof”
of U.S. “imperialism.” These issues invite the targeting of U.S. military forces as the symbols
and effective arms of these “imperial” policies or intended U.S. “hegemony.”
Domestic Threat To National Guard Armories

from “Terrorism in the United States, 1999” FBI Publication #0308
On December 8, 1999, Donald Beauregard, Commander and Brigadier General of the Southeastern States
Alliance (SSA) was arrested on six felony counts related to his plans to steal weapons and explosives from
National Guard armories in central Florida, attack power lines in several states, and ambush Federal law
enforcement officers. The SSA was an “umbrella” organization composed of individuals from several
militias in Florida, Georgia, South Carolina, Alabama, and other southern states. The objective of the now-
defunct organization was to create social and political chaos, which members believed would cause the U.S.
Government to declare martial law, thus inciting a popular uprising and violent overthrow of the Federal
Government. The SSA theorized that Beauregard’s plan would create this chaos and further their goal of
violent revolution. Beauregard was charged with violating several Federal laws, including Title 18 USC
Section 371, conspiracy to break into a military facility to steal weapons and explosives; Title 18 USC
Section 2339, providing materials in support of a terrorist organization; and four counts relating to Title 26
USC, firearms violations–transferring a sawed-off shotgun, possession of a silencer, transfer of a firearm
without a serial number, and manufacture of a sawed-off shotgun.
There is also the possibility of attacks directed against military installations or personnel from
single-issue terrorists focused on animal rights or environmental issues. The FBI considers
these groups the largest domestic terror threat in the United States.217 Although these groups
216
27.
217
Congress, House, Resources Subcommittee on Forests and Forest Health, The Threat of Eco-Terrorism,
Statement by the FBI's Domestic Terrorism Section Chief, James Jarboe, (Washington, D.C., 12 February 2002),
1; available from http://www.fbi.gov/congress/congress02/jarboe021202.htm; Internet; accessed 17 January
2003; and Robert Gehrke, “FBI: Earth Liberation Front Most Active Domestic Terror Group,” Associated Press
5-23
typically conduct arson, harassment, and vandalism, they have gradually increased their
capabilities and rhetoric, threatening to “pick up the gun” and to target Federal offices and
Federal and state law enforcement.218 It is expected that attacks are possible on range or post
construction projects that they perceive as endangering animals, animal habitat, or the earth.
Chart 5-2:
Chart Criminal Acts Committed by Animal Activists Against
Chart 5-2. Criminal
5-3. Criminal Acts
Acts Committed
Committed by Animal
by Animal Activists
Activists
PlantPlant
Against
Against and Animal
Plant
andandEnterprises
Animal
Animal Enterprises
Enterprises
140
117
120
100
Number of Incidents
80
60
49
40 30 30
25 26
22
18
20 13 12 10 12 11
9 7
6 8 8 6 7 7
1 2
0
1
3
8
0
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
Year
To highlight this potential threat to Federal Government representatives, following a

“Revolutionary Environmentalism” conference held at California State University at Fresno
in 2003, Craig Rosebraugh the past spokesman for Earth Liberation Front (ELF) issued a
manifesto calling for anti-war protesters to carry out direct actions against the U.S.
Government and military installations. Specifically, he called for activists to “Actively target
U.S. military establishments within the United States. Again, following the above stated goal
of NOT getting caught, use any means necessary to slow down the functioning of the
Newswires, 12 February 2002, 1; available from http://www.stopecoviolence.org/pdfs/2_12_02.pdf; Internet;

accessed 17 January 2003.
218
“From Push to Shove,” Southern Poverty Law Center Intelligence Report, no. 107 (Fall 2002), 4; available
from http://www.splcenter.org/intelligenceproject/ip-index.html; Internet; accessed 17 January 2003.
5-24
murdering body.” 219 Military research using animals for testing chemical or biological
weapon antidotes or medical treatments could also spark direct action and harassment
campaigns. Initially such attacks would be arson, vandalism and other forms of “monkey
wrenching” – a term for sabotage combined with general mischief - but escalation is not only
possible, it is likely. While claiming non-violence, letter-bombings and beatings have
occurred in the course of these campaigns.
A 2005 assessment of U.S. domestic terrorism by the Federal Bureau of Investigation cites
environmental and animal rights activists who have turned to arson and explosives as a
significant threat in terms of damage and number of crimes. Analysis and comparison with
groups such as right-wing extremists, anti-racial groups, and anti-abortion groups are
escalating in violent rhetoric and tactics. To date, most animal rights and eco-extremists have
refrained from violence targeting human life. Nonetheless, the increased number of incidents
using incendiary and explosive devices is an ominous trend.220
Chart 5-2 shows the increase in criminal acts by animal activists since 1981 as reported by the
Foundation for Biomedical Research. The data shows a 148% increase in incidents during the
decade of the 1990s over the previous decade and the number of incidents just in the first four
years of the twenty-first century equal the total for the previous two decades combined.221 In
2005, the FBI noted that activists, as a general category, have claimed notoriety for 1200
crimes between 1990 and mid 2004.222
Possible Threats
Although not as likely as attacks or thefts to obtain military equipment, direct attacks on
installations by radicalized domestic groups are possible. Objectives for such attacks are
based upon the groups’ perception of the U.S. Government as illegitimate or oppressive.
Some of these extremist domestic groups desire a “golden age” perceived by them in earlier
U.S. history. This often centers around either increased states’ rights or some strict, usually
selective, interpretation of the U.S. Constitution. Traditionally “right-wing” groups have
stepped up rhetoric and propaganda branding all government above county or state level as
illegitimate. Ominously, much of the ideological material produced in this vein tends to
dehumanize and advocate killing all nature of Federal Government servants, including and
especially law enforcement and military personnel.
Lending credence to the possibility of these types of attacks, obvious symbols of Federal
Government authority such as IRS facilities and Federal office buildings have been attacked
repeatedly.223 Despite the inherent drawbacks to terrorist targeting of military forces discussed
in Sections II and III, the chances of some sort of attack occurring are increasing. Attacks
219
Craig Rosebraugh, “Craig Rosebraugh on the Anti-War Struggle,” Independent Media Center of
Philadelphia, 17 March 2003; available from
http://www.phillyimc.org/article.pl?sid=03/03/17/2210240&mode=threat; Internet; accessed 29 April 2004.
220
FOXNews, “Activist Extremists Top U.S. Domestic Threat,” 19 may 2005; available from
http://www.foxnews.com/printer_friendly_story/0,3566.157016.00.html; Internet; accessed 19 May 2005.
221
Illegal Incidents Summary (Washington: Foundation for Biomedical Research, 2004), 3-39; available from;
http://www.fbresearch.org/animal-activism/eventsummary.xls; Internet; accessed 29 April 2004.
222
FOXNews, “Activist Extremists Top U.S. Domestic Threat,” 19 may 2005
223
Ibid., 52-61.
5-25
have been discovered in the planning and preparation stage. Claims that control of the U.S.
military has been usurped by hostile or conspiratorial foreign “forces” encourages the
targeting of military facilities and personnel.
Threats could also come from U.S. resident aliens or immigrant citizens with loyalties to
ethnic, religious, or nationalist causes hostile to the U.S. or opposed to U.S. policies. As
previously noted, these people may conduct operations as individuals or become
operatives of existing groups. As “agents in place” – personnel already in the enemies’
territory, and therefore less likely to be detected – they could be extremely dangerous
and disruptive by merely working simple attacks as individuals or small cells. Modern
information and telecommunications technology permits extensive linkages between
immigrants and their home countries, and in some cases acts to preserve the individual’s
loyalty to the “homeland.”
National Guard facilities and personnel are potential targets of attacks or sabotage to prevent
counter-drug missions in support of local law enforcement. Since a significant amount of
terrorist funding is obtained by drug manufacturing and smuggling, actions to prevent these
missions or reduce their effectiveness could be in the terrorists’ interests. However, these
counter-drug missions would have to present a significant threat in order to provoke such
attacks. Likewise, National Guard and Reserve members mobilized by their states or the
Federal Government to increase security at high risk facilities in times of heightened alert
may be targeted as a preemptive measure, or targeted as a statement by domestic groups
against what they view as an encroaching “police state.”
Protection Measures
The heart of any program of preventive measures is denying the terrorist targeting
information. Surveillance detection, OPSEC and counter intelligence activities all play a role
in deterring and defeating terrorist operations. For the installation, the deployment of Military
Police and other security elements is a flexible and responsive tool to react to increased
threats. Coordination and liaison in accordance with legal restrictions to local and Federal law
enforcement are essential. There will never be enough assets available to a post or activity to
completely secure itself. Integration of existing guard posts, surveillance cameras, and other
sensors into a network of coverage for the installation is a useful addition of capability to a
protection plan. Similar coordination and liaison with civilian operators of critical
infrastructure is just as important to ensure reliable services. The comments in Section III on
access control and the ease of document counterfeiting apply to installations and activities even
more than to units.
The terrorist can be affected by U.S. foreign or domestic policies, and political currents that
are uncontrollable or unknown to the military members affected. Installations and activities
may be targeted for symbolic reasons, in pursuit of social or political aims, in order to delay
or destroy deployment capabilities, to destroy support and logistics infrastructure, to drain
military resources into increased security versus war fighting, and to steal military equipment
and weaponry. The potential attackers range from transnational terrorist organizations and
state directed terror groups to individuals of no formal organization. Given the complex and
pervasive nature of this threat, and the immense value of non-deployable forces to the military,
terrorism is a challenge of tremendous proportions.
5-26
Conclusion
This chapter examined how U.S. military forces might be vulnerable to a myriad of terrorist
activities. Whether military forces are deployed, deployable, or non-deployable, the potential
operations conducted by terrorists are a constant threat to the military. Examples of specific
terrorist operations indicate a wide range of tactics may be used to attack military units or
installations. Preventive measures emphasize the importance of denying target information to
the terrorist as a key to deterring and defeating terrorist operations.
5-27
5-28
Chapter 6
Future of Terrorism
All politics is a struggle for power…the ultimate kind of power is violence.

C. Wright Mills
Terrorism is evolving into a more physically dangerous and more psychologically effective
weapon. While at the surface terrorism remains “The calculated use of unlawful violence or
threat of unlawful violence to inculcate fear…,” it is rapidly rising from a mere tactical
demonstration to become, in some incidents, a significant strategic tool of the terrorist. As
terrorism emerges into a principal irregular warfare tactic and strategy of the twenty-first
century, terrorists are adapting to changes in the world socio-political environment. Some of
these changes facilitate the ability of terrorists to plan and operate, procure funding and other
resources, and develop new capabilities. Terrorism and violence demonstrate a clear intention
to gain power and influence in the future.224 This chapter will examine the probable future of
terrorism and the merging of terrorists with other state and sub-state entities. Possible causes
of future conflicts may assist in understanding the terrorist actors and their motivations.
Finally, discussion addresses terrorism as a growing menace in the evolution of global
conflict and probable considerations for U.S. military forces.
Section I: Future Trends in Terrorism

As a method of conflict witnessed from ancient era to the modern information age of the
twenty-first century, terrorism adapts to meet the challenges of emerging societies and
governments. Terrorism exploits developments in technology and individual or group
belief systems. At least two overarching trends indicate the direction of terrorism and
terrorist groups.
Terrorism is becoming a more network based that encourages a loosely organized, self-
financed organizational structure. The motivation of terrorist groups appear to be based
increasingly on religious belief extremes ideological absolutes. International or transnational
cooperation among terrorist groups provides an improved ability to recruit members, develop
fiscal support and resources, gain skills training, transfer of technology, and when desired,
political advice.225
Proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and the specter of their effects clearly amplify
the dangers of a terrorist act. Information is readily available on many aspects of chemical,
biological, radiological, nuclear, and conventional high yield explosives. Materiel for
attempting the construction of WMD is easily accessible in the public domain. The
224
Bruce Harmon, Inside Terrorism (New York: Columbia University Press, 1998), 183.
225
Raphael Perl, Terrorism and national Security: Issues and Trends (Washington, D.C.: congressional Research
Service issue Brief for Congress, 22 December 2003), 1.
6-1
knowledge and technological means of specialists to produce WMD is a shadowy area of

science, crime, and intrigue available to the terrorist.
These trends, combined with the willingness of

Trends terrorists to use catastrophic violence and cause
of mass casualties and destruction, will cause a
continued use of US military forces as a
Future Terrorism significant component in fighting the Global
War on Terrorism. Military presence and
action will remain key in the range of measures
Intense that the United States uses to combat and
Motivational Extremism counter terrorism. Policy measures include
diplomacy; international cooperation; domestic
cooperation among Federal, state and local
government; economic coordination and
Flexible
sanctions; protective security measures; covert
Organizational Structure actions; and military alliance, coalition, or
unilateral force.
Improved US military forces have unique skills and

Operational Capabilities equipment, and used selectively as part of a
larger national arsenal against terrorism, can be
very effective in countering or defending
against terrorist attack. US military forces will
Expanded remain an integral element of US national
Transnational Associations security strategy in defending the United
States and its national vital interests
throughout the world.
Increased
Weapon System Lethality Exploiting media coverage will remain a tool
for both US military forces and the terrorist.
For the terrorist, effectiveness of information
operations will be measured by ability to cause
Intended a dramatic impact of fear and uncertainty in a
Mass Casualties - Mayhem target population. Surprise and sustained
violence will be normal against specified
people representing elements of civil or military
Exploited control and order, or common citizens as prey
for terrorists in a culture of violence. Damage
Mass Media Marketing or destruction of community, regional, or
national infrastructure and governance will
be used to gain attention, provoke
excessive reaction by host nation or
coalition military forces, and attempt to alienate general population support of
government policies and programs.
Terrorist groups display significant progress in emerging from a subordinate role in nation-
state conflicts to become prominent as international influences in their own right. They are
6-2
becoming more integrated with other sub-state entities such as criminal organizations and
legitimately chartered corporations, and are gradually assuming various levels of control and
identity with national governments. For example, the FARC and ELN of Columbia depend on
extortion, kidnapping, money laundering, and other economic strategies to finance their
operations. Reports estimate that the FARC collects half a billion dollars per year from
protecting the drug trade of the region.226 Other examples include Hizballah and HAMAS
members who establish front companies and legitimate businesses to cover an illegal market
system, conduct money laundering, fraud, and tax evasion. United States investigations have
directly linked Hizballah and HAMAS to illegal cigarette trafficking and funneling the illicit
profits to their organizations that include material support to terrorism.227
Adaptive Capabilities of Terror Groups
Terrorists have shown the ability to adapt to the techniques and methods of counter-terror
agencies and intelligence organizations over the long term. The decentralization of the
network form of organization is an example of this. Adopted to reduce the disruption caused
by the loss of key links in a chain of command, a network organization also complicates the
tasks of security forces, and reduces predictability of operations.
Terrorists have also been quick to use new electronic and cyber technologies, and adapt
existing ones to their uses. The debate over privacy of computer data was largely spurred by
the specter of terrorists planning and communicating over cyberspace with encrypted data
beyond law enforcement’s ability to intercept or decode this data. To exchange information,
terrorists have exploited disposable cellular phones, over the counter long-distance calling
cards, Internet cafes, and other means of anonymous communications. Embedding
information in digital pictures and graphics and sending them over the Internet is another
innovation employed to enable the clandestine global communication that modern terrorists
require.228 See the Cyber Operations appendix for more information on terrorist use of
computer technology to support their operations.
Terrorists have demonstrated significant resiliency after disruption by counter-terrorist action.

Some groups have redefined themselves after being defeated or being forced into dormancy.
The Shining Path of Peru (Sendero Luminosa) lost its leadership cadre and founding leader to
counter-terrorism efforts by the Peruvian government in 1993.229 The immediate result was
severe degradation in the operational capabilities of the group. However, the Shining Path has
returned to rural operations and organization in order to reconstitute itself. Although not the
threat that it was, the group remains in being, and could exploit further unrest or governmental
weakness in Peru to continue its renewal.
226
Christopher C. Harmon, Terrorism Today (London, Portland, OR: Frank Cass, 2000), 65 and 139.
227
William Billingslea, “Illicit Cigarette Trafficking and the Funding of Terrorism,” The Police Chief, February
2004, 49-54.
228
Thomas Homer-Dixon, “The Rise of Complex Terrorism”, Foreign Policy Magazine (15 January 2002): 2.
229
International Encyclopedia of Terrorism, 1997 ed., s.v. “Terrorism in Peru.”
6-3
In Italy, the Red Brigades (Brigate Rossi) gradually lapsed into inactivity due to governmental
action and a changing political situation. This ultra-left wing terrorist group gained notoriety
in the 1970s but had been effectively suppressed by the 1980s. In 1999, they resurfaced with
the assassination of Italian government labor consultant Massimo D-Antona; in 2000, they
murdered another labor consultant Marco Biagi. By late 2003, several group members had
been arrested. Yet, a series of letter bombs were suspected as connected to the Red Brigade.
Parcel bombs were mailed to the European Union (EU) president; bombs exploded in garbage
cans near the EU president’s home; letter bombs arrived at Europol, the EUs police agency;
and a letter bomb arrived at the European Central Bank in Frankfurt.230
Also, a decade after the supposed demise of the Red Brigades, a new group called the Anti-
Capitalist Nuclei emerged exhibiting a continuity of symbols, styles of communiqués, and
potentially some personnel from the original Red Brigade organization. This ability to
perpetuate ideology and symbology during a significant period of dormancy, and re-emerge under
favorable conditions demonstrates the durability of terrorism as a threat to modern societies.
Expanding Capabilities
Terrorists are improving their sophistication and abilities in virtually all aspects of their
operations and support. The aggressive use of modern technology for information
management, communication and intelligence has increased the efficiency of these activities.
Weapons technology has become more available, and the purchasing power of terrorist
“Between now and 2015 terrorist tactics will become increasingly sophisticated and
designed to achieve mass casualties.”
National Intelligence Council

"Global Trends 2015: A Dialogue About the Future With Nongovernment Experts" Report (Dec 2000).
organizations is on the rise. The ready availability of both technology and trained personnel to
operate it for any client with sufficient cash allows the well-funded terrorist to equal or exceed
the sophistication of governmental counter-measures.231
Likewise, due to the increase in information outlets, and competition with increasing numbers
of other messages, terrorism now requires a greatly increased amount of violence or novelty
to attract the attention it requires. The tendency of major media to compete for ratings and the
subsequent revenue realized from increases in their audience size and share produces
pressures on terrorists to increase the impact and violence of their actions to take
advantage of this sensationalism. 232
230
Francesco Di Meglio, “Italian Terrorists Generate Fear in Europe,” Italiansrus.com; n.d.; available from
http://www.italiansrus.com/articles/ourpaesani/redbrigade.htm; Internet; accessed 25 February 2004.
231
Fred L. Fuller, “New Order Threat Analysis: A Literature Survey”, Marine Corps Gazette 81 (April 1997): 46-48.
232
International Encyclopedia of Terrorism, 1997 ed., s.v. “The Media and International Terrorism.”
6-4
An indicator of this trend is the fact that terrorist incidents have been going down in total
numbers since 1991, but the lethality per incident has gone up.233 Chart 6-1 shows that the
number of incidents began to rise in the early 1980s and peaked in 1987.234
Chart 6-1: International Terrorist Attacks

1982 - 2003
5
700
66
5
63
5
2
60
61
5
5
600
56
56
6
0
50
50
500
0
7
6
44
43
43
42
5
Attacks
39
3
5
37
400
36
35
2
32
6
4
29
30
4
300
27
8
20
20
200
100
0
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
00
01
02
03
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
20
20
Year
Since then the number of incidents has been declining. In fact, the years 2002 and 2003 have
the fewest number of attacks during the 22-year period reflected on the chart. This is
probably the result of both the war on terrorism and a conscious decision on the part of
terrorist groups.
Fewer incidents with greater casualties appear to be the goal for many groups. This is not just
a function of efficiency and developing skills, but also a tendency by the increasing number of
religiously motivated groups to view ever-larger casualty lists as a measure of their influence
and power. An ideal example of this attitude was the use of airliners as manned cruise
missiles to strike the Pentagon and World Trade Center in September 2001. Chart 6-2 shows
the average number of casualties per incident covering the period 1997 through 2003. As can
be seen, the average number of casualties in 1997 was 3.0 per incident, whereas casualties in
2003 increased to 20.5 per incident. The years 1998 and 2001 show a large increase in the
number of casualties per incident due to catastrophic events: the embassy bombings in
Kenya and Tanzania in 1998 and the 9/11 incidents in 2001. These 3 events accounted
for over 9000 casualties.
If the casualties from the embassy bombings of 1998, and the Pentagon and World Trade
Center attacks in 2001 are removed from the data, as shown in Chart 6-3, the average
casualties per incident in 2002 and 2003 indicate a significant increase in lethality over past
233
234
(Washington, D.C., April 2004, revised 22 June 2004), 176.
6-5
Chart 6-2: Average Casualties per Incident 1997 - 2003
450 30.0
400 426
24.4 395 25.0
Average Casualties per

350 20.5
355
300 20.0
304 15.0
Incidents
Incident
250 274 16.4
15.0
200
205 208
150 10.0
100
2.4 5.0
50 3.0 2.8
0 0.0
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
Year
Incidents Avg Casualties
Chart 6-3: Average Casualties per Incident 1997 - 2003 Minus 1998 Em bassy Bom bings and
9/11/01 Incidents
450 25.0
400 20.5
426
Average Casualties per

350 395 20.0
351 15.0
300
Incidents
304 15.0
Incident
250 272
200
205 208 10.0
150
100 3.0 4.9 2.8
3.8 5.0
2.4
50
0 0.0
1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
Year
Incidents Avg Casualties
years. There were no catastrophic events during these two years, but of the 413 incidents, 55
resulted in casualties of 30 or more, and 20 of the 55 resulted in casualties that exceeded 100.235
235
(Washington, D.C., April 2004, revised 22 June 2004), 95-112; and Patterns of Global Terrorism 2002
6-6
The trend to exploit available technologies and the desire for more casualties will probably
accelerate the eventual employment of Weapons of Mass Destruction (WMD) by terrorists.
Documented uses of chemical (Tokyo 1995) and biological weapons (Oregon in 1984236 and
Florida and Washington D.C. in 2001) demonstrate the ability to use WMD. Al Qaeda has
stated an intention to acquire and attack the United States with WMD.
Escaping Dependence
During the evolution of modern terrorism in the Cold War era, even nationalist insurgent
groups sought and required a sponsor from one of the two competing ideological blocs.
Sponsors could effectively influence the policy of their clients, and exercise a limited form of
control over their actions. This gradually shifted to a less rigid control as more sponsors, such
as Libya, entered the field. The collapse of the Soviet Union removed the motivations and
capabilities of a large number of state sponsors. This loss of significant resources eliminated
support for many terrorist groups, particularly those terrorist groups closely aligned with the
communist bloc.237
Punitive actions against rogue states have gradually reduced or denied some geographical
sanctuaries and sources of support for terrorists. Although this can be temporarily disruptive,
new support structures can replace previous systems. Groups based in Libya shifted to Iraq or
Syria when support was restricted due to international sanctions and U.S. military action
against Libya because of their sponsorship of terrorism. Similarly, al Qaeda shifted key
functions from the Sudan to Afghanistan when U.S. action and diplomatic pressure were
brought to bear in that geographical area.
In response, terrorists have adjusted their financial operations to become more self-sustaining
in their activities, resulting in greater independence from any external control. Terrorist
operations require extensive financial support. The facility with which groups can obtain and
move funds, procure secure bases, and obtain and transport weaponry determines their
operational abilities and the level of threat that they pose. The international nature of finance,
the integration of global economies, and the presence of terrorists in the illegal “black”
economies of slaves, drugs, smuggling, counterfeiting, identity theft, and fraud have aided this
new independence from traditional sources of sponsorship and support.238
This evolutionary development has inverted the previous relationship between terrorists and
governments.239 In the earlier relationships, the nation-state sponsor had some measure of
control. Due to the ability of terrorist groups to generate tremendous income from legitimate
and illegal sources, it often becomes the terrorist organization that “sponsors” and props up its
weaker partner, the national government. For example, during the period it was based in
Afghanistan, al Qaeda was running an annual operating budget of approximately $200
236
237
238
Kimberly L. Thachuck, “Terrorism’s Financial Lifeline: Can it Be Severed,” Strategic Forum no. 191 (May
2002): 2.
239
Maurice R. Greenberg, Chair, William F. Wechsler and Lee S. Wolosky, Project Co-Directors, Terrorist
Financing: Report of an Independent Task Force Sponsored by the Council on Foreign Relations (New York:
Publication Office, Council on Foreign Relations, 25 November 2002), 5.
6-7
million, while their hosts, the Taliban had only $70 million annually.240 In addition to
financial supremacy, al Qaeda personnel also provided much of the technical expertise the
Taliban lacked. The only asset the Taliban had to offer was sanctuary and the advantages their
status as a recognized national government provided in some countries.
Although the explosion in terrorist income has been tied to the increasing involvement of
terrorists in international crime, simpler support by the more traditional means of donations,
“States with poor governance; ethnic, cultural, or religious tensions; weak

economies; and porous borders will be prime breeding grounds for
terrorism. In such states, domestic groups will challenge the entrenched
government, and transnational networks seeking safe havens.”
"Global Trends 2015: A Dialogue About the Future With Nongovernment Experts" Report
(December 2000).
extortions, and extra-legal contributions can be leveraged into significant sums through
investment. The PLO is an excellent example of financing through legitimate investments.
The organization managed to acquire sufficient wealth by these means in the 1980s, receiving
an estimated 80% plus of its annual operating budget of $600 million from investments.241 This
allowed the PLO progressively greater autonomy in dealing with other nations.
Merging Identities
Terrorist groups and other illegal sub-state organizations are rapidly becoming
indistinguishable from each other. The increasing role of criminal activity in financing
terrorism, either in partnership or competition with traditional criminal activities, is making it
very difficult, if not impossible, to clearly determine where one stops and the other begins.
These enterprises include well-publicized activities such as drug trafficking and smuggling,
which some terrorists, insurgencies, and even less reputable governments have been engaged
in for decades. They also include newer, less well-known illegal activities such as welfare
fraud, tax evasion and fraud, counterfeiting, and money laundering. Many of these activities
are offshoots of terrorist groups’ evolving capabilities of false documentation and
concealment of money transactions for their operational purposes. These activities now
generate a profit for additional funding.
Terrorists and criminal organizations are becoming more closely related, as terrorists utilize
criminal networks and methods to operate, and as criminals become more politicized.242 As
240
David Albright, “Al Qaeda’s Nuclear Program: Through the Window of Seized Documents,” Policy Forum
Online Special Forum 47 (6 November 2002): 8; available from http://www.nautilus.org/fora/Special-Policy-
Forum/47_Albright.html; Internet; accessed 14 February 2003.
241
242
“The New Threat of Organized Crime and Terrorism” Jane’s Terrorism & Security Monitor (6 June 2000): 1-
5; available from http://www.janes.com/security/international_security/news/jtsm/jtsm000619_1_n.shtml;
Internet; accessed 27 June 2000.
6-8
national governments fail, their ruling elites frequently criminalize the nation itself, lending
their sovereignty to smuggling, money laundering, piracy, or other illicit activities. Their
security forces may retreat into terrorism to hold onto what power or authority they can, and
use terrorist groups to function in place of the official arms of the government. Successful
coups often generate governments that immediately resort to terror to consolidate their position.243
This interpenetration of a criminal element into the government while government officials
are “seeping” down to the terrorists’ level is the result of governments feeling that legality, in
the international sense, is a luxury they cannot afford, and perhaps do not need. They lack the
resources to adhere to “legalistic” notions, and thus sink into criminality. The better-funded
sub-state organizations (terrorist, criminal, etc.) infiltrate or supplant the government.
Eventually, there is no distinction between the two as they effectively merge. The situation in
Liberia at the start of the twenty-first century is an excellent example of this phenomenon.
A development related to this is the emergence of “gray areas” where no government

exercises actual control. Control is imposed by sub-state actors that can span criminal
organizations, militias, and terrorists. These groups may as coalitions or in various states of
coexistence ranging from truce to open hostility. These areas may be located in urban centers
or rural regions and a lack or absence of any effective government control.244
Section II: The Future of Conflict

Whether you view the post-Cold War world with alarm or optimism, it is clear that there will
be future conflicts. There are more unresolved international issues left over from the forty-
plus years of the Cold War than from the conclusion of either of the two World Wars.
However, now there is no “balance of power” or two-power system to regulate the conflicts
that will arise from these issues. Finally, the types of issues, and the antagonists involved with
them, have fundamentally shifted. The nation-state system is showing signs of erosion in
many parts of the globe, and a return to the days of mercenary chieftains and small city-states
is already underway in some areas of the world.
In this section we will look at what will inspire conflicts in the twenty-first century, and what
some of the differences from the existing pattern will be. We will then look at some of the
resulting practical impacts on the use of terrorism against U.S. forces.
Disruptive Conditions
The world order has changed significantly in recent decades. The number of new, sovereign
nations that emerged from the end of the Cold War rivals the new nations created after the
two World Wars and the retreat of the colonial empires in the 1950s and 1960s. However, not
all of these nations are viable states and most of them do not have stable leadership other than
that of local ethnic or tribal strongmen. Many have significant problems aside from poor
leadership. The most significant of these problems include disease, resource depletion,
factionalism, and incursions from neighboring states.
243
Robert Kaplan, The Coming Anarchy: Shattering the Dreams of the Post Cold War (New York: Random
House, 2000), 48.
244
Xavier Raufer, “New World Disorder, New Terrorisms: New Threats for the Western World,” in The Future
of Terrorism, ed. Max. Taylor and John Horgan (Portland: Frank Cass Publishers, 2000), 32.
6-9
The incidence of newer pandemics such as HIV/AIDS are just now beginning to equal the
lethality of older scourges such as plague, malaria and other tropical fevers. The World Health
Organization reports 1,000 to 3,000 cases of plague every year.245 On the other hand, the
2004 United Nations report on AIDS reports almost five million new cases of HIV in 2003.246
of Gene research and the field of genomics may help combat new diseases, but offer the
potential of a two-edged sword. Although it may provide advances in health care, it could
also acquire a perverse tack toward biological warfare with very specific infections and
target groups.247
Countries may lack a base of sufficient industrial or technological production to sustain an

economic system and attempt to rely on basic agriculture and resource extraction. Often,
population pressure and lack of foresight encourage rapid depletion of finite resources. The
establishment of a viable economic system to support a national government becomes
impractical and what little economic activity is possible is usually conducted illegally.
Many nations are simply geographic fictions. They are results of an earlier international
power strategy on a map and lack any sense of national or geographic identity. Tensions
between tribal or ethnic factions, or a minority in one nation aligning with similar groups of a
regional nation other than their own nation can be destabilizing.
In a related development non-state and sub-state organizations and power blocs are assuming
military roles and utilizing organized forces in conflicts, and terror tactics in social or political
conflicts. Major corporations, private security companies, and well-funded transnational terror
groups have all played significant roles in failed or dysfunctional states
Two likely models regarding the fundamental nature of future conflicts, and while they are
not mutually exclusive, emphasize struggle among cultures or a disintegration of a culture.
The first model is strategic in nature, and reflects that past conflicts have moved from tribal to
national to ideological struggles, culminating with World War II and the Cold War. This view
predicts fighting along the parts of the world where cultures intersect, such as the Central
Asian confluence of the Islamic and Eastern Orthodox cultures. The assumption is future
conflicts will be between cultures, and wherever there is a line of engagement between two
differing cultures, there will be conflict..248
A transnational network like al Qaeda becomes more than a fundamentalist religious terror
movement in such a setting. A goal of replacing the power structures in the historical Arab
world with a new Caliphate is impractical and unlikely, but when viewed at a clash of
cultures, al Qaeda becomes a true transnational insurgency. The struggle fights against
245
“Plague,” CDC Plague Home Page; available from http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvbid/plague/index.htm;
Internet; accessed 9 July 2004.
246
2004 Report on the Global AIDS Epidemic: Executive Summary (Geneva: Joint United Nations Programme
on HIV/AIDS, 2004), 5.
247
“In My Humble Opinion: Genomics is the most important economic, political, and ethical issue facing
mankind,” Fast Company, November 1999; available from http://www.fastcompany.com/online/29/jellis.html;
Internet; accessed 26 February 2004.
248
Samuel Huntington,“The Clash of Civilizations,” Foreign Affairs (Summer 1993): 2; available from
http://www.lander.edu/atannenbaum/Tannenbaum%20courses%20folder/POLS%20103%20World%20Politics/1
03_huntington_clash_of_civilizations_full_text.htm#I.%20THE%20NEXT%20PATTERN%20OF%20CONFLI
CT; Internet; accessed 6 December 2002.
6-10
imposed Western political ideals and alien social order across multiple countries and regions
simultaneously. Stateless for the moment, these cadres hope to organize the vanguard of an
extremist religious revolution whose eventual success they consider inevitable.
The second model predicts the failure of numerous current nation-states in the developing
regions of the world. Unable to exert authority, protect their citizens, or control their borders,
they are disintegrating. Many of these countries are splintering into tribal and ethnic factions
that might coalesce into a new, more stable form, or continue to devolve through violence into
lawless zones of minor warlords and bandits.249
Regardless of which model more accurately describes the future, a most important occurrence
common to both will be the merging of terrorists as they adapt and improvise flexible
national, international, or transnational organizations.
How Changes Impact Terrorism and US Forces
Terrorism has generally seen success as a tactic and failure as a strategy. Many of the
emerging entities that are rising to wield effective power in failing states are only concerned
with the immediate tactical effects of their actions. They therefore look upon modern
terrorism as an effective mode of conflict. They can point to the fact that al Qaeda invested
$500,000 in an attack that is estimated to eventually cost the U.S. Government $135 billion in
damages and recovery costs.250 Considering that these figures do not reflect the costs of
military and law enforcement efforts to investigate and destroy the organization responsible,
the comparative return on the investment is even greater.251
Nonetheless, terrorism can have strategic impacts far beyond the physical damage of a
terrorist attack. The terrorist bombings of commuter trains in Madrid just prior to a national
election may indicate an alarming result on national resolve. A democratic election and
political process appeared to react to these terrorist attacks, and caused a change in a
sovereign government. National policies and coalition support to the Global War on
Terrorism changed dramatically with this new government.
Emerging and sub-state entities are not compelled to obey any established rules regarding the
uses of force. Terrorism and the use of terror to oppress may be viewed as logical and
effective methods to accomplish objectives. The development of rules of war and the
framework of international laws that attempt to protect the civilian from military action are
irrelevant to these combatants. Thus the expansion of where and to whom violence may be
applied will accelerate. The treatment of prisoners will rely more on the provision for ransom
or retribution for mistreatment than on the rulings of the international agreements such as
Geneva Convention.252
249
House, 2000), 7-9.
250
2002): 4.
251
Fred L. Fuller, “New Order Threat Analysis: A Literature Survey”, Marine Corps Gazette 81 (April 1997):
46-48.
252
Martin L. Van Creveld, The Transformation of War (New York: The Free Press, 1991), 202.
6-11
The unit leader and planner mind set must be prepared to operate in a chaotic and
unstructured contemporary operational environment. This mind set includes the sobering
concept that their units may likely be the only order or structure in their area of operations.
There may be no host nation government and perhaps no local government. Several groups
may claim to be the legitimate authority with the potential for some or all of the groups to be
hostile.253 U.S. forces deployed in these environments will constitute mobile capsules of order
and structure, but that order will disappear after they pass through the area.
There are theories for using all of these levels of disorder, as well as economic warfare,
information warfare, and conventional military force, in an orchestrated campaign against an
adversary. This would be conducted as a long-term effort of undeclared conflict that might
appear as amicable relations between the two adversaries, but with one pursuing the eventual
defeat of the other through multiple, simultaneous methods.254 Forms of terrorism easily fit
into this construct of overt and covert conflict. The arena of cyber-war exemplifies the ability to
impact on critical infrastructure, and its disruption and damage to national security, economic
functions, and U.S. military response.255
The effectiveness of this approach is in the costs to the victim to defend against multiple
threats with no clear foe. Operational control over the various tools employed by the
aggressor is not required, as long as the tools perform their role of reducing the adversary of
resources and resolve. Deniability is maintained and diplomacy pursued to keep the conflict
from becoming focused before the aggressor is ready. Although all manner of unconventional
threats may be employed, terrorism is a key component of this strategy.
On the practical level, what changes to terrorist operations will concern U.S. forces?
Terrorism will continue to increase in lethality. Who is the terrorist? Terrorism is merging and
combining with various other state and sub-state actors, further blurring the difference
between criminals, rogue governments, and terrorists. These are concerns regarding the
impacts and interactions of mass media, technological advances, urbanization, and illegal
fundraising with terrorism.
There is an increasingly technological and informational nature to all conflict. Terrorism is no

exception. Terrorists will continue to cultivate the ability to use new and innovative
technologies, and methods of applying existing technologies to new uses. Terrorists will go
exclusively “high-tech,” but they will explore the increase in capabilities that technology
provides, especially the synergy between simple operations and selective technologies to
ensure success.
Terrorists will attempt to exploit US vulnerabilities to information dominance. Casualty

avoidance and the media effect are interrelated perceptions held by many potential adversaries
of the US social and political situation. Terrorists may believe the US. is extremely casualty
253
House, 2000), 47.
254
Qiao Liang and Wang Xiangsui, Unrestricted Warfare, trans. Department of State, American Embassy
Beijing Staff Translators (Washington, D.C., 1999).
255
President,The National Strategy to Secure Cyberspace. (Washington, D.C., February
2003), Preface; available from http://www.whitehouse.gov/pcipb/cyberspace_strategy.pdf; Internet;
accessed 8 December 2003.
6-12
averse and that images and news of casualties will be easy to deliver to the American public
in their living rooms. While this effect may be overemphasized, promotion of goals, acts, and
demands are significant part of terrorist operations.
In the techniques of media coverage, terrorists were pioneers.256 Since the terrorists prepare
their operations around the desired media effect, they will be prepared and vocal or visual for
reporting coverage. They will orchestrate supporting events and interviews to reinforce the
desired message. Terrorists have well-established methods of presenting disinformation and
false perspectives. Frequently, military reluctance to comment on ongoing operations in the
media for operational security (OPSEC) reasons can assist the terrorist. If no balanced
information comes from official sources in a timely manner, the media will use the
information readily available from the terrorist as a primary source for reporting the story.
Terrorists will exploit the vulnerabilities of new technologies to attacks or disruption.

Terrorists have a great deal of flexibility in their ability to acquire new technology. They also
have the advantage of only needing to attack or neutralize specific systems or capabilities.
Consequently, they can narrowly focus their expenditures on the limited counter-technology
they need. Also, they can neutralize some advanced systems or capabilities through the use of
innovative and unconventional techniques, such as the employment of suicide bombers.
Modern, high-technology societies are susceptible to a “complex terrorism.” Dependence on

electronic networks, sometimes with minimal redundancy, and concentrating critical assets in
small geographic locales can present lucrative targets for the terrorist. Ensuring redundant
systems exist, dispersing critical assets physically, and creating buffers, firewalls, or other
type safeguards can enhance defense and recovery from such complex terrorist attacks.257
There are potential cyber-terrorism impacts here in relation to the U.S. military
transformation. As the U.S. military increases its battlefield information capabilities,
vulnerabilities peculiar to networks such as overload feedback between nodes and destruction
of key concentration nodes become available for terrorists to exploit.258 Deception techniques
exploiting our reliance on technology have already been used with some success.259 When
Usama bin Laden thought American satellites were being used to locate him tracing his
satellite phone, he had an aid depart from his location carrying the phone. Evidently the aid
was captured with the phone, while bin Laden escaped.
The military will not be the only, or necessarily the primary target of new strategies useful
against leading edge technologies and organizations. The dispersal of key civilian
infrastructure nodes into locations remote from the urban complexes they serve increases their
vulnerability and the reliance on computerized control systems to monitor and control these
nodes increase their exposure to cyber-terrorism.
256
257
Thomas Homer-Dixon, “The Rise of Complex Terrorism,” Foreign Policy Magazine (January-February
2002): 1, 6, and 7; available from http:// www.foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=170; Intenet; accessed
26 August 2004.
258
Ibid., 3-4.
259
“Osama’s Satellite Phone Switcheroo,” CBS News.com, 21 January 2003, 1; available from
http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2003/01/21/attack/main537258.shtml; Internet; accessed 10 February 2003.
6-13
Participation in and use of terrorism will increase. Individuals and groups that are not
currently employing terrorism will adopt it as a tactic, and those that are employing terror
tactics at low levels of lethality will become more violent. This is a combination of existing
terrorist groups trying to destabilize the existing order on an ever-widening basis, and the
previously discussed tendency of terrorist groups to increase the level of violence when not
immediately successful.260
Terrorist basing and operations in urban environments will increase. Terrorists have typically
operated in urban environments, but the emergence of “megalopolis” cities in undeveloped or
poorly developed countries, with poor services, weak governance, and rampant
unemployment and dissatisfaction has created a near perfect recruiting ground-cum-operating
environment for terrorists. Many of these cities have adequate international communication
and transport capacities for the terrorists’ purposes; yet have ineffective law enforcement and
a potentially huge base of sympathizers and recruits. The inability of external counter-terror
and law enforcement organizations to effectively intervene where the local government is
unable to assert authority is another advantage.261
The advantage to terrorist organizations that use criminal activities to fund operations will
continue to grow. Money is the great force multiplier for terrorists, and criminal activity
produces more money than other strategies. The annual profit from criminal activity is
estimated at 2-5% of the world Gross Domestic Product, or $600 billion to $1.5 trillion in
profit.262 Terrorists are emphasizing criminal activities for their support funding because it
allows them to compete more effectively with their adversaries, and conduct larger and more
lethal operations.
Conclusion
This chapter examined the future of terrorism with emphasis on the integration of terrorism
with concepts of world disorder and new forms of conflict. The evolution of some terrorist
activity into non-state, politicized criminal action is a conflict arena of growing concern. The
merging of criminals, rogue political leaders, and terrorists into various groupings for their
mutual benefit may be temporary as a collective identity, or may build some longevity as
substantial bases of fiscal and materiel support and safehaven. International or transnational
links and associations further complicate the countering of terrorism.
260
261
Xavier Raufer, “New World Disorder, New Terrorisms: New Threats for the Western World,” in The Future
of Terrorism, ed. Max Taylor and John Horgan (Portland: Frank Cass Publishers, 2000), 32.
262
2002): 2.
6-14
Appendix A
Terrorist Threat to Combatant Commands
U.S. interests are spread throughout the world. So, every Muslim
should carry out his real role to champion his Islamic nation and
religion. Carrying out terrorism against the oppressors is one of the
tenets of our religion and Shari'ah.
Al Qaeda Statement, October 10, 2001
General
In 2002, the Secretary of Defense and Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff announced the
2002 Unified Command Plan, which established five Combatant Commands:
• U.S. Northern Command (USNORTHCOM)

• U.S. Southern Command (USSOUTHCOM)
• U.S. Pacific Command (USPACOM)
• U.S. European Command (USEUCOM)
• U.S. Central Command (USCENTCOM)
263
Figure A-1. The World with Commanders’ Areas of Responsibility
263
Department of Defense, Special Briefing on the Unified Command Plan, by Donald H. Rumsfeld,
(Department of Defense News Briefing Transcript presented at the Pentagon, Wednesday, 17 April 2002 –
11:30a.m); available from http://www.defenselink.mil/news/Apr2002/t04172002_t0417sd.html; Internet;
accessed 18 November 2002.
A-1
This appendix addresses the terrorist threat facing each one of these commands. Each
Combatant Command Area of Responsibility (AOR) is listed reflecting the terrorist groups
that are physically based within it, plus other groups that either have a presence or have
operated within the AOR. We must realize, though, that any terrorist group that has the
manpower and financial resources can operate within an AOR if its objectives dictate an
operational requirement to do so. Imminent danger to U.S. military forces can change rapidly. Not
all groups listed will profess to target U.S. interests, but all listed could easily do so.
This material should be considered suitable for general orientation. Since the information on
terrorist groups is dynamic and changes frequently, actual planning and threat assessments
should utilize appropriate intelligence products from the commands listed. The major input
for this section comes from the United States Department of State report entitled: “Country
Reports on Terrorism 2004”, dated April 2005264 (located at http://www.state.gov/s/ct
/rls/c14813.htm), and the National Counterterrorism Center report “A Chronology of
Significant International Terrorism for 2004”, dated April 2005 265 (located at
http://www.tkb.org/documents/Downloads/NCTC_Reports.pdf). Information listed for
USNORTHCOM was also obtained from the FBI publication, Terrorism in the United
States266 (located at http://www.sas.org/Terrorist/archive/FBIterror99.pdf) and the Historical
Dictionary of Terrorism.267 An * indicates past history of anti-U.S. activity.
U.S. Northern Command
Groups Physically Based In AOR Strength Anti-U.S.

Activity
Animal Liberation Front (ALF)* Unknown Yes
Aryan Nations* 150 – 500 Yes
Christian Identity affiliated groups* Varies Yes
Earth Liberation Front (ELF)* Unknown Yes
Fuerzas Armadas de Liberacion Nacional Puertorriquena (Armed Forces for < 50 Yes
Puerto Rican National Liberation (FALN)*
Jamaat ul-Fuqra* 200 Yes
264
Department of State, Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism, Country Reports on Terrorism 2004,
265
National Counterterrorism Center, A Chronology of Significant International Terrorism for 2004,
266
50-51.
267
Sean K. Anderson & Stephen Sloan, Historical Dictionary of Terrorism (Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, Inc,
2002).
A-2
Ku Klux Klan affiliated groups* 9,000 – Yes

20,000
Loosely affiliated ad hoc groups* Varies Yes
Los Macheteros (Puerto Rico)* < 40 Yes
Militias/Patriot/Conspiracy affiliated groups* Varies Yes
Neo-Nazi affiliated groups* Varies Yes
Posse Comitatus groups* 1,000 – Yes

3,000
Skinhead affiliated groups* 2,500 – Yes

3,500
World Church of the Creator (WCOTC)* Unknown Yes
Table A-1. Terrorist Groups Based in USNORTHCOM
Other Groups Operating or with Presence in the AOR
Al-Gama’a al-Islamiyya (IG)* Japanese Red Army (JRA)*
Al Qaeda* Kach
Cambodian Freedom Fighters (CFF) Kahane Chai
HAMAS Manuel Rodgriquez Patriotic Front (FPMR)*
Hizballah* Mujahedin-e Khalq Organization (MEK)*
Table A-2. Terrorist Groups with Presence in USNORTHCOM
U.S. Southern Command

Activity
Manuel Rodriquez Patriotic Front (FPMR), (Chile)∗ (Listed in the 50 - 100 Yes
2003State Department Report-Deleted in 2004)
Morzanist Patriotic Front (FPM), (Honduras)* (Listed in the Unknown (Est. Yes
2003State Department Report-Deleted in 2004) small)
A-3
National Liberation Army (ELN), (Colombia)* 3,000 combatants Yes
Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC), (Colombia)* 9,000 – 12,000 Yes
Sendero Luminoso (Shining Path) (SL), (Peru)* 300 Yes
Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement (MRTA), (Peru) <100 None
United Self-Defense Forces/Group of Colombia (Autodefensas 8,000 – 11,000 None

Unidas de Colombia) (AUC), (Colombia)
Table A-3. Terrorist Groups Based in USSOUTHCOM
Al-Gama’a al-Islamiyya (IG)* Irish Republican Army (IRA)
Al Qaeda* Mujahedin-e Khalq Organization (MEK)*
Hizballah*
Table A-4. Terrorist Groups with Presence in USSOUTHCOM
U.S. European Command

Activity
Al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigade,(al-Aqsa), (Occupied Unknown Yes

Territories)*
Anti-Imperialist Territorial Nuclei (NTA), a.k.a.: Anti- 20 Yes

Imperialist Territorial Units, (Italy)*
Armed Islamic Group (GIA), (Algeria) Unknown (Est. < 100) None
Army for the Liberation of Rwanda (ALIR), a.k.a.: Unknown (Several thousand Yes
Interahamwe, Former Armed Forces of Rwanda (ex- operate in eastern DRC)
FAR), (Rwanda)*
‘Asbat al-Ansar (The League of the Followers), 300 Yes

(Lebanon)*
Basque Fatherland and Liberty (ETA), a.k.a.: Euzkadi Unknown (Est. several None
Ta Askatasuna, (Spain) hundred)
A-4
Continuity Irish Republican Army (CIRA), a.k.a.: < 50 None

Continuity Army Council, (Northern Ireland)
Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine 500 None

(DFLP), (Occupied Territories) (Listed in the 2003State
Department Report-Deleted in 2004)
First of October Antifascist Resistance Group (Grupo de Unknown (Est. < 24) Yes
Resistencia Anti-Fascista Primero de Octubre)
(GRAPO), (Spain)*
Great East Islamic Raiders – Front (IBDA-C), (Turkey) Unknown None
HAMAS (Islamic Resistance Movement), (Occupied Unknown combatants None

Territories)
<10,000 Supporters
Hizballah (Party of God), a.k.a.: Islamic Jihad, Several hundred Yes

Revolutionary Justice Organization, Organization of the
Oppressed on Earth, Islamic Jihad for the Liberation of Several thousand supporters
Palestine, (Lebanon)*
Irish National Liberation Army (INLA), (Northern < 50 None

Ireland)
Irish Republican Army (IRA), a.k.a.: Provisional Irish Several hundred None
Republican Army (PIRA), the Provos, (Northern
Ireland)
Islamic International Peacekeeping Brigade (IIPB), 400 None

Chechnya
Japanese Red Army (JRA), a.k.a.: Anti-Imperialist 6 Yes

International Brigade (AIIB), (Lebanon)∗
Kahane Chai (Kach), (Israel) Unknown None
Kongra-Gel (KGK), a.k.a.: Kurdistan Workers’ Party 4,000 – 5,000 None

(PKK), a.k.a.: Kurdistan Freedom and Democracy
Congress (KADEK), Freedom and Democracy Congress
of Kurdistan, (Turkey)
Libyan Islamic Fighting Group, a.k.a.: Al-Jam’a al- Unknown (Est. several None
Islamiyyah al-Muqatilah, Fighting Islamic Group, hundred)
Libyan Fighting Group, Libyan Islamic Group, (Libya)
Lord’s Resistance Army (LRA), (Uganda) 500-1000 None
Loyalist Volunteer Force (LVF), (Northern Ireland) Approx. 24 None
A-5
Moroccan Islamic Combatant Group (GICM), (Western Unknown None

Europe)
New Red Brigades/Communist Combatant Party < 20 None

(BR/PCC), a.k.a.: Brigate Rosse/Partito Comunista
Combattente, (Italy)
The Palestine Islamic Jihad (PIJ), (Syria) Unknown None
Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP), Unknown None

(Syria)*
Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine-General Several hundred None

Command (PFLP-GC), (Syria)*
Qibla and People Against Gangsterism and Drugs Unknown (Est. several None
(PAGAD), a.k.a.: Muslims Against Global Oppression hundred)
(MAGO), Muslims Against Illegitimate Leaders (MAIL),
(South Africa)*
Real IRA (RIRA), a.k.a.: True IRA, (Northern Ireland) <100 None
Red Hand Defenders (RHD), (Northern Ireland) Approx. 20 None
Revolutionary Nuclei (RN), a.k.a.: Revolutionary Cells, Unknown (Est. to be small) Yes
(Greece)∗
Revolutionary Organization 17 November, a.k.a.: Unknown (Est. to be small) Yes

17November, (Greece)∗
Revolutionary People’s Liberation Party/Front Several dozen Yes

(DHKP/C), a.k.a.: Devrimci Sol, Revolutionary Left, Dev
Sol, (Turkey)*
Revolutionary People’s Struggle (ELA), (Greece)* Unknown Yes
Revolutionary Proletarian Initiative Nuclei (NIPR), Approx. 12 Yes

(Italy)*
Riyadus-Salikhin Reconnaissance and Sabotage < 50 None

Battalion of Chechen Martyrs (RSRSBCM), (Chechnya)
The Salafist Group for Call and Combat (GSPC), Unknown (Est. several None
(Algeria) hundred)
Special Purpose Islamic Regiment (SPIR), (Chechnya) < 100 None
The Tunisian Combatant Group (TCG), a.k.a.: Jama’a Unknown Yes

Combattante Tunisienne, Tunisian Islamic Fighting
Group, (Tunisia)*
A-6
Turkish Hizballah, (Turkey) Est. several hundred members None

Several thousand supporters
Ulster Defense Association/Ulster Freedom Fighters Est. 2,000 – 5,000 None

(UDA/UFF), (Northern Ireland)
Ulster Defense Force (UVP), (Northern Ireland) Unknown (Est. several None
hundred)
Zviadists, (Georgia) (Listed in the 2003State Department Unknown None

Report-Deleted in 2004)
Table A-5. Terrorist Groups Based in USEUCOM
Abu Nidal Organization (ANO)* Aum Supreme Truth (Aum)
Al-Gama’a al-Islamiyya (IG)* Mujahedin-e Khalq Organization (MEK)*
Al-Jihad* Palestine Liberation Front (PLF)*
Al Qaeda*
Table A-6. Terrorist Groups with Presence in USEUCOM
U.S. Central Command

Activity
Abu Nidal Organization (ANO), a.k.a.: Fatah Few hundred Yes

Revolutionary Council, Arab Revolutionary Brigades,
Black September, Revolutionary Organization of Socialist
Muslims, (Iraq)*
Al-Badhr Mujahidin (al-Badr), (Pakistan) Several hundred None
Al-Gama’a al-Islamiyya (IG), a.k.a.: Islamic Group, Unknown Yes

(Egypt)*
Al-Ittihad al-Islami (AIAI), a.k.a.: Islamic Union, 2,000 + None

(Somalia)
A-7
Al-Jihad, a.k.a.: Egyptian Islamic Jihad, Jihad Group, Unknown (Est. several Yes
(Egypt)* hundred)
Al –Qaeda, a.k.a.: Qa’idat al-Jihad, Several thousand Yes

(Afghanistan/Pakistan)*
Ansar al-Islam (AI), a.k.a.: Partisans of Islam, Helpers of Approx. 700 – 1,000 Yes
Islam, Supporters of Islam, Jund al-Islam, Jaish Ansar al-
Sunna, (Iraq)*
Harakat ul-Ansar (HUA), (Pakistan)* Several thousand Yes
Harakat ul-Jihad-I-Islami (Movement of Islamic Holy Unknown (Est. several None

War) (HUJI), (Pakistan) hundred)
Harakat ul-Mujahidin (Movement of Holy Warriors) Several hundred Yes

(HUM), a.k.a.: Jamiat ul-Ansar (JUA), (Pakistan)*
Hizb-I Islami Gulbuddin (HIG), (Afghanistan/Pakistan)* Several hundred Yes
Islamic Army of Aden (IAA), a.k.a.: Aden-Abyan Islamic Unknown Yes

Army (AAIA), (Yemen)*
Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan (IMU), (Uzbekistan)* < 500 Yes
Jaish-e-Mohammed (Army of Mohammed) (JEM ), Several hundred None

(Pakistan)
Lashkar-e-Tayyiba (Army of the Righteous) (LT), a.k.a.: Several thousand None

Jamaat ud-Dawa (JUD), (Pakistan)
Lashkar I Jhangvi (Army of Jhangvi) (LJ), (Pakistan)* < 100 Yes
Mujahedin-e Khalq Organization (MEK or MKO), a.k.a.: Several thousand (3,800 Yes
National Liberation Army of Iran (NLA), People’s confined to Camp Ashraf)
Mujahidin of Iran (PMOI), National Council of Resistance
(NCR), National Council of Resistance of Iran (NCRI),
Muslim Iranian Student’s Society, (Iraq)*
Palestine Liberation Front (PLF) (Iraq)* Unknown Yes
Sipah-I-Sahaba/Pakistan (SSP), (Pakistan) 3000-6000 None
Table A-7. Terrorist Groups Based in USCENTCOM
Al-Jama’a al-Islamiyyah al-Muqatilah bi-Libya Japanese Red Army (JRA)*
A-8
Eastern Turkistan Islamic Movement (ETIM)* Kurdistan Worker’s Party (PKK)
HAMAS Libyan Islamic Fighting Group
Hizballah* Moroccan Islamic Combatant Group (GICM)
Hizb ul-Mujahidin (HM) Palestine Islamic Jihad (PIJ)
Jamaat ul-Fuqra* Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine-

General Command (PFLP-GC)
Jamiat ul-Mujahidin (JUM) The Tunisian Combatant Group (TCG)*
Table A-8. Terrorist Groups with Presence in USCENTCOM
U.S. Pacific Command

Activity
Abu Sayyaf Group (ASG) (Philippines)* 200 - 500 Yes
Alex Boncayao Brigade (ABB) (Philippines)* Approx. 500 Yes
Al-Ummah, (India) (Listed in the 2003State Unknown None

Department Report-Deleted in 2004)
Aum Supreme Truth (Aum), a.k.a.: Aum 1,650 None

Shinrikyo, Aleph, (Japan)
Cambodian Freedom Fighters (CFF), a.k.a.: Unknown (Est. < 100) None
Cholana Kangtoap Serei Cheat Kampouchea,
(Cambodia)
Chukaku-Ha (Nucleus or Middle Core 3,500 None

Faction), (Japan)
The Communist Party of Nepal Several thousand Yes

(Maoist)/United People’s Front , (Nepal)*
Communist Party of the Philippines/New < 9,000 Yes

People’s Army (CPP/NPA), (Philippines)*
Eastern Turkistan Islamic Movement (ETIM), Unknown Yes

(China)*
A-9
Harakat ul-Jihad-I-Islami/Bangladesh > Several thousand None

(Movement of Islamic Holy War) (HUJI-B),
(Bangladesh)
Hizb ul-Mujahidin (HM), (India-Kashmir) Unknown (Est. several None

hundred to over 1000)
Jamiat ul-Mujahidin (JUM), (India-Kashmir) Unknown None
Jemaah Islamiya (JI), (Malaysia and Unknown (Est. several Yes

Singapore)* hundred to several
thousand)
Khmer Rouge/The Party of Democratic 100 – 500 None

Kampuchea, (Cambodia) (Listed in the
2003State Department Report-Deleted in 2004)
Kumpulan Mujahidin Malaysia (KMM), Unknown Yes

(Malaysia)*
Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), Unknown (Est. 8,000 – None

a.k.a.: World Tamil Association (WTA), World 10,000)
Tamil Movement (WTM), Federation of
Associations of Canadian Tamils (FACT),
Ellalan Force, Sangilian Force, (Sri Lanka)
Maoist Communist Center of India (MCCI), 31,000 None

a.k.a.: The Maoist Communist Center (MCC)
and Naxalites, (India)
United Liberation Front of Assam (ULFA) Est. 700 None

(India)
Table A-9. Terrorist Groups Based in USPACOM
Abu Nidal Organization (ANO)* Harakat ul-Mujahidin (HUM)*
Al-Badhr Mujahidin (al-Badr) Hizballah*
Al-Gama’a al-Islamiyya (IG)* Jaish-e-Mohammed (JEM)
Al Qaeda* Japanese Red Army (JRA)*
Harakat ul-Ansar (HUA)* Lashkar-e-Tayyiba (LT)
A-10
Harakat ul-Jihad-I-Islami (HUJI) Mujahedin-e Khalq Organization (MEK)*
Table A-10. Terrorist Groups with Presence in USPACOM
Groups marked with an asterisk have conducted operations in one or more areas against U.S.
targets.
A-11
A-12
Appendix B
Terrorist Planning Cycle
The main point is to select targets where success is 100% assured.

Dr. George Habash, Founder, PFLP
(Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine)
Terrorist operations are typically prepared to minimize

risk and achieve the highest probability of success. They Terrorist
focus on avoiding the opponents’ strengths and Planning Cycle
concentrating on their weaknesses. Emphasis is on
maximizing security and target effects. In practice that
means the least number of personnel, and the most Broad
effective268 weapons practicable. To accomplish this,
I Target
extensive planning is conducted, with an emphasis on Selection
target surveillance and reconnaissance.
Intelligence
Collection against potential targets may continue for II and
years before an operation is decided upon. While some Surveillance
targets may be “soft” enough for shorter periods of
observation, the information gathering will still be Specific
intense. Also, operations planned or underway may be
III Target
altered, delayed, or cancelled entirely due to changes to Selection
the target or local conditions.
Pre-attack
IV Surveillance
Terrorists plan campaigns to combine successive
achievements of operational objectives into and Planning
accomplishing strategic goals. Even though we refer to a
terrorist operation having a physical “objective,” this Attack
V
physical objective is in reality an intermediate objective. Rehearsal
The casualties, destruction, or threats thereof that the
operation accomplishes must be properly exploited to
Actions
reach the target audience. The psychological impact on VI on the
that audience is the true objective of any terrorist
Objective
operation. While the assassination of a troublesome
police official may provide other tactical advantages, it
is the psychological effect on the target audience and its Escape and
VII
ultimate support of strategic goals that is the true Exploitation
objective. This has been seen extensively in Iraq as
terrorists targeted Iraqis serving in provisional
Government positions in 2004.
Figure B-1.
There is no universal “staff school” model for terrorist Terrorist Planning Cycle
268
Note: “Effective” in this case need not mean modern or destructive, but most suitable to cause the desired
target effects. Knives, machetes, and other edged weapons have been extensively used against terrorist victims in
the modern era because target audiences view them as particularly bloody and barbarous.
B-1
planning, but experience and success has shown terrorists what works for effective plans and
operations. Terrorist organizations exchange personnel and training with each other, and study
the methods and operational successes of groups they have no direct contact with. Innovation
is a proven key component of operational success. Using new weapons or technology, or old
systems in innovative, unexpected ways, allows terrorists to defeat or avoid defensive measures.
Terrorist operational planning can be analyzed according to requirements common to all

operations. The planning and operation cycle in Fig. B-1 is valid for traditional hierarchically
organized groups, as well as the decentralized “network” type organizations. The differences
between the two organizations are the location of decision making at the various steps of the
cycle, and the method of task organizing and providing support for the operation.
Phase I: Broad Target Selection
“Information gathering is a continuous operation…”
Irish Republican Army’s Handbook

for Volunteers of Irish Republican Army, 1956.
This phase is the collection of information on a large number of potential targets, some of
which may never be attacked, or seriously considered for attack. Personnel that are not core
members of the terrorist organization, but are either sympathizers or dupes, and who may not
be aware of what their information will be used for, often conduct this data collection. This
phase also includes open source and general information collection. Some features of this type
of collection are:
y Stories from newspapers, other media, and journalistic sources often provide key
information on the target.
y Internet research provides texts, pictures, blue prints, and video information.
y Potential targets are screened based on symbolic value and their potential to generate high
profile media attention. Objectives of the terrorist group influence the selection of a person or
facility as a worthy target. This includes the likely casualty rate achieved by the attack.
The number of preliminary targets that can be screened is limited only by the capabilities of
the group to collect information from sympathizers and open sources. Targets that are
considered vulnerable and which would further the terrorist organization’s goals are selected
for the next phase of intelligence collection.
B-2
Phase II: Intelligence Gathering and Surveillance

Targets showing potential vulnerabilities are given a higher priority of effort. This priority
establishes the requirement to gather additional information on the targets’ patterns over time.
Examples include the 2004 accounts of terrorist surveillance conducted for years on the
International Monetary Fund, Prudential Building, New York Stock Exchange, as well as
facilities in Las Vegas, Nevada. The type of surveillance employed depends on the target
type. Elements of information typically gathered include:
• Practices/Procedures/Routines – For facilities this includes scheduled deliveries, work

shift changes, identification procedures and other observable routines. For individuals, it
can include regularly scheduled errands (laundry pick up every third day, etc.) and appointments.
• Residence & Workplace – This category applies primarily to the physical layout and
individual activities at the two places the target typically spends the most time.
• Transportation/Routes of Travel – For individuals, this is the mode of transport and

common routes to any regular destination (house, work, gym, school, etc.). For facilities,
it addresses ingress and egress points, types of vehicles allowed on the grounds, or
availability of transportation into the target site.
• Security Measures – This topic includes a myriad of potential collection areas,

depending on the complexity of the security around the target. Presence of a guard force;
the reaction time of response units; any hardening of structures, barriers, or sensors;
personnel, package, and vehicle screening procedures; and the type and frequency of
emergency reaction drills are examples of key collection objectives. This is one of the
most important areas of information for attack site selection, since the intent is to bypass
and avoid security measures, and be able to strike the target during any period.
Phase III: Specific Target Selection

Selection of a target for actual operational planning considers some of the following factors:
• Does success affect a larger audience than the immediate victim(s)?
• Will the target attract high profile media attention?
• Does success make the desired statement to the correct target audience(s)?
• Is the effect consistent with objectives of the group?
• Does the target provide an advantage to the group by demonstrating its capabilities?
• What are the costs versus benefits of conducting the operation?
B-3
A decision to proceed requires continued intelligence collection against the chosen target.
Targets not receiving immediate consideration will still be collected against for
future opportunities.
Phase IV: Pre-attack Surveillance and Planning

Members of the actual operational cells begin to appear during this phase. Either trained
intelligence and surveillance personnel, or members of the cell organized to conduct the
operation conduct this phase. Consequently, the level of intelligence tradecraft and
operational competency correspondingly increases. This phase gathers information on the
target’s current patterns over time, usually days to weeks. It allows the attack team to confirm
the information gathered from previous surveillance and reconnaissance activities. The areas
of concern are essentially the same as in Phase II, but with greater focus based upon the
planning conducted thus far.
The type of surveillance employed depends on the target’s activities. The information gained
is then used to:
• Conduct security studies.
• Conduct detailed preparatory operations.
• Recruit specialized operatives (if needed).
• Procure a base of operations in the target area (safe houses, caches, etc.).
• Design and test escape routes.
• Decide on type of weapon or attack.
Phase V: Rehearsals
As with conventional military operations, rehearsals are conducted to improve the odds of
success, confirm planning assumptions, and develop contingencies. Terrorists also rehearse to
test security reactions to particular attack profiles. Terrorists use both their own operatives
and unwitting people to test target reactions.
Typical rehearsals include:
• Deployment into target area.
• Actions on the objective.
• Escape routes.
• Equipment and weapon performance.

B-4
Tests in the target area will be conducted to confirm:
• Target information gathered to date.
• Target pattern of activities.
• Physical layout of target or operation area.
• Security force reactions (state of alert, timing, size of response, equipment, routes).
Phase VI: Actions on the Objective

Once terrorists reach this stage of their program, the odds are clearly against the target.
Several different analyses conclude that once operations are initiated, the success rate for the
terrorist is in the ninety-percent range. Terrorists will minimize time spent conducting the
actual operation to reduce their vulnerability to discovery or countermeasures. With the
exception of barricade-style hostage taking operations, terrorists plan to complete their actions
before even nearby security forces can react.
Terrorists conducting planned operations possess important tactical advantages. Since they are
the attacker, they possess all the advantages of initiative, giving them:
• Surprise.
• Choice of time, place, and conditions of attack.
• Employment of diversions and secondary or follow-up attacks.
• Employment of security and support positions to neutralize target reaction forces and
security measures.
Because of the extensive preparation through surveillance and reconnaissance, enemy security
measures will be planned for and neutralized. Any countermeasure can be countered in turn.
If security cameras are detected, they can be avoided or disabled as necessary. Guards can be
overcome or killed. Hardened vehicles or buildings will result in the use of larger or more
effective explosive devices or direct fire weapons. Although security measures may
complicate the attackers’ problems, they do not confer any guarantee against attack.
Phase VII: Escape and Exploitation

Escape plans are usually well rehearsed and executed. Many terrorists want to survive the
operation and escape. It further enhances the effect of fear and terror from a successful
operation if the perpetrators get away “clean.” The exception to this is a suicide operation,
where the impact is enhanced by the willingness to die in achieving the attack. Even in suicide
attacks, however, there are usually support personnel and “handlers” who must deliver the
suicide asset to the target, and subsequently make their escape.
B-5
Exploitation is the primary objective of the operation. The operation must be properly
exploited and publicized to achieve its intended effect. Media control measures, prepared
statements, and a host of other preparations are made to effectively exploit a successful
operation. These will be timed to take advantage of media cycles for the selected target audiences.
Unsuccessful operations are disavowed when possible. The perception that a group has failed
severely damages the organization’s prestige and makes it appear vulnerable, or worse,
ineffective. Once a terrorist organization is perceived as ineffective, it is very difficult to
impact target audiences.
In addition to the impact on the opponent, successful attacks bring favorable attention,
notoriety and support (money, recruits, etc.) to the group conducting them. If the group
conducting the operation subscribes to a revolutionary ideology, they will see each success as
gradually inspiring more revolutionary fervor in the population. Any success encourages the
terrorists to conduct further operations, and improves their ability to do so through increased
support and experience.
B-6
Appendix C
Terrorist Operations and Tactics
Not believing in force is the same as not believing in gravity.
Leon Trotsky
General
The discussion below presents the most common types of terrorist operations and tactics. By
no means is this intended to be an exhaustive discussion of this topic since the combination of
methods and approaches is virtually unlimited. However, one constant regarding terror
operations is the use of techniques stressing surprise, secrecy, innovation, and indirect
methods of attack. Their tactics are as broad and diverse as the imagination of the group’s
members. Additionally, with the use of the Internet and common training bases, terrorist
groups exchange information on tactics that yield success. Al Qaeda alone has assembled in
excess of 10,000 pages of written training material, more than a hundred hours of training
videos, and operates a worldwide network of training camps.269 Additionally, they have been
able to field test their tactics in real-world situations since many of the terrorists have
participated in conflicts such as Chechnya, Kashmir, Afghanistan, the Balkans, and Iraq.
Contemporary Setting
For military professionals, a key

principle to keep in mind is the
difference in outlook between
terror operations and military
operations. The terrorist will
utilize tactics, forces, and
weapons specifically tailored to
the particular mission. Terrorist
operations are individualistic, in
that each is planned for a specific
target and effect. Additionally,
terrorists will only expose as
much of their resources and
personnel to capture or destruct-
ion as are absolutely necessary Figure C-1: Khobar Towers (Source: DOD Photo)
for mission accomplishment. A
military force would approach an
operation with plans to concentrate forces and keep excess combat power on hand to meet
contingencies, ensure mission success, and prepare for follow-on missions. A terrorist takes a
minimal force and relies upon prior planning and reconnaissance to match the force, weapons,
269
Ben Venzke and Aimee Ibrahim, The al-Qaeda Threat, An Analytical Guide to al-Qaeda’s Tactics & Targets
(Alexandria: Tempest Publishing, 2003), 7.
C- 1
and methods to the target. There is no concept of “follow-on missions”, so there is no need for
redundant capability. If changes to the target, or unexpected conditions render success
unlikely, he will usually cancel the operation and return later with a better weapon, an updated
plan, more personnel, or whatever it may require to ensure a successful operation. For major
terrorist operations, mission accomplishment will in all likelihood mean the disbanding
of the force, personnel returning to their cells and covers, or forming new task groups
for other operations.
In addition to adaptive and flexible organizations, terrorists also employ specific equipment
built or procured for a particular operation. Because of the lag time between development of a
new technology and military acquisition and fielding, terrorists can sometimes procure
equipment superior to standardized military models. As an example, instead of purchasing
hundreds of identical radios constructed to meet all likely uses, a terrorist will only procure
the quantity he needs of the newest, most capable radio appropriate for the operation. The
only real limitation is funding and availability of the equipment when it is needed.
Weapons will also be tailored to the particular operation. If a directional explosive is needed,
the terrorist could make use of available military models of anti-tank and anti-personnel
mines. Conversely, the terrorist may determine that a mine would be detected by the target’s
security force en route to the attack, and he therefore needs to build or obtain an alternative
device. To illustrate, even counting the warheads of anti-ship cruise missiles, there was not a
readily available weapon for the attack on the USS Cole. No one manufactures a half-ton C-4
platter charge configured to fit in a small boat,270 but that was exactly what the terrorist’s plan
required. Therefore it was exactly what the terrorist group built. Additionally, Operation Iraqi
Freedom has demonstrated the terrorists’ ability to construct a variety of IEDs that are
effective, yet are easily emplaced and difficult to detect by military forces.
Objectives of the group(s) conducting the operation are key to predicting likely targets. Is the
intent to cause loss of faith in the authorities, a provocation to inspire resistance, to promote
fear amongst the population, or to inflict military casualties in an attempt to reduce national
and political will? Although several different types of operations may satisfy a particular
objective, terror groups often develop expertise in one or more types of operations, and less
specialization in others.
Some groups will actually publish their targeting guidance. In March 2004, al Qaeda
published a 9-page article in their training publication, “Camp al-Battar Magazine” that
released new targeting guidance to its members and other affiliated groups. This publication
contains information on everything from small arms skills, physical fitness, targeting, tactics,
and secure communications. The new guidance specifically covered targets within cities,
addressing faith targets, economic targets, and human targets.271
270
John McWethy et al., no title, ABCNews.Com,18 October 2000; available from
http://www.abcnews.go.com/sections/world/ DailyNews/cole001018b.html; Internet; accessed 9 January 2003.
271
Ben N. Venzke, al Qaeda Targeting Guidance - Version 1.0 (Alexandria, VA: IntelCenter/Tempest
Publishing, LLC, 2004), 3-5.
C- 2
Forms of Terrorism
Threat or Hoax
Forms of Terrorism A terrorist group can use threats to coerce or
preclude actions by a targeted individual or
Threat-Hoax population. Threats and hoaxes can dull the
effectiveness of preventive or countermeasures
Arson when a targeted individual or population loses
situational awareness of an actual terrorist
target, or disperses finite assets against many
Sabotage possible threats.
Bombing At the less lethal end of the spectrum, hoaxes can

simply be methods to annoy and wear down
Kidnapping security forces, and keep the population
constantly agitated. Fake bomb threats, leaving
Hostage Taking suspicious items in public places, and talcum
powder “anthrax” attacks bleed time and effort
from other security operations, and contribute to
Hijacking
uncertainty and fear.
Raid or Ambush Such activities can be used to gain information
about the target’s response to a potential attack.
Seizure Where the occupants go during the evacuation of
a building, and how long it takes them to exit are
Assassination useful elements of information in operational
planning, and can be obtained through simply
making an anonymous phone call or activating a
WMD/E
fire alarm. Observation of regularly scheduled
exercises or drills of emergency response
Figure C-2. Forms of Terrorism procedures can provide similar information.
This technique can also be combined with an

actual attack to circumvent fixed security measures. For example, the occupants of a bomb-
resistant building with controlled access and a guard force could be forced to evacuate by a
plausible, but false, threat. Many security plans would respect the potential danger such a
threat represented, and evacuate the building. Unless properly secured, the evacuation has
made the occupants more vulnerable to such weapons as a car bomb or other mass casualty
techniques placed near the exits, or at a designated assembly point.
Extortion is one example of a threat that obtains money, materiel, information, or support by
force or intimidation. Extortion is often used during the formative period of a group or by
groups that fail to develop more sophisticated financial skills. However, the opportunity to
engage in more lucrative money making activities, such as drug trafficking, may eventually
replace the need to extort by some groups. Extortion takes the form of “war taxes” or
protection money. Depending on the structure of the terrorist organization, the logistics and
C- 3
support cells extort money from local businesses in exchange for protection, which means not
harming or bothering the business or its members. Members of the intelligence cells may also
extort to collect required information.
The Basque terrorists are an excellent example of a group that uses extortion. They have
extorted money for years from businesses to finance their battle for independence. When
Spain converted from the peseta to the euro, ETA even sent letters to Basque businesses
demanding payments ranging from 30,000 to 60,000 euros. Although many of the large
companies in the Basque region refuse to pay ETA’s “revolutionary tax”, smaller businesses
that cannot afford to hire bodyguards are forced to pay.272
Another form of extortion is intimidation. Intelligence cells or a specialized team intimidates

people to obtain information on the group’s enemy or to provide resources. Death threats
against an individual or his family cause him to provide information or resources to a group
with which he has no interest. A terrorist group also intimidates people not to take action. For
example, enemy security personnel may not implement required security measures because of
intimidation. The information cell of a terrorist group helps create and maintain the fear
caused by extortion through its propaganda and deception actions.
The power of extortion and blackmail as a means of coercing individuals should not be
underestimated. Several terrorist groups have successfully used these techniques to force
individuals to carry out suicide bombing missions.
Arson
Arson is a destructive technique using fire, usually in sabotage operations against property. It
permits a significant destructive effect with simple equipment and little training. It is one of
the most commonly used methods of terrorist attack, ranking only behind bombing and
assassination in total numbers covering the period 1980 - 1999.273
Since arson is primarily used against property, it is not normally considered as a casualty
producer. However, arson can still result in fatalities, as an intentional or unintentional effect.
Arson is most often used for symbolic attacks and economic effects. Single-issue groups, such
as the Earth Liberation Front (ELF), particularly favor it for these purposes. Although ELF
has claimed responsibility for dozens of arsons, probably the most costly arson committed by
this group was in San Diego in August 2003. Claiming it was targeting “rampant urban
development,” ELF started a fire that caused an estimated $50 million worth of damage in
San Diego’s fast-growing northern edge.274
272
“Terrorists Demand Extortion Cash in Euros,” TCM Breaking News (4 September 2001): 1; available from
http://archives.tcm.ie/breakingnews/2001/09/04/story22584.asp; Internet; accessed 31 March 2004.
273
41.
274
Seth Hettena, “Earth Liberation Front Claims Responsibility for San Diego Arson,” The Mercury News, 18
August 2003; available from http://www.mercurynews.com/mld/mercurynews/news/local/6562462.htm;
Internet; accessed 17 March 2004.
C- 4
Sabotage
Sabotage is the planned destruction of the enemy’s equipment or infrastructure. The purpose
of sabotage is to inflict both psychological and physical damage. This can result from an
incident creating a large number of casualties or from a severe disruption of services for the
population. Sabotage demonstrates how vulnerable the enemy is to the terrorist group’s
actions. Destroying or disrupting key services or facilities impresses the power of the saboteur
on the public consciousness, and either increases their frustration with the ineffectiveness of
the government, or inspires others to resist.
A terrorist group normally aims its sabotage actions at elements of infrastructure, in order to
reinforce the perception that nothing is safe. The action can have significant economic
impacts, as well as the additional effects of creating mass casualties. Oil pipelines, water
purification plants, sewage treatment facilities, air traffic control hubs, and medical treatment
or research facilities are just a few examples of potential targets. Terrorist groups use many
techniques, such as bombing, arson, cyber, or use of contaminates, to conduct sabotage.
Examples of sabotage have been evident in Iraq since the end of major combat operations
where attacks have been conducted against power generation facilities and water pipelines.
Additionally, attacks on Iraq’s oil pipeline have been persistent and estimates in September
2003 were that the country was losing $7 million daily because of damage to the pipeline that
carried oil from the Kirkuk fields to a Mediterranean port in Turkey.275
Bombing
Bombs are the favored weapon for terrorists276 for a variety of reasons. They are highly
destructive, are flexible enough to be tailored to the mission, do not require the operator to be
present, and have a significant psychological impact. To demonstrate their prominence in
terrorist operations, 324 out of 482 total terrorist incidents or planned acts in the U.S. between
1980-2001 were bombings,277 and 119 of 208 international terrorist incidents in 2003
were bombings.278
Bombs have a significant historical record, and a particular place in early anarchist and
revolutionary thought, where dynamite was viewed as the equalizing force between the state
and the individual.279 There is little question that terrorist groups have a wealth of knowledge
about building and planting these devices. As stated earlier in Chapter 3 of the handbook, the
interaction between groups using both the Internet and through common training sites has
facilitated the proliferation of effective devices and tactics throughout the terrorist network.
275
“Saboteurs Disable Critical Iraqi Oil Pipeline,” HoustonChronicle.com, 8 September 2003; available from
http://www.chron.com/cs/CDA/ssistory.mpl/special/iraq/2087438; Internet; accessed 16 January 2004.
276
Encyclopedia of World Terror, 1997 ed., s.v. “Bombing.”
277
Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation, Counterterrorism Division, Terrorism 2000/2001,
Report 0308, (Washington, D.C., 2004).
278
Department of State, Office for Counterterrorism, Patterns of Global Terrorism 2003 (Washington, D.C.,
April 2004, revised 22 June 2004), 5.
279
C- 5
Bombings may be used as a technique to conduct other operations, such as sabotage or

assassination, or can simply be a tactic to cause terror
through the destruction and casualties produced by
an explosion. Terrorists often use them to
demonstrate how vulnerable the population truly is to
attacks regardless of measures taken by a
government to protect them.
Methods of delivering bombs are only limited by the

imagination of the group planning the attack, and the
capabilities of the individual bomb manufacturer. In
recent history, directional bombs disguised as bricks
in roadside walls and radio command detonated were
used in the Israeli-occupied territories. The IRA has
developed methods of remote detonation using police
laser speed detection devices that can detonate a
bomb programmed to respond to a particular laser Figure C-3 Car Bomb
pulse within line of sight, and that is immune to the usual (Source: U.S. Army Photo)
electronic countermeasures for radio controlled bombs.280
Car bombs commonly referred to as vehicle borne improvised explosive devices (VBIED),
are also a very common method used by terrorists to deliver a bomb to its target. Besides the
use of airplanes as VBIEDs on 11 September 2001 to hit the World Trade Center and the
Pentagon, probably the best-known domestic incident occurred on April 19, 1995, when a
truck bomb exploded outside the Alfred P. Murrah building in Oklahoma City killing 168
people and injuring hundreds. Timothy McVeigh was convicted and later executed for the
bombing. Overseas, the suicide truck bombing of the Marine Barracks in Beirut in October
1983 killing 241 Americans and the truck bomb that exploded near the Khobar Towers
military barracks in Dhahran, Saudi Arabia on June 25, 1996 killing 19 people and injuring
over 500 people are probably the most publicized incidents.
Although usually deployed as a single device, the Department of Homeland Security recently
distributed a warning reflecting new tactics being used by terrorists in this area based on the
bombings in Riyadh, Saudi Arabia in May 2003. These included terrorists hitting multiple
targets, conducting simultaneous attacks, using multiple vehicles per target, and using
assault/breaching personnel armed with small arms to accompany the VBIED to clear security
personnel and gain access to the target area.281
In 2003, the use of bombs, and in particular improvised explosive devices (IEDs) reached an
all time high in both lethality and employment techniques used by terrorists against their
targets. Terrorists/insurgents have mastered the employment of roadside explosives to attack
both individuals and motorcades/convoys. Many IEDs are bulky devices often made from
artillery shells and detonated with garage door openers or doorbells. However, terrorists are
now producing smaller devices that can be planted quickly and can be detonated from longer
distances. Employment techniques include emplacing multiple devices along both sides of a
280
281
National Security Institute, Homeland Security Warns about Vehicle Bombs, (Medway, MA, n.d.), 1-4;
available from http://nsi.org/Library/Terrorism/Vehicle_Bombs.doc; Internet; accessed 14 January 2004.
C- 6
road, sometimes disguised as trash or even hidden in animal carcasses that are daisy chained
to explode simultaneously. Additionally, fake devices are often planted in an obvious spot to
waste the time of explosive ordnance detachment personnel or to draw targets into an ambush.
Terrorist use of bombs is not restricted to roadside attacks or VBIEDs. Devices are often
placed at a target site and then remotely detonated. One of the most recent terrorist bombing
attacks occurred in Spain in March 2004. Ten backpack bombs with nails and screws packed
around the explosives for shrapnel were detonated on four trains almost simultaneously using
cell phones as the initiation device.282 The results were nearly 200 dead and over 1,400
wounded. At the time of this writing, a multinational cell of al Qaeda loyalists is thought to be
behind the bombings.
Appendix E contains descriptions of a variety of Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) that

may be built by minimally competent terrorist groups. Appendix F discusses
conventional weapons and unexploded ordnance (UXO) that can be adapted to use by
terrorist organizations.
Kidnapping
Kidnapping is usually an action taken against a prominent enemy individual for a specific
reason. The most common reasons for kidnapping are ransom, release of a fellow terrorist, or
the desire to publicize a demand or an issue. The terrorist group conducts detailed planning,
especially regarding movement of the kidnapped individual. The risk in kidnapping is
relatively lower than in hostage taking primarily because the kidnapped victim is moved to a
location controlled by the group. The group makes demands and is willing to hold a victim for
a significant time, if necessary.
The success of kidnapping relies upon balancing the cost to the government represented by
the threat of harm to the victim, with the costs of meeting the kidnappers’ demands. Some
kidnapping operations are actually assassinations, as the death of the victim is intended from
the start. The terrorists intended objective in this case being the intermediate
concessions and publicity obtained during the negotiation process that they would not
receive from a simple assassination.
Kidnapping (and hostage taking) can also be used as a means of financing the organization.
Ransom from seized individuals or groups are a significant slice of income for groups in
several regions of the world. Latin America has long been a victim of terrorist kidnapping,
especially by the FARC and ELN in Colombia. The Abu Sayyaf Group in the Philippines
also uses this method to finance their operations. Although the sizes of the ransoms vary, they
often can be quite large. Ten employees of a Spanish energy consortium were kidnapped in
Ecuador in October 2000 by kidnappers believed to be linked to the Popular Liberation Army
of Colombia. The oil companies eventually paid $13 million in ransom for their release.
An example of the U.S. military’s experience with kidnapping is the case of USMC Col.
William (Rich) Higgins. He disappeared on May 17, 1988, while serving as the Chief,
282
Lou Dolinar, “Cell Phones Jury-rigged to Detonate Bombs,” Newsday.com, 15 March 2004; available from
http://www.newsday.com/news/nationworld/ny-wocell153708827mar15,0,1644248.story?coll=ny-nationworld-
headlines; Internet; accessed 15 March 2004.
C- 7
Observer Group Lebanon and Senior Military Observer, United States Military Observer
Group, United Nations Truce Supervision Organization. He was kidnapped and held by
Iranian-backed Hizballah terrorists and later murdered. A picture of his body hanging from a
noose was released to the news media in July 1989. His remains continued to be held until
they were released in December 1991.
Another example was the kidnapping of Brigadier General James Dozier, senior American
official at a NATO headquarters in Verona, Italy, by Red Brigade terrorists on December 17,
1981. The targeting of General Dozier broke the pattern of previous terrorist activities in Italy
since terrorist groups had previously concentrated their actions against key Italian
personalities, such as senior Italian politicians, industrialists, jurists, newspaper publishers and
police officials. Following General Dozier's kidnapping, numerous additional threats were
received which provided a clear indication that the situation had changed in Italy and other
Americans and U.S. facilities were potential targets for terrorist actions.283
The terrorists conducted surveillance of General Dozier’s residence for at least 30 days from
positions in a park and at a bus stop across from the building. The techniques used were
young people standing at the bus stop and young couples in the park area. Additionally, the
terrorists had been in his apartment at least twice while posing as meter readers. Two men
pretending to be plumbers conducted the actual kidnapping. They told General Dozier that
there was a leak in the apartment below and wanted to determine if it was coming from
Dozier’s apartment. Since leaks were common in the building, he let them into the apartment,
at which time the kidnapping was executed. After being held for 42 days, he was rescued by
Italian police.284
Kidnapping and periodic murder of victims is a recurring technique of terrorists. A number of

recent civilian and military member kidnappings and murders in the Middle East received
significant international media coverage. As noted in Chapter 4, these types of acts appear to
be an increasing method of terrorism.
Hostage Taking
Hostage taking is typically an overt seizure of people to gain publicity for a cause, gain
political concessions, political asylum, release of prisoners, or ransom. Many times the
terrorists will take hostages with the intent to kill them after they believe they have fully
exploited the media coverage from the situation.
Unlike kidnapping where a prominent individual is normally taken and moved to an unknown
location, the hostages are usually not well known figures in the enemy’s society. While
dramatic, hostage situations are frequently risky for the terrorist group, especially when
conducted in enemy territory. They expose the terrorists to hostile military or police
operations, and carry significant possibility of both mission failure and capture. Therefore,
283
COL Thomas D. Phillips, “The Dozier Kidnapping: Confronting the Red Brigades,” Air and Space Power
Chronicles (February 2002): 1; available from
http://www.airpower.maxwell.af.mil/airchronicles/cc/phillips.html; Internet; accessed 31 March 2004.
284
U.S. Marine Corps, Marine Corps University, Corporals Noncommissioned Officers Program, Force
Protection, Course CPL 0302, (Quantico, VA, January 1999), 12-13; available from
http://www.tecom.usmc.mil/utm/Force_Protection1_LP.PDF; Internet; accessed 31 March 2004.
C- 8
terrorists will usually attempt to hold hostages in a neutral or friendly area, rather than in
enemy territory. Since hostage taking is risky, the benefits must warrant conducting this type
operation. For example, if the enemy captures the leader or principal members of the terrorist
group, the group may take hostages to exchange for its key personnel.
An excellent example of a hostage situation was the Moscow theater siege in October 2002.
Thirty-four Chechen terrorists seized a movie theater, threatening to kill all of the hostages if
the Russians did not meet their demands. The rebels were demanding that Russian forces end
the war in the breakaway republic of Chechnya. Following a long stalemate, Russian forces
assaulted the theater. Sixty-seven hostages died as well as the 34 terrorists. However, 750
hostages were released.
Another example is the hijacking of TWA Flight 847 from Athens to Rome in 1985 by two
members of Hizballah. They held the plane and 153 hostages for 17 days demanding the
release of Lebanese and Palestinian prisoners. The hostages were released after Israel freed
435 prisoners. However, a U.S. Navy diver, Robert Stethem, was killed and his body was
dumped on the tarmac during the ordeal.
Hijacking
Hijacking involves the forceful commandeering of a conveyance. Although normally

associated with planes, it can also include naval vessels or other craft. There are many
purposes to hijacking, such as hostage taking activities, procuring a means of escape, or as a
means of destruction. While hijacking of aircraft for hostage taking has declined in frequency
since the implementation of improved security measures, the use of hijacked aircraft for
escape or as destructive devices continues and terrorist groups have a significant amount of
information on how to conduct hijacking operations. The attacks on the World Trade Center
and the Pentagon in September 2001 are vivid reminders of the hijacking abilities of terrorist
groups and the destructive power of hijacked airliners.
The use of hijacked vehicles for destructive devices is not restricted to aircraft. Trucks
carrying cargoes of explosive or flammable materials have also been seized to use as delivery
devices. The possibility of such a technique being used with a ship carrying oil, refined
petroleum products, or liquefied natural gas (LNG) is of great concern. The horrific results of
several accidental explosions and fires from mishaps in handling such vessels in port show the
catastrophic potential of this technique.285 Ships exploding in the harbors of Texas City, Texas
in 1947 and Halifax, Nova Scotia in 1917 destroyed significant portions of these towns, and
had a combined death toll of over 2500 people.
Raid or Ambush
A terrorist raid is similar in concept to a conventional operation, but is usually conducted with
smaller forces against targets marked for destruction, hijacking, or hostage/barricade
operations. In these cases, the raid permits control of the target for the execution of some
other action. The kidnapping or assassination of a target that has a security force can often
285
Gerald Pawle, Secret Weapons of World War II (New York: Ballantine Books, 1967), 53-54.
C- 9
require a raid to overcome the defenses. Successful execution of these type attacks requires
extensive preoperational surveillance and detailed planning.
Examples of this type tactic are the raids conducted by terrorists on three Riyadh western
housing compounds in Saudi Arabia on 11 May 2003. Attackers penetrated each compound
and then detonated vehicle borne IEDs. The attack at the al-Hamra compound demonstrates
the tactics used in a raid such as this. A Toyota sedan pulled up to the gate, followed by a
GMC Suburban. A number of terrorists then dismounted, shot the guard, and then forced
their way into the compound. As both vehicles drove to the center of the compound, terrorists
shot into buildings and at any moving targets. Once they reached the housing area, a suicide
terrorist detonated the explosive device in the GMC Suburban.286
An ambush is a surprise attack characterized by violence of execution and speed of action.

Terrorists’ use of this tactic is similar in concept to conventional military operations. The
intended objective may be to cause mass casualties, assassinate an individual, or disrupt
hostile security operations. Explosives, such as bombs and directional mines, are a common
weapon used in terrorist ambushes. They are powerful and can be remotely detonated. Other
weapons frequently used are rocket launchers, automatic weapons, and pistols.
The varieties of firepower and ambush tactics used by terrorists have been repeatedly
demonstrated in Iraq during recent years as coalition forces and civilians are attacked.
However, this is a common tactic used by terrorist groups around the world. As discussed
earlier in this appendix, terrorists in Europe ambushed the motorcades of both General Haig
and General Kroesen. However, terrorists do not limit their targets to just prominent
individuals. In the Balkans in August 2001, Albanian terrorists ambushed a Macedonian
security force convoy using mortars and rocket launchers killing 10 members of the security force.
This tactic is taken one step further in a compound attack. If the unconfirmed threat of a bomb
or arson will not generate the desired evacuation, an actual attack can be substituted. Using a
standoff weapon such as a rocket launcher or mortar, the attack would be of short duration
and need only be effective enough to force an evacuation to the more vulnerable area. If it can
be obtained, knowledge of the targets’ standard response to various types of attack permits the
terrorist to craft a devastating two-step assault.
A relatively recent example of a compound attack was the bombing in Bali on 12 October
2002, attributed to Jemaah Islamiyah, which is an Islamic terrorist group linked to al Qaeda.
Initially, an electronically triggered bomb was detonated in a bar that forced the patrons out into the
street. The compound attack was completed when a much more powerful car bomb was detonated
in the street in front of another establishment. The result was 202 killed and 209 injured.287
Terrorist ambushes are frequently conducted from a variety of mobile platforms. Cars, vans
and motorcycles have been used to conceal the attackers, isolate or immobilize the target, and
286
Department of State, U.S. Embassy, Jakarta, Indonesia, Threats Involving Vehicle Borne Improvised
Explosive Devices (Jakarta, Indonesia, 2003), 2; available from
http://www.usembassyjakarta.org/vbied_vehicles.html; Internet; accessed 14 January 2004.
287
Wikipedia, 2004 ed., s.v. “2002 Bali Terrorist Bombing;” available from
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=2002_Bali_terrorist_bombing&printable=yes; Internet; accessed 17
March 2004.
C- 10
then allow the attackers to escape. Ambushes from mobile platforms can be conducted while
moving, or can be designed to bring the target to a halt in order to allow the attack team to
physically close with and destroy the target. The 1989 assassination of Colonel Rowe in the
Philippines described earlier is an example of a mobile ambush, as is the more recent March
2004 attack on five U.S. civilians working for a private volunteer organization (PVO) in Iraq.
Four were killed and one was wounded in this mobile ambush in the city of Mosul.
Seizure
Seizure of a critical element of infrastructure, similar to hostage taking intentions, can be a

physical site such as a facility of importance to a target population, or a cyber node that
disrupts or precludes use of selected cyber functions.
Assassination
An assassination is a deliberate action to kill specific individuals, usually VIPs (political

leaders, notable citizens, collaborators, particularly effective officials, etc.), versus the killing
of common people, which is considered murder. The terrorist group assassinates or murders
people it cannot intimidate, people who have left the group, people who support the “enemy,”
or people who have some symbolic significance for the enemy or world community. Terrorist
groups often refer to these killings as “punishment” or “justice” as a way of legitimizing
them. In 1981, President Anwar Sadat of Egypt was assassinated by fundamentalist Islamics
for his support of peace in the Middle East and his relationship with the West. In September
2001, Northern Alliance leader Ahmed Shah Massoud was assassinated in Afghanistan by
two suicide bombers, believed to be from al Qaeda, due to his opposition to the Taliban
regime and al Qaeda’s presence in Afghanistan.
Many targets of assassination are symbolic and are intended to have great psychological
impact on the enemy. For example, assassinating an enemy government official, a successful
businessperson, or a prominent cleric can demonstrate the enemy’s inability to protect its own
people. Assassinating local representatives of social or civic order, such as teachers,
contributes to disorder while demoralizing other members of the local government and
discouraging cooperation with them. An excellent example of this is the attempted
assassination of Iraq’s most prominent Shiite cleric, Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani in
February 2004. This incident was an apparent attempt to create anger in the long oppressed
Shiite community and increase the sectarian and ethnic tensions in post-war Iraq. There have
also been a number of assassinations of Iraqis who have assumed leadership positions in
support of a transition to a democratic government.
Printed training materials and videos from al Qaeda provide guidance on various methods to
conduct assassinations, and also details the critical parts of the body to target with each
method. 288 Assassination methods include remotely detonated bombing, the use of firearms,
knives, heavy weaponry such as anti-tank rocket launchers, and poisoning. However,
bombings and shootings are the most common methods.
288
Ben Venzke and Aimee Ibrahim, The al-Qaeda Threat, An Analytical Guide to al-Qaeda’s Tactics & Targets
(Alexandria: Tempest Publishing, 2003), 14.
C- 11
Extensive target surveillance and reconnaissance of engagement areas are required to select
the optimum mode of attack. Although many factors play into the decision, the target’s
vulnerabilities ultimately determine the method of assassination. For example, a target driving
to work along the same route each day may be vulnerable to an emplaced explosive device.289
Such action requires detailed planning, similar to that for a kidnapping. The main difference is
that a kidnapping seeks to keep the target alive (at least, initially), while an assassination or
murder does not.
Two notable assassination attempts directed against the American military were conducted by
the Red Army Faction in Europe. In 1979, they attempted to kill General Alexander Haig
when he was the SACEUR using an explosive device planted on his preferred route to the
office. The second attempt was against General Frederick Kroesen in 1981 when he was the
CINC, USAEUR using small arms and a rocket launcher against his motorcade. In both
cases, the terrorists had conducted surveillance and developed detailed plans for the
assassination attempts. However, both attempts fortunately failed. In the case of General
Haig, his vehicle was traveling faster than expected and the blast barely impacted the rear of
his car. In the attack on General Kroesen, the armor and bulletproof glass on his vehicle,
combined with an inaccurate rocket detonation, prevented any serious injuries.
Unfortunately terrorists have been successful in some assassination attempts. In April 1989,
Communist insurgents from the New People’s Army in the Philippines assassinated an
American military advisor, Col. James Rowe. He was killed in a moving ambush where small
arms fire defeated the protection of his armored official vehicle. This group, which is a DFTO
based in the Philippines, was attacking Americans they considered directly linked to the
Philippine military campaign being conducted against their group.
Weapons of Mass Destruction or Effect (WMD/E)
Listing a category as weapons of mass destruction or effect acknowledges a broad range of

capabilities that specific terrorist groups would like to acquire. Once acquired, this capability
would allow for catastrophic results through numerous delivery means. These type weapons
include chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear, and high yield explosives.
Aircraft Threats
A significant concern is the attempt by terrorists to shoot down aircraft using some form of
man-portable air defense system (MANPADS) or improvising other systems for this use.
There are a number of weapons that terrorists can use to down aircraft and they have
demonstrated in the past that they can be successful.
Although part of military operations, probably the most notable incident by

terrorists/insurgents downing U.S. military aircraft was in Mogadishu, Somalia in 1993. In
compliance with United Nations Security Resolution 814, the United States was conducting a
raid to capture some of the close supporters of the leader of one of the rival Somali clans,
General Mohammed Farah Aideed. During this raid, two UH-60 Blackhawk helicopters were
289
Encyclopedia of World Terror, 1997 ed., s.v. “Assassination.”
291
FM 3-06, Urban Operations, 1 June 2003.
C- 12
shot down using RPGs. The U.S. had underestimated Aideed’s ability to shoot down its
helicopters using this type system. However, he had brought in fundamentalist Islamic
soldiers from Sudan, who had experience shooting down Russian helicopters in Afghanistan,
to train his men to use RPGs in an air defense role.291 Once again, U.S. military forces
realized the threat posed by RPGs in an air defense mission in Afghanistan in 2002 when two
MH-47 Chinook helicopters were brought down in the Shah-e-Kot area by this same system.
Date Location Aircraft Operator Outcome

8 Nov 1983 Angola Boeing 737 Angolan Airlines Catastrophic: 130
(TAAG) fatalities of 130
people on board.
9 Feb 1984 Angola Boeing 737 Angolan Airlines Hull Loss: aircraft
(TAAG) overran runway
on landing after
being struck by a
missile at 8,000
feet during
climbout. No
fatalities with 130
on board.
21 Sep 1984 Afghanistan DC-10 Ariana Afghan Substantial
Airlines Damage: aircraft
was damaged by
the missile,
including damage
to two hydraulic
systems, but
landed without
further damage.
No fatalities.
10 Oct 1998 Democratic Boeing 727 Congo Airlines Catastrophic: 41
Republic of fatalities of 41
Congo people on board.
19 Nov 2002 Kenya Boeing 767 Arkia Israeli Miss: two SA-7’s
Airlines were fired at the
aircraft during
climbout, but
missed. No
fatalities.
Table C-1: Large Civilian Turbojet Aircraft Encounters with Shoulder-Fired Missiles (1978-Present)
The main concern from terrorists; however, is use of shoulder-fired surface-to-air missiles,
also known as MANPADs. These systems normally contain an infrared (IR) seeker with the
missile providing little opportunity for warning before impact on the target. The Afghan
mujahedeen demonstrated MANPADs lethality by destroying 269 Soviet aircraft during the
C- 13
Soviet Union’s war in Afghanistan. Additionally, 56% of the kills and 79% of the Allied
aircraft damaged during Desert Storm were through these weapons.292
These missiles are very affordable by terrorist groups, and they are widely available on the
world weapons market. Unclassified estimates range from 5,000 to 150,000 shoulder-fired
SAMs are in terrorist hands. Although the range of these estimates varies considerably, it does
demonstrate the concern over the proliferation of these type systems. To demonstrate the
number of systems in circulation, as of December 2002, coalition forces in Afghanistan had
captured over 5,500 shoulder-fired systems from the Taliban and al Qaeda. Some of these
included U.S. Stinger and British Blowpipe missiles.293
Although these weapons have a target engagement range of a few miles, most experts
consider aircraft departures and landings as the times when aircraft are most vulnerable to
these weapons. Over the past 25 years, 35 civilian aircraft have come under attack from these
weapons, resulting in 24 aircraft being shot down and more than 500 deaths. Of these
encounters; however, only 5 incidents involved large airliners. 294 (See Table C-1).
Unclassified estimates reflect between 25 and 30 non-state groups possess these MANPADS
systems. The table below depicts the groups that are believed to be in possession of these
weapons through the time period 1996 – 2001.295
Group Location Missile Type

Armed Islamic Group (GIA) Algeria Stinger (c)
Chechen Rebels Chechnya, Russia SA-7 (c), Stinger (c), Blowpipe (r)
Democratic Republic of the Democratic Republic of SA-16 (r)
Congo (DRC) Rebel Forces the Congo
Harkat ul-Ansar (HUA) Kashmir SA-7 (c)
Hezbullah Lebanon SA-7 (c), QW-1 (r), Stinger (r)
Hizbul Mujahideen (HM) Kashmir Stinger (r)
Hutu Militiamen Rwanda Unspecified type (r)
Jamaat e Islami Afghanistan SA-7 (c), SA-14 (c)
Jumbish-i-Milli Afghanistan SA-7 (c)
Khmer Rouge Thailand/Cambodia Unspecified type (r)
Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) Kosovo SA-7 (r)
Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK) Turkey SA-7 (c), Stinger (c)
Liberation Tigers of Tamil Sri Lanka SA-7 (r), SA-14 (r), Stinger
Eeelam (LTTE) (c), HN-5 (c)
Oromo Liberation Front Ethiopia Unspecified type (r)
(OLF)
Palestinian Authority (PA) Palestinian autonomous SA-7 (r), Stinger (r)
292
“Man Portable Air Defense System (MANPADS),” Global Security.org (n.d.): 1; available from
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/intro/manpads.htm; Internet; accessed 19 March 2004.
293
Christopher Bolkcom, et al, Homeland Security: Protecting Airliners from Terrorist Missiles (Washington,
D.C.: Congressional Research Service Report for Congress, 3 November 2003), 4-7; available from
http://www.fas.org/irp/crs/RL31741.pdf; Internet; accessed 1 April 2004.
294
Ibid., 7-9.
295
Ibid., 5-6.
C- 14
areas and Lebanon

Popular Front for the Palestinian autonomous Unspecified type (r)
Liberation of Palestine – areas and Lebanon
General Command (PFLP-
GC)
Provisional Irish Republican Northern Ireland SA-7 (c)
Army (PIRA)
Revolutionary Armed Forces Colombia SA-7 (r), SA-4 (r), SA-16 (r),
of Colombia (FARC) Redeye (r), Stinger (r)
Rwanda Patriotic Front Rwanda SA-7 (r), SA-16 (r)
(RPF)
Somali National Alliance Somalia Unspecified types (r)
(SNA)
Al Qaeda/Taliban Afghanistan SA-series (c), Stinger (c),
Blowpipe (c)
National Liberation Army Colombia Stinger (r), Unspecified types
(ELN) (r)
National Liberation Army Macedonia SA-18 (c)
(UCK)
National Union for the Total Angola SA-7 (c), SA-14 (r), SA-16 (r),
Independence of Angola Stinger (c)
(UNITA)
United State WA Army Myanmar SA-7 (c), HN-5N (c)
United Somali Congress – Somalia Unspecified types (r)
Somali Salvation Alliance
(USC-SSA)
Note: (c) is possession confirmed through intelligence sources or actual events; (r) is
reported but not confirmed.
Table C-2: Non-State Groups with Shoulder-Fired SAMS (1996-2001)
Maritime Threats
Terrorist attacks against maritime targets are fairly rare and constitute only 2% of all
international incidents over the last 30 years.296 However, there is a history of maritime
terrorism and maritime authorities worldwide are increasingly anxious about terrorist attacks
on both ports and ships. In fact, some intelligence analysts believe that because land-based
targets are better protected, terrorists will turn to the maritime infrastructure because they see
these as “softer” targets.297
296
Peter Chalk, “Threats to the Maritime Environment: Piracy and Terrorism,” (RAND Stakeholder
Consultation, Ispra, Italy 28-30 October 2002): 9.
297
Graham Gerard Ong, “Next Stop, Maritime Terrorism,” Viewpoints (12 September 2003): 1; available from
http://www.iseas.edu.sg/viewpoint/ggosep03.pdf; Internet; accessed 2 April 2004.
C- 15
Likely operations conducted by maritime terrorism include suicide attacks on commercial and military
vessels, and hijacking for the following purposes: (1) carrying out a subsequent suicide attack on a
ship or port (2) seeking ransom (3) smuggling weapons and explosives (4) simple piracy.298
Although few terrorist groups have developed a maritime capability, there have been some exceptions,
to include the Provisional Irish Republican Army, Abu Sayyaf Group based in the Philippines, various
Palestinian groups, al Qaeda, and the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) in Sri Lanka. In fact
the LTTE has quite a large maritime capability to include both coastal and deep-water craft and they
have developed a reputation of being the best in the world in this arena.299 They reportedly have
roughly 3000 trained personnel and between 100-200 surface and underwater vessels, including attack
vessels, logistics vessels, fast personnel carriers, suicide craft, and multi-purpose craft. Additionally,
they have employed a range of technologies, including suicide stealth craft, mini submarines, and one-
man suicide torpedoes.300
Information presented at the Terrorism in the Asia Pacific Conference in September 2002
reported that al Qaeda had obtained a variety of vessels and systems capable of carrying out
attacks against ships and seaports. These included mini-subs, human torpedo systems, and
divers trained in underwater demolitions. The larger vessels are commercial ships that are
used to generate revenue for al Qaeda. However, there is concern that they could be filled
with explosives and used as floating bombs to ram into other ships or port facilities. 301
The International Maritime Organization has warned that liquefied natural gas (LNG) carriers
and other ships carrying volatile cargo could be hijacked and used as weapons of mass
destruction. In fact a briefing at the Maritime Security Council’s annual International
Maritime Security Summit in October 2002 stated that a large ship loaded with LNG could
result in an explosion equivalent to a .7-megaton nuclear detonation. (The bomb dropped on
Hiroshima, Japan was 15-kilotons.)302 The damage
this could create if it occurred in a port, such as the
Norfolk Naval Base, would be quite substantial.
The best-known maritime terrorist attack against the

U.S. military is the attack on the USS Cole, which
occurred in October 2000. Two suicide bombers in a
small explosive laden boat with a platter charge
attacked the ship while it was refueling in Aden
Harbor, Yemen. The blast, which blew a 40 by 60-foot Figure C-3: USS Cole
hole in the side of the USS Cole, killed 17 and injured (Source: U.S. Navy Photo)
39 U.S. crewmen. The al Qaeda member who is
believed to have planned the attack on the USS Cole,
Abdulrahim Mohammed Abda Al-Nasheri, was
298
Ibid., 2.
299
Ibid., 1.
300
Peter Chalk, “Threats to the Maritime Environment: Piracy and Terrorism,” (RAND Stakeholder
Consultation, Ispra, Italy 28-30 October 2002): 12.
301
Bob Newman, “Terrorists Feared to Be Planning Sub-Surface Naval Attacks,” CNS News.com, 3 December
2002; available from http://www.cnsnews.com/ForeignBureaus/archive/200212/FOR20021203a.html; Internet;
accessed 19 March 2004.
302
Ibid., 2.
C- 16
captured in 2002. Reportedly, he has provided information that supports concerns that
terrorists plan to conduct additional maritime attacks. He confessed to planning attacks on
shipping in the Strait of Gibraltar by using bomb-laden speedboat attacks against U.S. and
British warships as they pass through the strait. Fortunately, the Moroccan intelligence service
thwarted the plot.303
Suicide Tactics
Suicide tactics are particular methods of delivering a bomb or conducting an assassination.
They are defined as “An act of terror, employing an explosive or incendiary device that
requires the death of the perpetrator for successful implementation.”304 It involves an
individual wearing or carrying an explosive device into a crowded area or other target and
then detonating it, or driving an explosive laden vehicle to a target and then detonating the device.
Suicide attacks are different in concept and execution from “high-risk” operations. In a high-
risk mission, the likely outcome is the death of the terrorist(s), but mission success does not
require that the participants die. The plan will allow for possible escape or survival of the
participants, no matter how slim the chances. Using suicide as a tactic requires the death of
the participant(s) in order to succeed.
A suicide bomber constitutes a highly effective precision-guided munition in the immediate

tactical sense, but has a much greater impact from psychological considerations and the
seemingly unstoppable nature of the weapon/tactic. There is no doubt that a suicide bombing
can result in many casualties, cause extensive damage, attract wide media coverage, and
usually guarantees that the attack will be carried out at the most appropriate time and place
with regards to the circumstances at the target location.
Although a suicide bomber can be a lone terrorist working independently, the use of suicide
terrorism as a tactic is normally the result of a conscious decision on the part of the leaders of
terrorist organizations to engage this form of attack. It is frequently conducted as a campaign
for a specific objective (e.g. withdrawal of foreign troops, interrupting peace negotiations).305
It can often be a sign that a terror group has failed to meet it’s goals through less extreme
measures, and requires the tactical edge, as well as the potential inspiration to it’s rank and
file, that suicide bombing provides.306 It can also indicate a specific operational requirement
that can be met in no other way.
Although often associated with Middle Eastern religious groups, these type attacks are not
unique to religious terrorist organizations or the Middle East. Both religiously motivated and
secular groups have employed this tactic. Individual motivations on the part of the suicide
303
Michael Richardson, “A Time Bomb for Global Trade: Maritime-related Terrorism in an Age of Weapons of
Mass Destruction,” Viewpoints (25 February 2004): 8; available from
http://www.iseas.edu.sg/viewpoint/mricsumfeb04.pdf; Internet; accessed 5 April 2004.
304
Martha Crenshaw, “Suicide Terrorism in Comparative Perspective,” in Countering Suicide Terrorism
(Herzilya, Israel: The International Policy Institute for Counter Terrorism, The Interdisciplinary Center, 2002),
21.
305
Yoram Schweitzer, “Suicide Terrorism: Development and Main Characteristics,” in Countering Suicide
Terrorism (Herzilya, Israel: The International Policy Institute for Counter Terrorism, The Interdisciplinary
Center, 2002), 85.
306
C- 17
assets themselves include religious or political convictions, hatred, and being coerced by the
terrorist group into the attack. In addition to the Middle East; suicide attacks have been
conducted in India, Panama, Algeria, Pakistan, Argentina, Croatia, Turkey, Tanzania,
Kenya,307 Chechnya, Russia, and the United States. However, the single most prolific
suicidal terrorist group is the Tamil Tigers (LTTE) in Sri Lanka. They are inspired not due to
religious reasons, but more by a cultish devotion to their leader, Velupillai Prabhakaran.308
As in any other terrorist operation, extensive pre-operational surveillance and reconnaissance,

exhaustive planning, rehearsals, and sufficient resources will be devoted to an operation
employing suicide as a tactic.309 Secrecy is critical in success of a suicide mission in order to
maintain the element of surprise. As stated earlier in this handbook, suicide bombers are
rarely lunatics working alone, but are usually members of a terrorist group that have been
recruited, indoctrinated, and trained. The groups write the texts for the videos usually
produced and broadcast after the attack, and take pictures that are used for propaganda posters.
Although historically a male-dominated arena, women are becoming more involved in

conducting these type operations. In fact women participated in 30 to 40% of the LTTE’s
nearly 200 suicide bombings in Sri Lanka.310 Suicide attacks have also been conducted by
Chechnyan and Palestinian women, as well as attacks conducted by women in Iraq, Turkey
and Morocco. Additionally an FBI report has expressed concern over the forming of al Qaeda
female units.311
Another trend is the use of teenagers in terrorist attacks. Palestinian teenagers have been
involved in attacks against Israel for over three years. In February 2004, three boys, ages 13,
14, and 15 were arrested because they were planning to carry out an attack in the northern
Israeli town of Afula. However, use of children and teenagers in suicide attacks became
evident on March 16, 2004, when an 11-year-old boy was stopped at an Israeli checkpoint
with a bomb in his bag. Although it is believed that the boy was unaware of the bomb, later
that month a 14-year-old was stopped at a checkpoint wearing a suicide explosive vest.312
A typical operation involving suicide can require numerous personnel in support, some for
extensive periods of time. A specialized suicide operation, such as assassination, might
require 60 or more personnel, and sophisticated agent handling techniques. These support
personnel are used to provide accommodations, transport, food, clothing and security for the
307
“Suicide Terrorism: a Global Threat,” Jane’s Intelligence Review (October 2000): 1; available from
http://www.janes.com/security/international_security/news/usscole/jir001020_1_n.shtml; Internet; accessed 20
January 2004.
308
“Suicide Terrorism,” The Economist (January 2004): 3; available from
http://quicksitebuilder.cnet.com/supfacts/id396.html; Internet; accessed 17 March 2004.
309
Rohan Gunaratna, “Suicide Terrorism: a Global Threat,” Jane’s Intelligence Review (20 October 2000): 1-7;
available from http://www.janes.com/security/international_security/news/usscole/jir001020_1_n.shtml;
Internet; accessed 7 September 2002.
310
Clara Beyler, “Messengers of Death – Female Suicide Bombers,” International Policy Institute for Counter-
Terrorism (February 2003): 3; available from http://www.ict.org.il/articles/articledet.cfm?articleid=470; Internet;
accessed 18 March 2004.
311
Clara Beyler, “Female Suicide Bombers – An Update,” International Policy Institute for Counter-Terrorism
(March 2004): 1; available from http://www.ict.org.il/articles/articledet.cfm?articleid=508; Internet; accessed 31
March 2004.
312
Greg Myre, “Palestinian Bomber, 14, Thwarted before Attack,” International Herald Tribune (March 2004):
1; available from http://www.iht.com/articles/511745.html; Internet; accessed 26 March 2004.
C- 18
bomber until he/she reaches the target. Resident agents also help provide intelligence for the
operation and cell members confirm the intelligence.313
The first major suicide bombing that struck at U.S. military forces was Hizballah’s attack on
the Marine barracks in Lebanon in October 1983 where 241 Americans were killed. Suicide
attacks have also been used against coalition forces in Iraq during Operation Iraqi Freedom
(OIF). On 27 December 2003, 12 Iraqis and six coalitions troops were killed, and 100 Iraqis
and 26 coalition troops were wounded when four suicide bombers conducted coordinated
attacks in the city of Kabala.314 Unfortunately, these type attacks have continued in Iraq, with
no sign of relief in the near future.
International Incidents
Chart C-1. Methods Used in the 651 Significant International

Terrorist Attacks Involving Worldwide Victims in 2004
314
5 0 1 00 1 50 2 00 2 50 3 00 3 50
196
111
Number of
Attacks
he au 0
rm om g
A ing
m lt
re O al
m er
K m n
na ng
e Ar g
ck
A B pin
B so
n
ic
bo th
tta
id bi
bi
ed b
ss
p
A
o
C
Fi
id
ic
Su
(Source: National Counterterrorism Center. A Chronology of Significant International Terrorism for 2004.)
Chart C-1 above, based on data from the National Counterterrorism Center’s A Chronology of
Significant International Terrorism for 2004, illustrates the various types of international
terrorist attacks recorded during the year.315 Although the categories are somewhat different
from this handbook, it does provide a real world representation of the various operations and
tactics conducted by terrorists. As displayed in the chart, the most recurring tactic of terrorists
313
“Suicide Terrorism: a Global Threat,” Jane’s Intelligence Review (October 2000): 4-5; available from
http://www.janes.com/security/international_security/news/usscole/jir001020_1_n.shtml; Internet; accessed 20
January 2004.
314
Tom Lasseter, “Suicide Attackers Strike Karbala,” Knight Ridder, 27 December 2003; available from
http://www.realcities.com/mld/krwashington/news/special_packages/iraq/7581568.htm; Internet; accessed 20
January 2004.
315
Department of State, Office for Counterterrorism, Patterns of Global Terrorism 2003 (Washington, D.C.,
April 2004, revised 22 June 2004), 5.
C- 19
are bombing, armed attacks, and kidnapping, with assaults and suicide bombing being the
next most frequent methods of operation.
As noted in Chapter 5 of this handbook, the 2004 data analyzed in 2005 cannot be compared
to the 2003 information displayed in the 2004 Patterns of Global Terrorism. Starting in 2005,
the National Counterterrorism Center (NCTC) provides a chronology of international
terrorism, A Chronology of Significant International Terrorism for 2004, but qualifies that
this chronology is not a complete accountability of global terrorist activity. The NCTC also
cautions against using incident data alone to gauge success in the War on Terrorism. Criteria
for qualifying incidents in this 2005 report have many conditions that include political,
religious, philosophical, and cultural motivations; noncombatant definitions; and types of
criminal actions that are excluded. Notwithstanding, data in the NCTC report and how
terrorist attacks were conducted may include incidents against members of the U.S. Armed
Forces, and civilians and police, outside of war zones or warlike settings.
C- 20
Appendix D
Firearms
…an international cabal of terrorists has the firepower to outgun the police
of almost every western nation.
How Terrorists Kill: The Complete Terrorist Arsenal by J. David Truby
Terrorists use a variety of weapons to inflict their damage. As explained in the IRA General
Headquarters pamphlet, they use explosives and almost any small arms weapon. These
weapons can include submachine guns, grenades, pistols, automatic rifles, rifles, mortars, and
rocket launchers.316 Although some of these appear to be quite sophisticated for terrorists,
they have become increasingly more available due to state sponsorship of many terrorist
groups, regional conflicts, and a widespread illegal arms trade. In fact, many of the U.S.
weapons captured from terrorists have been traced back to Vietnam.
When selecting weapons, terrorists look for 3 major factors: availability, simplicity, and
efficiency. They like automatic weapons that can kill from a distance and have stopping
power. They also want to be able to conceal the weapon, especially in urban terrain.317
As much as possible, terrorists do try to standardize calibers of their weapons for ease of
ammunition resupply and they favor easily available military and semi-military weapons.318
Most international terrorist groups like full automatic weapons, such as the AK47 and the
M16. However, nearly any weapon can be found in use, especially in smaller groups. A
favorite weapon by small groups in the United States is the 12-gauge shotgun.
Given the availability of weapons on the black market and the ever-changing technology,
there is no way to develop a manual that would show every weapon a terrorist might use.
This appendix is organized to review a representative example of various firearms used by
terrorists today. It covers five basic types: pistols, submachine guns, assault rifles, sniper
rifles, and shotguns.
Pistols are standard weapons for terrorists. They are small so they can be easily concealed.
Most of them are lightweight and many modern pistols provide good firepower. Since their
effective range is generally limited to about 50 meters, they do limit the distance to engage a
target. However, they can be very effective at close range. They are more effective for
personal security or victim control than for sustained firefights. Although the revolver is
often considered more reliable, the semi-automatic provides more ammunition than a revolver
316
317
Christopher Dobson and Ronald Payne, The Terrorist: Their Weapons, Leaders, and Tactics (New York:
Facts on File, Inc, Revised Edition, 1982), 104.
318
J. David Truby, How Terrorists Kill: The Complete Terrorist Arsenal (Boulder: Paladin Press, 1978), 7-8.
D-1
that only holds 6 bullets. Additionally, replacing a magazine is much faster than reloading a
revolver’s cylinder.
Submachine guns are basically short rifles that have a full automatic fire capability. They use
pistol-caliber ammunition and typically have large magazine capacities. Their range,
accuracy and penetration are better than pistols due to the longer barrel and sight radius.
Submachine guns are a favorite with terrorist groups because they are small, light and easily
concealed. They provide a large amount of firepower and are deadly at close range.
Assault rifles are the primary offensive weapons of modern militaries and are used
extensively by terrorist organizations. In April of 2002, the Israeli Defense Forces seized a
number of weapons in the West Bank. In that operation, 1,335 Kalashnikov rifles were
recovered.319 Assault rifles have calibers ranging from 5.45mm to 7.62mm and magazine
capacities often in excess of 30 rounds. They normally have selective firing capability to
allow single shot, 2 or 3 round bursts, or full automatic mode. Their effective ranges often
exceed 600 meters and have effective rates of fire up to 400 rounds per minute in full
automatic mode. When used by terrorists, the terrorist has the same firepower that a modern
soldier has on the battlefield.
Since one of the major terror tactics is assassination, sniper weapons are often used to attack
targets that are difficult to get close enough for other weapons. Additionally, with the
development of large caliber sniper weapons, such as the Armalite AR-50 in .50 Caliber
BMG, terrorists can also effectively engage light armored vehicles.
Although limited in range and penetration capability, shotguns are excellent weapons,
especially for close-range assassinations or attacks. There is no requirement for precise aim
since the dispersion effect of the large number of pellets will cover a wide area. They are
readily available and relatively inexpensive compared to other weapons. Additionally, the
barrels can be sawed off to permit easy concealment.
319
“Weapons of Terror,” ADL (8 April 2002): 1; available from http://www.adl.org/israel/weapons_list.asp;
Internet; accessed 8 January 2003.
D-2
Handguns
CZ 75 (Czechoslovakia)
Ammunition Typical
Types Combat Load
9mm Magazine
Parabellum Capacity: 16
(Source: MCIA-1110-001-93, Infantry Weapons

Identification Guide, September 1992, 94)
SYSTEM VARIANTS
A double-action semi-automatic pistol CZ 75B, 75BD, 75DAO, 75 Police: available

modeled after the Browning P-35. It can in 9mm Luger, 9x21mm, .40 S&W
be carried cocked and locked and is
considered a very accurate handgun. Its CZ 75 Compact, 75D Compact, 75 Semi
design has been copied frequently to Compact:
produce such guns as the TZ75, EAA Available in 9mm Luger.
Witness, TA90, Springfield Armory P9,
ITM AT84, ITM AT88, and Baby Eagle.
Weight (kg): 0.98 AMMUNITION

Length (mm): 203
Operation: Recoil operated double Name: 9mm Parabellum
action. Caliber/length: 9 x 19 mm
Fire Mode: Semi-automatic Effective Range (m): 50
Muzzle Velocity (m/s): 381
SIGHTS
Iron sights.
D-3
Glock 17 (Austria)
Ammunition Typical
Types Combat Load
9mm Magazine
Parabellum Capacity: 10, 17,
19, 31
(Source: Photograph Courtesy of GLOCK, Inc.)
SYSTEM VARIANTS
A semiautomatic handgun originally Glock 17L: Competition version

adopted by the Austrian Army and Glock 18: 3 round burst version
Police. It has a unique safe action Glock 19: Compact version
striker-fired trigger mechanism that sets Glock 34: Competition version
the striker in the half-cocked position Numerous other models in a variety of calibers.
after each round. When firing, the
shooter pulls the trigger, which
disengages the trigger safety, then cocks
the striker to the full cock position prior
to firing. The Glock has a polymer frame
and steel slides. AMMUNITION
Name: 9 mm Parabellum
Weight (kg): .905 Caliber/length: 9 x 19mm
Length (mm): 186 Effective Range (m): 50
Operation: Recoil operated double Muzzle Velocity (m/s): 350
action.
Fire Mode: Semiautomatic
SIGHTS
Iron sights. Adjustable on competition

models.
D-4
Makarov Pistol (USSR/Russia)

Ammunition Typical
Types Combat Load
9mm Makarov Magazine

Capacity: 8
(Source: U.S. Army Special Forces Foreign

Weapons Handbook, January 1967, I-13)
SYSTEM VARIANTS
A blowback operated, double action PMM: 9x18mm

semiautomatic handgun that is extremely Izh 71: 9x17mm short/.380 ACP
sturdy, simple to operate and maintain, Baikal IJ 70: 9mm Makarov/.380 ACP
and very reliable. It was designed for
Soviet army officers and Soviet police.
It is a Walther PP style weapon and
provides good defense at short and
medium distances. There are some
disadvantages with this weapon,
specifically the 9mm Makarov is
considered to be underpowered.
Additionally, the magazine capacity of 8
is low compared to other handguns AMMUNITION
available.
Name: 9mm Makarov
Weight (kg): .66 Caliber/length: 9 x 18mm
Length (mm): 160 Effective Range (m): 50
Operation: Double action Muzzle Velocity (m/s): 315
Fire Mode: Semiautomatic
SIGHTS
Iron sites.
D-5
Ruger GP100 (United States)

Ammunition Typical
Types Combat Load
.357 Cylinder
Magnum Capacity: 6
.38 Special
(Source: (S/NF/WN/NC) DST-2660H-481-89, Terrorist

Weapons Handbook – Worldwide (U), 15 December
1989, 13. Unclassified Extract.)
SYSTEM VARIANTS
The Ruger GP100 is a rugged double-action GP-141

revolver, available in fixed and adjustable sight KGP-141
models. It was designed specifically for the GP-160
law enforcement and security communities. It KGP-160
can be field stripped very quickly for easy GP-161
maintenance. Although it is chambered for the KGP-161
.357 Magnum, it can also fire the .38 Special
cartridge.
Weight (kg): 1.28

Length (mm): 238 AMMUNITION
Operation: Double action
Fire Mode: Single shot Name: .357 Magnum
Caliber/length: .357 Cal/33 mm
Effective Range (m): 60
Muzzle Velocity (m/s): 442
SIGHTS
Adjustable iron sights.
D-6
Submachine Guns
Heckler & Koch MP-5 (Germany)
Ammunition Typical
Types Combat Load
9 mm Parabellum Magazine Capacity:

10, 15, 30
(Source: (S/NF/WN/NC) DST-2660H-481-89,

Terrorist Weapons Handbook – Worldwide
(U), 15 December 1989, 19. Unclassified
Extract.)
SYSTEM VARIANTS
A submachine gun with a recoil operated MP5A1 – w/o stock

roller-locked bolt that fires from a closed MP5A2 – fixed polymer stock
position. Very accurate and reliable under MP5A3 – telescopic metal stock
adverse conditions with only a minimum SD1 – SD3 – same as above with internal
requirement for maintenance. The smooth silencers
recoil characteristics provide optimum control MP5N – US Navy model with 3 round
when firing bursts or when firing full burst capability
automatic. It is very conducive for concealed
carrying or for use in confined areas.
AMMUNITION
Weight (kg): 3.07 loaded Name: 9 mm Parabellum

Length (mm): 490/660 Caliber/length: 9 x 19 mm
Cyclic Rate of fire (rd/min): 800 Effective Range (m): 200
Operation: Blowback Muzzle Velocity (m/s): 400
Fire Mode: Semi-automatic, Full automatic
SIGHTS
Post front, select range peep rear.
Night sights, scopes, laser aiming devices

available.
D-7
PM 63 (Poland)
Ammunition Typical
Types Combat Load
9 mm Magazine
Makarov Capacity: 15,
25
(Source: USAREUR Pam 30-60-1, Identification Guide,
Part One: Weapons and Equipment, East European
Communist Armies, Volume 1: General, Ammunition and
Infantry Weapons, September 1972, 70)
SYSTEM VARIANTS
The PM 63 is a blowback operated SMG that 9mm Parabellum developed in 1971.

fires from the open bolt position. Although it
is capable of both semi-automatic and full Unlicensed copy by NORINCO of
automatic modes, there is no selector switch. China.
The semi-automatic mode is achieved by a
short pull of the trigger, whereas full automatic
requires pulling the trigger completely. It was
designed with Special Forces in mind and was
one of the lightest SMGs when it was
introduced. It has been used by Polish Special
Forces, police and by military personnel
requiring a compact weapon. Iranian terrorists
used it during the siege of the Iranian embassy
in London in 1980. It has been a very prolific
weapon, with tens of thousands being
produced. AMMUNITION
Weight (kg): 2.0 Loaded Name: 9mm Makarov

Length (mm): 333/583 Caliber/length: 9 x 18 mm
Operation: Blowback, firing from open bolt Muzzle Velocity (m/s): 320
position
SIGHTS
Iron sights that can be set on 75 or 150 meters.
D-8
Uzi (Israel)
Ammunition Typical
Types Combat Load
9mm Magazine
Parabellum Capacity: 20,
25, 32

1989, 20. Unclassified Extract. )
SYSTEM VARIANTS
The Uzi is a recoil operated, select fire Mini Uzi

submachine gun that fires from the open bolt Micro Uzi
position. It has a folding stock and can be
equipped with silencers. The Uzi submachine
gun is manufactured by IMI and has been
adopted by more than 90 countries for their
police and military. Special operations and
security units to include the US Secret Service
and the Israeli Sayeret (Special Forces) use the
compact variants. It is considered one of the
most popular SMGs in the world, with more
than 10 million manufactured around the
world. AMMUNITION
Name: 9 mm Parabellum
Weight (kg): 4.0 loaded Caliber/length: 9 x 19mm
Length (mm): 470/650 Effective Range (m): 200
Cyclic Rate of fire (rd/min): 600 Muzzle Velocity (m/s): 400
Operation: Blowback, firing from open bolt
position
SIGHTS
Front – Post; Rear – Aperture “L” Flip.

Tactical flashlights and laser aiming modules
are available.
D-9
Assault Rifles
AK 47 (Russia)
Ammunition Typical
Types Combat Load
7.62 x 39 Magazine
mm Capacity: 30
(Source: OPFOR Worldwide Equipment Guide,

TRADOC ADCSINT-Threats, September 2001, 1-4.1)
SYSTEM VARIANTS
A gas operated, selective fire assault weapon AKS: short stock

adopted by the Soviet Army in 1949. It came AKM: updated version of the AK 47
with both a fixed wooden stock and a folding Clones:
metal stock, the AKS, which was issued to Sako/Valmet: Finland
paratroopers and armor units. All of the Galil: Israel
Kalashnikov assault rifles are very dependable R-4/R-4C: South Africa
and produce a high volume of fire. They are
one of the most prevalent weapons used by
terror groups today.
AMMUNITION
Weight (kg): 4.876 loaded Name: 7.62

Length (mm): 870 Caliber/length: 7.62 x 39 mm
Operation: Gas operated Muzzle Velocity (m/s): 710
SIGHTS
Iron sites.
D-10
AK 74 (Russia)
Ammunition Typical
Types Combat Load
5.45 mm Magazine
Capacity: 30
(Source: OPFOR Worldwide Equipment Guide,
TRADOC ADCSINT-Threats, September 2001, 1-3)
SYSTEM VARIANTS
A gas operated assault weapon used by the AKS 74: Folding stock version
Soviet Army. It is basically an AKM
rechambered to fire a 5.45mm round. It has a
higher muzzle velocity than the AK 47/AKM,
which gives it a longer effective range. It does
not have the accuracy of the M16, but
reportedly has better reliability in a combat
situation and less maintenance requirements
than the M16.
AMMUNITION
Weight (kg): 3.6 loaded Name: 5.45mm

Length (mm): 933 Caliber/length: 5.45 x 39 mm
SIGHTS
Front: Post, Rear: U-notch
Night sights are available.
D-11
Colt M16 (United States)

Ammunition Typical
Types Combat Load
5.56mm Magazine
(.223 Rem) Capacity: 20,
30
(Source: US Army File Photo)
SYSTEM VARIANTS
A gas operated automatic assault rifle used by M16A1, A2, A3: Various upgrades.
the US military as its primary weapon.
Originally developed by Armalite as the AR Civilian clones by Bushmaster, Armalite,
15, this was a scaled down version of the AR Professional Ordnance, and many others.
10 redesigned to use the .223 Remington
cartridge.
It has been modified numerous times and is
used by nearly 30 different militaries and is
very popular with law enforcement agencies.
AMMUNITION
Weight (kg): 2.89 empty Name: 5.56 NATO

Length (mm): 986 Caliber/length: 5.56 x 45mm
SIGHTS
Iron sites. Scope capable.
D-12
Sniper Rifles
ArmaLite AR 50 (United States)
Ammunition Typical
Types Combat Load
.50BMG Single Shot
(Source: Photo courtesy of ArmaLite*)
SYSTEM VARIANTS
A single shot bolt action rifle that uses the.50

Cal Browning Machine Gun ammunition. It
has a unique octagonal receiver bedded into a
sectional aluminum stock and has a modified
M-16 type pistol grip. The butt stock is fully
adjustable and is removable for transport.
Weight (kg): 19.24 with scope AMMUNITION

Length (mm): 1499
Operation: Bolt Action Name: .50BMG
Fire Mode: Single shot Caliber/length: 12.7x99mm
Muzzle Velocity (m/s): 865-890
SIGHTS
ArmaLite sells this with a Leupold Mk4 10-

power scope.
* ArmaLite is a registered trademark of

ArmaLite.
D-13
Remington Model 700 (United States)

Ammunition Typical
Types Combat
Load
.223 Rem
.308 Win Magazine.
Capacity:
(Source: US Army File Photo) 5
SYSTEM VARIANTS
A bolt action, magazine fed rifle that is basically a re- M24 Sniper Weapon System (US
stocked Remington Model 700 VS varmint rifle. Army)
This is one of the most widely used tactical rifles in M40A1 Sniper Rifle (USMC)
the United States. The police, the US Army and the
US Marine Corps, use it.
Weight (kg): 4.08 empty without scope AMMUNITION

Length (mm): 1662
Operation: Bolt Action Name: .223 Rem/.308 Win
Fire Mode: Single Shot Caliber/length: 5.56x45mm /
7.62x51mm
Muzzle Velocity (m/s): 1005 /
780-840
SIGHTS
Variable telescopic scopes.

No iron sights.
D-14
Steyr-Mannlicher SSG-69 (Austria)

Ammunition Typical
Types Combat Load
7.62 x 51mm Magazine.

(.308 Win) Capacity: 5
(Source: (S/NF/WN/NC) DST-2660H-481-89,

Terrorist Weapons Handbook – Worldwide (U), 15
December 1989, 32-33. Unclassified Extract. )
SYSTEM VARIANTS
A bolt action, magazine fed rifle, which has

been used as a sniper rifle by the Austrian
forces, as well as many police agencies.
The rifle is extremely accurate and has been
used to win a number of international
competitions.
AMMUNITION
Weight (kg): 4.6 with scope.
Length (mm): 1130 Name: .308 Win
Operation: Bolt Action Caliber/length: 7.62 x 51mm
Fire Mode: Single shot Effective Range (m): 800
Muzzle Velocity (m/s): 799 - 860
SIGHTS
Scope
D-15
Shotguns
Franchi SPAS 12 (Italy)
Ammunition Typical
Types Combat Load
12 Ga. Shot Tubular

12 Ga. Magazine
Buckshot capacity: 8
12 Ga. Slug
SYSTEM VARIANTS
This is a dual mode shotgun, which can be

operated both as a pump-action style shotgun
and as a semi-auto shotgun. It can rapidly fire
full power loads such as buckshot set on semi-
auto, and can be switched to pump to handle
low power rounds -- or if auto functioning fails
to function properly. It has a relatively short AMMUNITION
barrel, which makes it suitable for operation in
tight quarters. Both military and the police use Name: 12 Gauge
it. Caliber/length: 12 Ga/ 2 ¾ inch
Muzzle Velocity (m/s): 393 (00
Weight (kg): 4.0 Buckshot)
Length (mm): 1070
Operation: Pump or gas operated
Fire Mode: Semi-automatic
SIGHTS
Iron Blade
D-16
Mossberg Model 500 (United States)

Ammunition Typical
Types Combat Load
12 Ga. Shot Tubular

12 Ga. Magazine
Buckshot capacity: 6, 8, 9
(Source: (S/NF/WN/NC) DST-2660H-481-89, Terrorist 12 Ga. Slug
SYSTEM VARIANTS
This is a pump action shotgun that is common Numerous variations of this model exist.
with the military and police departments, and is
sold widely on the commercial market. It is
available with both a traditional wood stock
and with the pistol grip, as shown above.
AMMUNITION
Weight (kg): 2.6
Length (mm): 711 Name: 12 Gauge
Operation: Pump Action Caliber/length: 12 Ga/ 2 ¾ inch and 3
Fire Mode: Single shot inch
Muzzle Velocity (m/s): 393 (00
Buckshot)
SIGHTS
Fixed iron sights
D-17
D-18
Appendix E
Improvised Explosive Devices
Shampoo bottles, bicycle seats, tiffins [drinking/eating container]. A plastic

container or a LPG cylinder. A parcel of books. A clock, a teddy bear. In the
Kashmir Valley, any one of these innocuous objects can be fatal. They are all
commonly used by militants to fashion bombs and improvised explosive
devices (IEDs). But the most lethal of all is the remote controlled explosive
device, hidden in a ditch, a drainpipe or a parked vehicle.
“Lethal Weapons”, Indian Express Newspaper (Bombay), August 24, 2000
General
While terrorists will use conventional weapons, such as rocket-propelled grenades and assault
rifles to achieve their goals, they also have the ability to assemble and employ a wide variety
of lethal improvised explosive devices (IEDs). Explosives are a popular weapon with
terrorists and are covered in the al Qaeda training manual. The manual states, “Explosives are
believed to be the safest weapon for the Mujahideen. Using explosives allows them to get
away from enemy personnel and to avoid being arrested.” It goes on to say that, “In addition,
explosives strike the enemy with sheer terror and fright.” 320
IEDs are a common tool of terror used by non-state actors. These devices have been
fabricated in an improvised manner and incorporate highly destructive lethal and dangerous
explosives or incendiary chemicals, which are designed to kill or destroy the target. The
materials required for these devices are often stolen or misappropriated from military or
commercial blasting supplies, or made from fertilizer and other readily available household
ingredients.321 IEDs basically include some type of explosive, fuse, detonators and wires,
shrapnel and pieces of metal, and a container to pack the explosives and shrapnel.
The use of IEDs by terrorists is a constant threat. Terrorist groups are continuously
developing new techniques and tactics in response to defenses and countermeasures
established by their opponents. They will disguise IEDs to hinder recognition and will often
booby-trap the devices to detonate if disturbed.
The most simple of the IEDs used is the one initiated by closing of a battery circuit, similar to
turning on a battery operated light. When turning on the switch closes the circuit, electricity
flows to the light so it can be illuminated. As shown in Figure E-1, a clothespin-triggering
device in this IED replaces the light switch and when it is activated, the electricity flows to
the charge, thus detonating the explosive.
320
Ben N. Venzke and Aimee Ibrahim, Al Qaeda Tactic/Target Brief (Alexandria: IntelCenter/Tempest
Publishing, 2002), 11.
321
Conventional Terrorist Weapons (New York: United Nations Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention,
2002), 4; available from http://www.undcp.org/odccp/terrorism_weapons_conventional.html; Internet; accessed
12 November 2002.
E-1
Figure E-1. Basic Firing Circuit (Source: TM 31-210)
The IED can be detonated using a number of triggering devices. These can be mechanical,
electrical, or remote controlled type devices. For instance, after emplacing the IED, such as in
a natural culvert or under a road by digging and then camouflaging the spot, the terrorist waits
for the target to arrive. Once the target is within the damage area, the IED is initiated. The
damage caused can be phenomenal as even a small amount of explosive can cause an
explosion that dislodges a vehicle up to 50 feet in the air, or damage a bridge totally. This
same scenario can be applied to a passenger train. More sophisticated assemblies of IEDs can
be even more devastating and cause much damage.
Explosive Charges
Although terrorists use manufactured explosive material, it is easy for them to obtain the
ingredients required to make improvised explosive material as well. The ingredients can be
purchased at local stores with relative ease. Additionally, the instructions for making these
type explosives have been published in a wide variety of literature, such as The Anarchists
Cookbook,322 for years. They are also available on the Internet. One such site has the recipes
to make 27 different low and high order explosives323 and another site gives instructions for
both producing explosives and making the bombs.324 The following are examples of common
types of explosive charges found in IEDs.
• Improvised explosive mixtures: Although there are recipes to make virtually any
explosive, the following are some common improvised ones that are used.
Ammonium nitrate fertilizer

Black powder
Gasoline
Match heads
Smokeless powder
322
William Powell, The Anarchist Cookbook (Secaucus, NJ: Lyle Stuart, Inc., 1971), 111.
323
Improvised Explosives; available from http://members.odinsrage.com/white88/18_ImprovisedExplosives.htm;
Internet; accessed 11 December 2002.
324
Improvised Explosives, vol. I, version 2.0 (15 May 1990); available from
http://www.logicsouth.com/~lcoble/password/firearms.html; Internet; accessed 11 December 2002.
E-2
Sodium Chlorate and sugar
Chemical reactions:
Acid bombs, such as nitric and sulfuric acid
Caustic bombs, such as Drano toilet bowl cleaner
Dry ice
• Plastic Explosives: This has become the explosive of choice for various international
terrorist groups. There are 2 main types used by terrorists:
C-4: a white, RDX based explosive produced by the United States. This is the common
plastic explosive used by the U.S. military.
SEMTEX: an orange, RDX and PETN based explosive produced in the Czech Republic.
Intelligence experts estimated the bomb that destroyed Pan Am Flight 103 over Lockerbie,
Scotland, in 1988 used about two-thirds pound of Semtex.325
Figure E-2. U.S. Army M112 Block Demolition Charge of C4 (Source: FM 5-25)
• TNT: TNT is a most common military explosive, is used alone or as part of a composite
explosive, and is a standard against which other military high explosives are rated.
Figure E-3: TNT Block Demolition Charges (Source: FM 5-25)
E-3
• Dynamite: The most widely used explosive in the world for blasting operations. It has
been fairly easy to obtain by both theft and legal purchases in the past.
Figure E-4. Commercial Dynamite (Source: FM 5-25)
Common Trigger Devices

As mentioned earlier, some form of trigger is used to detonate the explosive device. These
range from very simple homemade devices to highly technical devices. Although not all-
inclusive, some examples are listed below.
Figure E-5. Wristwatch Device (Source: FM 20-32)
• Manual wind-up alarm clocks and wristwatches. Delay can be up to 24 hours.
325
Earl Lane, “Plastic Explosives Difficult to Detect,” Newsday.com, 23 July 1996, 1; available from
http://www.newsday.com/news/nytwa96-jet3bomb,0,2501618.story; Internet; accessed 12 December 2002.
E-4
• Pressure release switch that is spring-loaded. These can be as simple as a mousetrap or a

commercially produced switch.
Figure E-6. Mousetrap Switch (Source: TM 31-210)
• Pull switches that actuate when a trip wire is pulled. There are many different forms of
these triggers. They can be made easily by stripping the insulation off of wire and looping
them together or by inserting a piece of wood between the contact wires on a clothespin.
Figure E-7. Pull-Loop Switch (Source: TM 31-210)
Figure E-8. Clothespin Switch (Source: TM 31-210)
E-5
Figure E-9. Pressure Switch (Source: TM 31-210)
Figure E-10. Pressure Switch (Source: FM 20-32)
• Pressure switches that actuate when weight is applied.
• Metal Ball Switch: This switch will activate the device when it is tipped. It also can be
used as an anti-disturbance type system that actuates the explosive device when it is disturbed.
Figure E-11. Metal Ball Switch (Source: TM 31-210)
E-6
• Barometric Sensor: Bombs can be triggered using a barometric sensor that detonates once
it reaches a specific altitude. The bomb on Pan Am Flight 103 had a detonator with a
barometric sensor with a timer delay and triggered only after the aircraft had reached a
specific altitude and flew at that altitude for a set length of time.326
Figure E-12. Hand-held Detonation Device (Source: FM 20-32)
• Wire command detonation.
• Alarm equipment, such as motion detectors, infrared detectors, and heat detectors.
Trigger devices were found in Chechnya that could discern the body heat of a person from
background clutter over 20 feet away.327
• LED digital wristwatch.328
• Radio control systems similar to those used for models. These have been used by the IRA
to detonate bombs against the British.329
• Hand-held radar guns. 330
• Radio command detonation, such as battery-powered garage door openers, cell phones,
and paging systems.331
326
Christopher Wain, “Lessons from Lockerbie,” BBC News, 21 December 1998, 1; available from
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/special_report/1998/12/98/lockerbie/235632.stm; Internet; accessed 12 December
2002.
327
Ed Wagamon, “Tactical Combat in Chechnya: Mines & Booby Traps: The Number One Killer” (Part 1 of 2),
How They Fight: Armies of the World, NGIC-1122-0062-01, vol 4-01 (August 2001): 35.
328
Ibid., 35.
329
330
Ibid., 181.
331
Ed Wagamon, “Tactical Combat in Chechnya: Mines & Booby Traps: The Number One Killer” (Part 1 of 2),
How They Fight: Armies of the World, NGIC-1122-0062-01, vol 4-01 (August 2001): 34.
E-7
Types of IEDs
The different types of IEDs vary based on the type explosive used, method of assembly, and
also the method of detonation. As this is restricted only by human ingenuity, the types of
IEDs are infinite. The Technical Support Working Group, which is an interagency group
focusing on counter terrorism, categorizes IEDs based on their size and explosive capacity.
The following table from Jane’s Unconventional Weapons Response Handbook shows
the categories.
Threat Explosives Capacity (TNT Equivalent)

Firebomb or incendiary device Less than 1 lb (0.5 kg)
Postal explosive device 1-5 lb (0.5 – 2.5 kg)
Pipe bomb 1-5 lb (0.5 – 2.5 kg)
Man-portable explosive device 5-50 lb (2.5 - 25 kg)
Compact sedan 500 lb (225 kg)
Full-size sedan 1,000 lb (455 kg)
Passenger or cargo van 4,000 lb (1,815 kg)
Small moving van or delivery truck 10,000 lb (4,535 kg)
Large moving van or water truck 30,000 lb (13,605 kg)
Semi-trailer 60,000 lb (27,210 kg)
Source: John P. Sullivan, et al., Jane’s Unconventional Weapons Response Handbook
(Alexandria, VA: Jane’s Information Group, 2002), 53.
Table E-1. Explosive Capacity
Although not all inclusive, some of the common IEDs a military organization will encounter
are shown below:
Figure E-13. Pipe Bomb (Source: BATF)
• Pipe Bombs. This is a common type of terrorist bomb. Steel, iron, aluminum or copper
pipes that are widely available in the market are used and low-velocity explosives are
tightly capped inside. These are often wrapped with nails to cause more damage.
E-8
Incendiary Devices. The Molotov cocktail was initially used by the Russian resistance
against German armored vehicles in WWII. They are very easy to make, yet cause severe
damage. The device normally consists of a glass bottle, which contains a very volatile fuel,
such as gasoline or diesel. A cloth fuse is inserted through the bottle opening and is ignited
before the bottle is thrown at the target.
Figure E-14. Molotov Cocktail (Source: TM 31-201-1)
• Vehicle Devices. In addition to the IEDs, a vehicle can be modified to conceal and
deliver large quantities of explosives to a target. The motive behind such incidents is to
cause many casualties and gross property damage. This type of weapon is termed a
VBIED (vehicle borne improvised explosive device). Factors encouraging VBIED use include:
Mobility.
Benign, non-threatening means of delivery and concealment.
Capacity to conceal large quantities of explosives.
Fragmentation and blast enhancement.
Penetration of target's perimeter not required (within reason).
Minimal technology, logistics, and financing are needed to assemble a large explosive
device proven to cause major personnel casualties and gross property damage.
Suicide driver is nearly impossible to stop.
Such devices can also be remotely controlled for detonation. The near-simultaneous use
of multiple VBIEDs against geographically dispersed targets has the potential to create
mass casualties and panic.
E-9
• Other devices: The design of IEDs is only limited to the ingenuity of the person making
them. A few examples of other type devices are shown in the accompanying illustrations.
Figure E-15. Dynamite/Nail Bomb (Source: BATF)
Figure E-16. Nail Grenade (Source: TM 31-210)
• Projected IEDs. These are improvised devices that launch some form of projectile at the
intended target. These fall into 3 categories: Explosively formed projectiles (commonly
called platter charges or disk charges); shoulder fired rocket launchers; and improvised mortars.
Platter charges. These are designed with some form of explosive material placed on one side
of a flat metal plate. When the device is detonated, the metal plate is launched at the target
and can penetrate armor and concrete.
Shoulder fired rockets. These are very similar to military rocket launchers, such as the RPG.
However, they are less accurate and have a shorter range.
E-10
Red Army Brigade Ambush

Alfred Herrhausen, 30 November 1989
The Red Army Brigade, primarily a German domestic terrorist group, targeted politicians and
influential businessmen for murder. As head of Deutsche Bank, Germany’s largest bank, Alfred
Herrhausen was the most influential businessman in the country. The Red Army Brigade vowed
to kill Herrhausen by the end of November 1989
Herrhausen was chauffeured to work each morning in an armored Mercedes, with bodyguards in
a lead and a follow car. The Red Army Brigade learned his routine, which was to take
substantially the same route to and from work at approximately the same time each day. That
route went through a park, which made for an excellent surveillance and attack site. RAB
members, in workers’ clothes, dug a small hole across the road, set up an infrared beam on one
side and a reflector on the other.
On 30 November 1989, Alfred Herrhausen headed for work in his usual motorcade, along his
usual route, at his usual time. A RAB lookout signaled the triggerman that Herrhausen’s
motorcade was approaching the kill zone. The triggerman allowed the first car through, then
activated the infrared beam. When Herrhausen’s car broke the beam, a timer delay caused a
plate charge hidden on the back of a bicycle to detonate, sending it through the rear door of
Herrhausen’s armored car. It severed his legs and he bled to death.
The plate charge was driven by 10 kilos (22 pounds) of TNT. It was a 5-pound, 8-inch copper
plate. The TNT detonated at 18,000 feet per second, sending the plate into Herrhausen’s body at
14,000 feet per second and demolishing the Mercedes.
Source: Diplomatic Security Surveillance Detection Program Course of Instruction, U.S. State
Department, October 1999.
Improvised mortars. A mortar system can use propane cylinders as the launch tube; add a
simple elevation system and detonator and an improvised mortar system can be obtained.
Figure E-17. Improvised Mortar System (Source: File Photo)
E-11
Figure E-18. Multi-tube Battery Mounted in Truck (Source: File Photo)
Commercial Product Modification
Terrorists also show great skill and creativity in their ability

to weaponize commercial off the shelf products. Given the
right components, something as benign as a cell phone can
be turned into a weapon that becomes easy to conceal and
to employ. In Figure E-19, the cell phone has been
converted to a four-barreled gun.
Covert Firearms
Covert firearms can be developed or secretly obtained
through black market channels. With the right amount of
cash and good connections a terrorist can find or produce
Figure E-19. Four-barreled Cell
many dangerous and unexpected weapons for their Phone Gun
arsenals of terror. (Source: File Photo)
Figure E-20. US Manufactured Covert Firearms (Source: File Photo)
E-12
Evacuation Distance Tables

There is no question that U.S. forces are susceptible to the threat posed by IEDs. When
confronted with these type devices, trained personnel should only disable them. Friendly
personnel should be evacuated to a safe distance to preclude casualties in case the IED is
detonated. There are numerous references available covering the IED threat. Figure E-21 is
an example of IED smart cards developed by CJTF-7 during OIF and Figure E-22 is an example
of a reference guide developed by the Marine Corps. The Army also has GTA 90-01-001,
Improvised Explosive Device (IED) and Vehicular Borne Improvised Explosive Device (VBIED)
Smart Card, but this has restricted distribution. Table E-2 is representative of a card distributed
by the Department of Defense that provides recommended evacuation distances based on the
type IED.
Figure E-21. CJTF-7 OIF Smart Card 4 Figure E-24. Marine Corps Intelligence Agency IED
Threat Guide
E-13
Table E-2. Explosive Device Evacuation Distances (Source: DOD)
E-14
Appendix F
Conventional Military Munitions
The regional operational headquarters further disclosed that over the past 24
hours, 19 items of small arms, 9 grenade launchers, 3 machine guns and a
large amount of ammunition, including 10 artillery shells and 18
landmines, have been found and seized in Chechnya. Also, over 83 kg of
TNT has been found.
“ARMS CACHE FOUND IN GROZNY CEMETERY,” On-Line Pravda, 10 August 2002
General
Although terrorists are known for using fabricated improvised explosive devices, they also
use a wide variety of military conventional weapons. These weapons range all the way from
highly sophisticated Stinger Missiles to booby-trapped unexploded ordnance. This appendix
will review many of the weapons the military may encounter when dealing with the
terrorist threat.
Fragmentation Grenades
Grenades are a common weapon used by terrorists. In fact, in the annual report published by
HAMAS on terrorist activities in 1998, they stated that a combination of time delayed bombs
coupled with commando attacks using hand grenades were the major part of effective
operations and caused the most casualties.332 Although terrorists will use any grenade they can
acquire, some of the common grenades available are listed below. These figures are courtesy of the
Naval Explosive Ordnance Disposal Technology Division. 333
• Figure F-1. U.S. Grenade,

Characteristics
Fragmentation, M2A1, M2A2, Color: Olive drab
U.S. Army Length: 114mm
Width: 57mm
Weight: 453.6g
Filler: TNT
332
Reuven Paz, Hamas Publishes Annual Report on Terrorist Activity for 1998 (Herzliya, Israel: International
Policy Institute for Counterterrorism, May 3, 1999), 1; available from
http://www.ict.org.il/spotlight/det.cfm?id=259; Internet; accessed 6 December 2002.
333
Department of Defense, Naval Explosive Ordnance Disposal Technology Division, ORDATA II - Enhanced
Deminers’ Guide to UXO Identification, Recovery, and Disposal, Version 1.0, [CD-ROM], (Indian Head, MD:
Naval Explosive Ordnance Disposal Technology Division, 1999).
F-1
• Figure F-2. U.S. Grenade,

Characteristics
Fragmentation, M26, M26A1, M61 Color: Olive drab with yellow
markings
Length: 99mm
Width: 57mm
Weight: 453.6g
Filler: Composition B
• Figure F-3. French Grenade,

Fragmentation, TN 733 Characteristics
Color: Olive drab with yellow
markings
Length: 94mm
Width: 52mm
Weight: 265g
• Figure F-4. U.K. Grenade,

Fragmentation, No. 36M MK1 Characteristics
Color: Black or varnished brown
Length: 102mm
Width: 61mm
Weight: 773g
Filler: Amatol
• Figure F-5. Spanish Grenade,

Characteristics
Fragmentation, POM 1 Color: Black and unmarked
Length: 131mm
Width: 55mm
Weight: 335g
Filler: TNT
• Figure F-6. U.S.S.R. Grenade,

Characteristics
Hand, Color: Olive drab with black
Defensive, RGD-5 markings
Length: 117mm
Width: 58mm
Weight: 320g
Filler: TNT
F-2
• Figure F-7. U.S.S.R. Grenade, Hand,

Characteristics
Defensive, F1 Color: Gray, olive drab or unpainted
Length: 117mm
Width: 55mm
Weight: 699g
Filler: TNT
• Figure F-8. North Korean Grenade,

Fragmentation, Model Unknown Characteristics
Color: Olive Drab
Length: 84mm
Width: 55mm
Weight: Unknown
Filler: Unknown
• Figure F-9. Chinese (P.R.) Grenade,

Fragmentation, Type 86P Characteristics
Color: Olive green
Length: 90mm
Width: 52mm
Weight: 260g
Filler: PETN
Rocket Propelled Grenade

This weapon fires a motorized grenade from a tube-like launcher. Although it is an unguided
weapon, a trained operator can negotiate targets at a long distance. Even though it was
originally developed for an anti-tank weapon system, many terrorists use them as anti-aircraft
weapons. RPGs were used to bring down two MH-47 Chinook helicopters in the Shah-e-Kot
area of Afghanistan in 2002 and the same system was used in 1993 in Mogadishu, Somalia,
when Somalis firing RPGs brought down a pair of UH-60 Black Hawk helicopters. Many
armies use these systems and they are widely available on the weapons black market.
• Russian 40mm Anti-tank Grenade Launcher RPG-7V. The RPG-7V is abundant

throughout the terrorist world and is being used extensively by terrorist organizations in
the Middle East and Latin America and is thought to be in the inventory of many
insurgent groups. The RPG-7V is a relatively simple and functional weapon, with an
effective range of approximately 500 meters when used against a fixed target, and about
F-3
300 meters when fired at a moving target. 334 It can penetrate 330mm of armor. Photo is
from the TRADOC Worldwide Equipment Guide (WEG).
Figure F-10. RPG-7V Antitank Grenade Launcher (Source: WEG)
• U.S. 66mm Light Anti-tank Weapon M72 LAW. Although the M72-series LAW was
mainly used as an anti-armor weapon, it may be used with limited success against other
targets such as buildings and light vehicles. It’s effective range is not as good as the RPG-
7V, since it’s only effective to 200 meters for stationary targets, and 165 meters for
moving targets. It can penetrate 350mm of armor.
Figure F-11. M72 Series Light Antitank Weapon (Source: FM 23-25)
Air Defense Weapons

Although there are a myriad of air defense weapon systems, the man portable systems are the
ones that will be covered in this section. As the name indicates, these systems are portable
and can be employed by terrorists very quickly. Due to excellent performance and the large
number of these air defense systems throughout the world, the two systems discussed below
represent some of the most formidable threats to aircraft of all types. The fact that terrorists
334
Conventional Terrorist Weapons (New York: United Nations Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention,
2002), 3; available from http://www.undcp.org/odccp/terrorism_weapons_conventional.html; Internet; accessed
12 November 2002.
F-4
will use these weapons was demonstrated in November 2002 when two surface-to-air missiles
were fired at a Tel Aviv bound Arkia airlines Boeing 757 as it departed Mombasa, Kenya.
Fortunately the missiles missed their target, but it is an indication of possible employment of
the systems in the future.
• U.S. FIM92A Stinger. The US-made Stinger is a man-portable infrared-guided shoulder-

launched Surface-To-Air Missile (SAM). It proved to be highly effective in the hands of
Afghan Mujahedeen guerrillas during their insurgency against the Soviets. Its maximum
effective range is approximately 4,000+ meters. Its maximum effective altitude is
approximately 3,500 meters. It has been used to target high-speed jets, helicopters, and
commercial airliners.
Figure F-12. U.S. FIM92A Stinger (Source: FM 44-18-1)
• Russian SA 7b/Grail. Sold by the thousands after the demise of the former Soviet Union,
the SA-7 "Grail" uses an optical sight and tracking device with an infrared seeking
mechanism to strike flying targets. Its maximum effective range is approximately 5,500
meters and maximum effective altitude is approximately 4,500 meters. It is known to be in
the stockpiles of several terrorist and guerrilla groups.
Figure F-13. Russian SA 7b/Grail (Source: WEG)
F-5
Bombs and Artillery

Although most bombs used by terrorists are fabricated devices, they do use some
conventional munitions, especially as booby traps. They often use unexploded ordnance and
modify it for their purposes. A 2001 report from the United Nations Mine Action
Coordination Center on the former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia indicates a plethora of
unexploded munitions, to include 122 mm artillery rounds, 100 mm tank rounds, 82 mm and
120 mm mortar rounds, 20 mm and 30 mm cannon rounds, and 50 mm rocket rounds.335 The
following reflects some common munitions used by terrorist organizations. These figures are courtesy of
the Naval Explosive Ordnance Disposal Technology Division.336
• Figure F-14. U.S. Artillery Projectile, 105mm, HE, M1
Characteristics
Color: Olive drab with yellow markings
Length: 404mm
Width: 105mm
Weight: 18.11kg
• Figure F-15. U.S. Artillery Projectile,

Characteristics
155mm, HE, M107 Color: Olive drab with
yellow markings
Length: 605mm
Width: 155mm
Weight: 42.91kg
335
C.J. Clark, Mine/UXO Assessment: Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (New York: United Nations
Mine Action Coordination Center, 8 October 2001), 2; available from
http://www.mineaction.org/sp/mine_awareness/_refdocs.cfm?doc_ID=707; Internet; accessed 13 December
2002.
336
F-6
• Figure F-16. U.S.S.R. Artillery

Projectile, Characteristics
122mm, HE, FRAG, Color: Dark gray with black
markings
Model OF-472 Length: 564mm
Width: 122mm
Weight: Not available
Filler: TNT
• Figure F-17. U.S.S.R. Projectile,

100 mm, HEAT-FS, Characteristics
Color: Steel with copper
Model ZBK-5M rotating bands
Length: 649 mm
Width: 100 mm
Weight: 12.40 kg
Filler: RDX
• Figure F-18. U.S.S.R. Projectile,

120 mm, Mortar, HE-FRAG, Characteristics
Model OF-843A Color: Silver painted
body with black
markings
Length: 615 mm
Width: 120 mm
Weight: Unknown
Filler: Amatol
F-7
• Figure F-19. U.S. Bomb, 220 lb, Fragmentary, AN-M88
Characteristics
Color: Olive drab with yellow band
Length: 1.1m
Width: 206mm
Weight: 99.79kg
• Figure F-20. U.S. Bomb, 250 lb, GP, AN-M57 & AN-M57A1
Characteristics
Color: Olive drab with yellow band
Length: 1.15m
Width: 276.86mm
Weight: 117.94kg
Filler: Amatol
• Figure F-21. U.S. Bomb, 500 lb, GP, MK3, MOD 1
Characteristics
Color: Gray overall with yellow disc
between lugs
Length: 1.51m
Width: 355.6mm
Weight: 228.61kg
Filler: TNT
Mines
Similar to the homemade bombs used by terrorists, mines are another means used to inflict
damage by terrorist organizations. They use both anti-personnel and anti-tank mines. Unlike
conventional military forces that use mines against an opposing military force, terrorists use
mines to disrupt social, economic, and political operations. Consequently, mines are often
placed around schools, on walking paths, around wells, etc., in order to gain the full terror
F-8
effects.337 When examining the proliferation of these type weapons throughout the world, it
becomes readily apparent that it will be a true threat to U.S. forces. The information in Table
F-1 is from the 2001 Landmine Monitor Report and shows the various countries of the world
that are affected by landmines and unexploded ordnance. Many of these mines have been
emplaced by terrorist organizations.
Africa Americas Asia- Europe/ Middle

Pacific Central East/
Asia North
Africa
Angola Chile Afghanistan Albania Algeria
Burundi Colombia Bangladesh Armenia Egypt
Chad Costa Rica Burma Azerbaijan Iran
Congo- Cuba Cambodia Belarus Iraq
Brazz.
DR Congo Ecuador China Bosnia & Israel
Herzegovin
a
Djibouti El India Croatia Jordan
Salvador
Eritrea Guatemala North Korea Cyprus Kuwait
Ethiopia Honduras South Korea Czech Lebanon
Republic
Guinea- Nicaragua Laos Denmark Libya
Bissau
Kenya Peru Mongolia Estonia Morocco
Liberia Falkland- Nepal Georgia Oman
Malvinas
Malawi Pakistan Greece Syria
Mauritania Philippines Kyrgyzstan Tunisia
Mozambique Sri Lanka Latvia Yemen
Namibia Thailand Lithuania Golan
Heights
Niger Vietnam FYR Northern
Macedonia Iraq
Rwanda Taiwan Moldova Palestine
Senegal Poland Western
Sahara
Sierra Leone Russia
337
Margaret Buse, “Non-State Actors and Their Significance,” Journal of Mine Action (December 2002): 2;
available from http://maic.jmu.edu/journal/5.3/features/maggie_buse_nsa/maggie_buse.htm; Internet; accessed
13 December 2002.
F-9
Somalia Tajikistan
Sudan Turkey
Swaziland Ukraine
Tanzania Uzbekistan
Uganda Yugoslavia
Zambia Abkhazia
Zimbabwe Chechnya
Somaliland Kosovo
Nagorno-
Karabakh
Source: “Humanitarian Mine Action“, Landmine Monitor Report – 2001; available
from http://www.icbl.org/lm/2001/exec/hma.html#Heading514; Internet; accessed 13
December 2002.
Table F-1. Landmine/UXO Problem in the World Today
There are hundreds of different types of mines that can be employed against our troops. As
Robert Williscroft stated in Defense Watch, “At least 800 different mine types populate the
world’s minefields. These range from homemade coffee can bombs to sophisticated ‘smart’
non-metallic devices that can distinguish between potential targets.”338 Homemade bombs
were discussed in Appendix E on IEDs, so they will not be addressed again. Manufactured
mines used by terrorists originate from many of the former Warsaw Pact countries, the United
States, China, Britain, and Iran, to name just a few sources.339 Some common mines are
shown below. These can be detonated through the use of trip wires, pressure, or command
detonation. These figures are courtesy of the Naval Explosive Ordnance Disposal
Technology Division.340
• Figure F-22: Chinese (P.R.) Landmine, APERS, Type 59
Characteristics
Color: OD Green
Length: 96 mm
Width: 60 mm
Weight: 1.17 kg
Fuse: Pull actuated
Body: Cast Iron
Filler: TNT
338
Robert G. Williscroft, “The Economics of Demining Defines Success and Failure,” Defense Watch (13
February 2002): 4; available from http://www.sftt.org/dw02132002.html; Internet; accessed 13 December 2002.
339
C.J. Clark, Mine/UXO Assessment: Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia (New York: United Nations
Mine Action Coordination Center, 8 October 2001), 2; available from
http://www.mineaction.org/sp/mine_awareness/ _refdocs.cfm?doc_ID=707; Internet; accessed 13 December
2002; and Jerry White, “Ridding the World of Land Mines,” Union-Tribune (24 January 2002): 4; available from
http://www.wand.org/9-11/discuss6.html; Internet; accessed 13 December 2002.
340
F-10
• Figure F-23. Chinese (P.R.) Landmine, APERS, Type 66
Characteristics
Color: Green
Length: 218 mm
Width: Unavailable
Weight: 1.60 kg
Fuse: Command or trip wire
Body: Plastic with steel spheres
Filler: P.E. 4 plastic explosive
• Figure F-24. Chinese (P.R.) Landmine, AT, Type 72
Characteristics
Color: Green
Depth: 100 mm
Diameter: 270 mm
Weight: 6.5 kg
Fuse: Pressure
Body: Plastic
Filler: RDX/TNT
• Figure F-25. U.S. Landmine, APERS, HE, M14
Characteristics
Color: Olive drab with black markings
Depth: 38 mm
Diameter: 58 mm
Weight: 85 g
Fuse: Pressure Activated
Body: Plastic
Filler: Tetryl
F-11
• Figure F-26. U.S. Landmine, APERS, HE, M18A1
Characteristics
Color: Olive drab
Length: 216 mm
Width: 83 mm
Weight: 1.6 kg
Fuse: Tripwire or command detonated
Body: Plastic with steel ball bearings
Filler: Composition C4
• Figure F-27. U.S. Landmine, AT, HE, M21
Characteristics
Color: Olive drab with yellow markings
Depth: 114 mm
Diameter: 229 mm
Weight: 8.20 kg
Fuse: Pressure activated
Body: Steel
• Figure F-28. U.S.S.R. Landmine, APERS, Directional, MON-50
Characteristics
Color: Green
Length: 220 mm
Width: 45 mm
Weight: 2 kg
Fuse: Tripwire, break wire, or
command detonated
Body: Plastic with steel ball bearings
Filler: PVV-5A
F-12
• Figure F-29. U.S.S.R. Landmine, APERS, PMN-2
Characteristics
Color: Green or black
Depth: Unavailable
Diameter: 121.6 mm
Weight: 420 g
Body: Plastic
Filler: TNT – RDX – A1
• Figure F-30. U.S.S.R. Landmine, AT, TM-62M
Characteristics
Color: Olive drab/green/brown/khaki/sand
Depth: 102 mm
Diameter: 316 mm
Weight: 8.5 kg
Body: Metal
Filler: Trotyl/Ammonite 80
• Figure F-31. Yugoslav Landmine, APERS, PMA-2
Characteristics
Color: Green with black fuse body
Depth: 62 mm
Diameter: 66 mm
Weight: 133 g
Fuse: Pressure actuated
Body: Plastic
Filler: TNT
F-13
• Figure F-32. Yugoslav Landmine, APERS, PMR-2A
Characteristics
Color: Green
Length: 132 mm
Width: 66 mm
Weight: 1.70 kg
Fuse: Pull actuated
Body: Steel
Filler: TNT
• Figure F-33. Yugoslav Landmine, AT, TMA-4
Characteristics
Color: Light green with yellow markings
Depth: 64 mm
Diameter: 285 mm
Weight: 5.50 kg
Fuse: Pressure actuated
Body: Plastic
Filler: TNT
F-14
Appendix G
Weapons of Mass Destruction/Effect
The future may see a time when such a [nuclear] weapon may be constructed in
secret and used suddenly and effectively with devastating power by a willful
nation or group against an unsuspecting nation or group of much greater size and
material power.
U.S. Secretary of War Henry Stimson to Harry Truman
25 April 1945
General
The specter of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) has existed ever since the term arose in
the mid-twentieth century. Actions in World War II witnessed the entry of atomic weapons
and their destructive effects, and started a subsequent arms race among nations to obtain and
wield such an instrument of power. On closer reflection, other weapons of mass destruction
have existed for centuries. Examples include biological vectors used to spread disease among
adversaries in ancient and modern periods, or the more recent use of massive chemical
weapon attacks in World War I. The acronym “NBC” emerged in the post-World War II era
to catalog the main types of mass destruction as nuclear, biological, and chemical weapons.
Fig. G-1. U.S. Nuclear Bomb Detonation

(Source: U.S. Government)
More recently, other means of mass destruction or mass disruption effects entered the lexicon.
Radiological weapons, often called radiological dispersal devices (RDD), add to a grouping of
weapon capabilities as chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear (CBRN). High yield
explosives can also be considered a weapon of mass destruction. The recognition of
explosives with high yield effects now adds a category to weapons of mass destruction and a
contemporary acronym of CBRNE.
G-1
CBRNE Background
The threat of terrorists using weapons of mass destruction appears to be rising. Incidents since
the 1980s spotlight the attention that mass casualties or mass destruction cause in a
contemporary setting of near instantaneous global information access. Terrorists quickly
realized the value of sensational events that might prompt a change in national policies, alter
regional security arrangements, or thrust obscure issues into an international spotlight. The
vehicular bombing of the U.S. Embassy in Lebanon in 1983, the World Trade Center in 1993,
the U.S. military housing area at Khobar Towers in 1996, the U.S. Embassies in Kenya and
Tanzania in 1998, and the aerial attack on the World Trade Center on September 11, 2001 are
examples of an escalating notoriety in terrorist assaults. These acts demonstrate the capability
and conduct of terrorists to plan, organize, and execute attacks to produce mass casualties.341
In an unclassified report to the U.S. Congress, the Central Intelligence Agency stated that
many of the over 30 designated foreign terrorist organizations have expressed interest in
acquiring WMD.342 Additionally, terrorists state interest in conducting unconventional attacks
and make public statements about unconventional weapons.343 Some terrorists profess that
the acquisition of WMD to be a [extremist] religious duty and threaten to use them.344
“The United States of America is fighting a war against terrorists of global reach.
The enemy is not a single political regime or person or religion or ideology. The enemy is
terrorism – premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against innocents.”
National Security Strategy of the United Sates of America
Terrorist groups that acquire CBRNE weapons pose a critical danger. Terrorists armed with
these weapons can gain leverage for their demands by threatening use of these weapons to
influence political or military actions or to achieve a specific economic or financial objective.
Likewise, some groups simply want to employ WMD to create large numbers of casualties, both
military and civilian, and capitalize on the effects of these events.345
In a May 1998 interview, Usama bin Laden stated, “We do not have to differentiate between
military or civilian. As far as we are concerned, they are all targets, and this is what the fatwa
341
342
Director of Central Intelligence, DCI Weapons Intelligence, Nonproliferation, and Arms Control Center,
Unclassified Report to Congress on the Acquisition of Technology Realting to Weapons of Mass Destruction and
Advanced Conventional Munitions, 1 January Through 30 June 2003 (Washington, D.C., January 2002), 7;
available from http://www.cia.gov/cia/reports/721_reports/pdfs/jan_jun2003.pdf; Internet; accessed 19 May
2004.
343
Ibib., 8-9.
344
345
The White House, National Security Presidential Directive 17 (NSPD-17), National Strategy to Combat
Weapons of Mass Destruction, (Washington, D.C., December 2002), 4 and 10; available from
http://www.fas.org/irp/offdocs/nspd/nspd-17.html; Internet; accessed 8 December 2003.
G-2
says.”346 Additionally, al Qaeda spokesman Suleiman abu Ghaith has stated: “We have the
right to kill four million Americans – two million of them children – and to exile twice as
many and injure and cripple hundreds of thousands. We have the right to fight them by
chemical and biological weapons, so they catch the fatal and unusual diseases that Muslims
have caught due to their [U.S.] chemical and biological weapons.”347 These statements by al
Qaeda leave no doubt that some terrorists are committed to using weapons of mass destruction if
they can acquire them. In the Cold War era of earlier decades in the twentieth century, weapons of
mass destruction were considered weapons of last resort and threatened mutual devastation among
super-powers. Today, some terrorists see weapons of mass destruction as weapons of choice.348
“Acquiring weapons for the defense of Muslims is a religious duty. If I have indeed
acquired these weapons (WMD), then I thank God for enabling me to do so. And if
I seek to acquire these weapons, I am carrying out a duty. It would be a sin for
Muslims not to try to possess the weapons that would prevent the infidels from
inflicting harm on Muslims.”
Usama Bin Laden interview with Time Magazine, December 23, 1998
Weapons of Mass Destruction Categories

Weapons of mass destruction are normally classified into five categories: chemical,
biological, radiological, nuclear, and high yield explosives.
“Rogue states and terrorists do not seek to attack us using conventional means.
They know such attacks would fail. Instead, they rely on acts of terror and,
potentially, the use of weapons of mass destruction – weapons that can be easily
concealed, delivered covertly, and used without warning.”
National Security Strategy of the United Sates of America
346
Ben N. Venzke and Aimee Ibrahim, al Qaeda Tactic/Target Brief, Version 1.5 (Alexandria, VA: IntelCenter,
2002), 8.
347
Ibid., 10.
348
National Security Strategy of the United States of America, 8.
G-3
Chemical Weapons
The range of chemical weapons contains substances intended to kill or incapacitate personnel
and to deny use of areas, materiel, or facilities. Agents can be both lethal and non-lethal, and
can be either persistent or nonpersistent. As with biological weapons, terrorists have already
exhibited the capability to use chemical weapons. One example was demonstrated in 1978
when a group of Palestinians injected oranges with cyanide to damage Israel’s citrus
exports.349 Additionally, in 1995 the Japanese cult Aum Shinrikyo released sarin nerve agent
in the Tokyo subway network killing 12 people and injuring 5,500.350 The Aum Shinrikyo
attack shows the unpredictable nature of chemical weapons and problematic issues of dissemination.
This Japanese cult was able to produce and release sarin in a closed environment, but fortunately,
the effects were much less deadly than planned by the terrorists.
The aerial attacks on September 11, 2001 by suicidal aircraft raised the chemical industry’s
awareness of possible terrorist sabotage of facilities that store toxic industrial chemicals.
These type attacks could provide the mass casualty effects of a chemical weapons attack, yet
would not present the terrorist group with the problem of developing or acquiring chemical
agents. A tragic scenario occurred in Bhopal, India in 1984 when a disgruntled pesticide plant
employee is believed to have released 40 metric tons of methyl isocyonate into the atmosphere. The
resulting casualties were 2,000 local residents killed and 100,000 injured people.351
Chemical agents are categorized by the effects they have on the target population. Lethal
agents include nerve, blood, blister, and choking agents. Nonlethal agents include
incapacitants and irritants.
Table G-1 lists characteristic effects of various chemical agents.
Agent Lethal Symbol Symptoms Effects Rate of

Name in Man on Man Action
Nerve Yes G Series Difficult breathing, At low Very
GB/Sarin sweating, drooling, concentrations, rapid by
GD/Soman nausea, vomiting incapacitates; inhalation
(VR 55) convulsions, and Kills if inhaled or ; slower
dim absorbed through through
or blurred vision. The skin. skin (5-10
minutes).
349
Encyclopedia of World Terrorism, 1997 ed., s.v. “Chemical.”
350
Walter Laqueur, The New Terrorism: Fanaticism and the Arms of Mass Destruction (Oxford: Oxford
351
Steve Bowman, Weapons of Mass Destruction: The Terrorist Threat (Washington, D.C.: Congressional
Research Service Report for Congress, 7 March 2002), 7; available from http://www.fas.org/irp/crs/
RL31332.pdf; Internet; accessed 23 December 2002.
G-4
Yes V Agent Same as above. Incapacitates; Delayed

kills through
if skin is not skin;
rapidly more
decontaminated. rapid
through
eyes.
Blood Yes AC/Hydrogen Rapid breathing, Incapacitates; Rapid
cyanide convulsions, coma, kills if high
and death. concentration is
inhaled.
Blister Yes HD/Mustard Mustard, nitrogen Blisters skin and Blister
HN/Nitrogen mustard: no early respiratory tract; delayed
Mustard symptoms. can cause hours to
L/Lewisite Lewisite temporary days; eye
HL/Mustard and mustard: blindness. Some effects
and searing agents sting and more
Lewisite eyes and stinging form wheals on rapid.
CX/Phosgene skin. Phosgene skin.
Oxime oxime: powerful
irritation of eyes,
nose, and skin.
Choking Yes CG/Phosgene Eye-throat Damages the Delayed,
DP/Diphosge irritation, fatigue, lungs. variable.
ne tears, cough, chest
tightness,
nausea, vomiting.
Incapaci- No BZ Slowing of mental Temporarily 30-60
tant and physical incapacitates. minutes.
activity,
disorientation/slee
p.
Irritant No DA/Diphenyl Causes tears, Incapacitates, Very rapid.
chloroarsine irritates skin and
non-lethal.
DM/Adamsite respiratory tract.
CN/Chloro-
acetophenone
CS/O-Chloro-
benzylidene-
malononitrile
PS/Chloropic
rin
Table G-1. Effects of Example Chemical Agents.
G-5
Nerve agents are fast-acting chemical agents. Practically odorless and colorless, they attack
the body's nervous system causing convulsions and eventually death. Nerve agents are further
classified as either G or V agents.
At low concentrations, the GB series incapacitates; it kills if inhaled or absorbed

through the skin. The rate of action is very rapid if inhaled, but slower if absorbed
through the skin. The V-agents are quicker acting and more persistent than the G-agents.
Blood agents are absorbed by breathing and block the oxygen transferal mechanisms in the
body, leading to death by suffocation. A common blood agent is hydrogen cyanide. It kills
quickly and dissipates rapidly.
Blister agents, such as mustard (H) or lewisite (L), and combinations of the two compounds,
can disable or kill. These type agents burn the skin and produce large blisters. They also cause
damage to the eyes, blood cells, and lungs. These agents are especially harmful when inhaled.
Choking agents, such as phosgene and diphosgene, attack the respiratory system and make the
membranes swell so the lungs fill with fluid, which can be fatal. As with blood agents,
poisoning from choking agents comes through inhalation, since both types of agents are
nonpersistent. Signs and symptoms of toxicity may be delayed up to 24 hours.
Incapacitants include psychochemical agents and paralyzants. These agents can disrupt a
victim's mental and physical capabilities. The victim may not lose consciousness, and the
effects usually wear off without leaving permanent physical injuries.
Irritants, also known as riot-control agents, cause a strong burning sensation in the eyes,
mouth, skin, and respiratory tract. The effects of these agents, the most commonly
known being “tear gas” (CS), are also temporary. Victims recover without having any
serious aftereffects.
Chemical agents are also classified according to their

persistency. Persistency is the length of time an agent
remains effective on the battlefield or other target area
after dissemination. The two basic classifications are
persistent or nonpersistent.
Persistent nerve agents, such as V-agents, thickened

G-agents, and the blister agent mustard, can retain
their disabling or lethal characteristics for days to
weeks (depending on environmental conditions).
Persistent agents produce either immediate or delayed Fig. G-2. Chemical Protection
casualties. Immediate casualties occur when an (Source: U.S. Army Photo)
individual inhales a chemical vapor. Delayed
casualties occur when the chemical agent is absorbed
through the skin, thus demonstrating the need for
protective equipment.
G-6
Nonpersistent agents generally last a shorter period of time, depending on the weather
conditions. For example, the nerve agent sarin (GB) forms clouds that dissipate within
minutes after dissemination. However, some liquid GB could remain for periods of time varying
from hours to days, depending on the weather conditions and method of delivery.
Dissemination is a significant difficulty in using chemical weapons and achieving the desired
weapon effects. Vapors are affected by the direction of the wind as well as temperature.
Additionally, there are biological activities that diminish the toxicity of the agent, therefore,
the amount of chemical needed in the open air or in water to have its intended effect is much
larger than what is successful in the laboratory.352
Numerous means to include mortars and bombs can be used to deliver chemical warfare
agents. Chemical munitions are fitted with different burst capabilities, according to the agent
properties and the intended effect. For example, a chemical munitions fitted with a long burst
fuse releases the agent as a vapor or fine aerosol. This creates an immediate inhalation hazard
with some of the fragmentation effect of conventional munitions. Theoretically, terrorists
could obtain these munitions, modify them and emplace them by hand. Delivery means could be by
vehicle, backpack, canisters or sprayers, similar to those used for biological agents. Another means
could be the misuse of toxic industrial chemicals in massive quantities.
Toxic Industrial Chemicals
There is a near-universal availability of large quantities of highly toxic stored materials.

Exposure to some industrial chemicals can have a lethal or debilitating effect on humans,
which, in combination with their ready availability, their proximity to urban areas, their low
cost, and the low security associated with storage facilities, makes them an attractive option
for terrorist use as weapons of opportunity or of mass destruction.
The most important factors to consider when assessing the potential for adverse human health
impacts from a chemical release are acute toxicity, physical properties (volatility, reactivity,
flammability), and likelihood that large quantities will be available for exploitation. Foremost
among these factors is acute toxicity; thus, the highest concern for human health is associated
with a subgroup of industrial chemicals known as toxic industrial chemicals (TICs). TICs are
commercial chemical substances with acute toxicity that are produced in large quantities for
industrial purposes. Knowledge of where these type chemicals are stored and how they are
transported are only two of many factors in assessing possible terrorist use.
Table G-2 lists high- and moderate-risk TICs based on acute toxicity by inhalation, worldwide
availability (number of producers and number of continents on which the substance is
available), and physical state (gas, liquid, or solid) at standard temperature and pressure.
High Risk Moderate Risk

Ammonia Acetone cyanohydrin Methyl chloroformate
Arsine Acrolein Methyl chlorosilane
352
Walter Laqueur, The New Terrorism: Fanaticism and the Arms of Mass Destruction (Oxford: Oxford
G-7
Boron trichloride Acrylonitarile Methyl hydrazine

Boron trifluoride Allyl alcohol Methyl isocyanate
Carbon disulfide Allyl amine Methyl mercaptan
Chlorine Allyl chlorocarbonate n-Butyl isocyanate
Diborane Boron tribromide Nitrogen dioxide
Ethylene oxide Carbon monoxide Phosphine
Fluorine Carbonyl sulfide Phosphorus oxychloride
Formaldehyde Chloroacetone Phosphorus pentafluoride
Hydrogen bromide Chloroacetonitrile Selenium hexafluoride
Hydrogen chloride Chlorosulfonic acid Silicon tetrafluoride
Hydrogen cyanide Crotonaldehyde Stibine
Hydrogen fluoride Diketene Sulfur trioxide
Hydrogen sulfide 1,2-Dimethyl hydrazine Sulfuryl chloride
Nitric acid, fuming Dimethyl sulfate Tellurium hexafluoride
Phosgene Ethylene dibromide Tert-Octyl mercaptan
Phosphorus trichloride Hydrogen selenide Titanium tetrachloride
Sulfur dioxide Iron pentacarbonyl Trichloroacetyl chloride
Sulfuric acid Methanesulfonyl chloride Trifluoroacetyl chloride
Tungsten hexafluoride Methyl bromide
Table G-2. High- and Moderate-Risk Toxic Industrial Chemicals
Some chemicals in solid form need only to be exposed to air or water in order to turn into a
toxic gas. In addition, the current definition of TICs does not include all chemicals with high
toxicity and availability. Specifically, chemicals with low volatility are not included. These
low-vapor-pressure chemicals include some of the most highly toxic chemicals widely
available, including most pesticides.
Biological Weapons
Biological weapons consist of pathogenic microbes, toxins, and bioregulator compounds.

Depending on the specific type, these weapons can incapacitate or kill people and animals;
and destroy plants, food supplies, or materiel. The type of targets being attacked determines
the choice of agents and dissemination systems.
Biological warfare agents are virtually undetectable while they are in transit and evidence of a
biological attack may not show up for days after the actual release has occurred. These agents
are easier and cheaper to produce than either chemical or nuclear weapons, and the
technology is readily available on the Internet. In fact, any nation with a modestly
sophisticated pharmaceutical industry is capable of producing these type agents.353 Biological
353
Canadian Security Intelligence Service, “Report 2000/05 Biological Weapons Proliferation,” Perspectives (9
June 2000): 2; available from http://www.csis-scrs.gc.ca/eng/miscdocs/200005_e.html; Internet; accessed 6
February 2003.
G-8
agents are also very lethal. Whereas about 1800 pounds of sarin is required to inflict a large
number of casualties over a square mile area, under ideal conditions, only a quarter ounce of
anthrax spores is required to achieve the same effect.354
The Fall 2001 anthrax attacks in the United States following the World Trade Center and
Pentagon bombings show that terrorists will use biological weapons. Although the anthrax
attacks were originally suspected as linked to al Qaeda or Iraq, there is no evidence that a
known terrorist organization was involved. Current views indicate that the attacks were
probably domestically initiated or that a lone terrorist with previous access to weapon quality
anthrax conducted them.355 Although the outcome of these attacks resulted in few casualties,
the attacks did show the psychological and economic disruption such attacks could cause.
Washington, D.C. and other East Coast cities were in a panic dealing with these attacks.
Additionally, the numerous hoaxes using talcum powder showed the psychological and economic
impact of the potential use of these type weapons.
Although the anthrax attacks from 2001 achieved recognizable publicity, biological attacks in
the United States are not new. Biological terrorism occurred in Oregon in 1984 with food
tampering. Followers of the Bagwan Shree Rajneessh cult placed salmonella on salad bar
food in several restaurants, causing over 700 people to become ill.356
Biological warfare agents include three basic categories: pathogens, toxins, and bioregulators.
Table G-3 lists some examples of each.
Pathogens Toxins Bioregulators

Anthrax Mycotoxins Neurotransmitters
Cholera Venoms Hormones
Plague Shell fish Enzymes
Smallpox Botulinum
Tularemia Ricin
Influenza
Fevers
Table G-3. Examples of Biological Warfare Agents
Some of the characteristics of biological weapons are shown in the following table357:
354
Encyclopedia of World Terrorism, 1997 ed., s.v. “Biological.”
355
356
39.
357
Lewis M. Simons, “Weapons of Mass Destruction: An Ominous New Chapter Opens on the Twentieth
Century’s Ugliest Legacy,” National Geographic 202, no. 5 (November 2002): 22-23.
G-9
Agent Contagious Mortality if Incubation Period Illness Duration

Untreated (Days) (Days)
Anthrax No 90-100% 1-7 3-5
Plague Yes 100% 1-6 Fatal within 6
Tularemia No 30-40% 1-14 14 or more
Smallpox Yes 30% 7-17 10-28
Botulinum No 60-100% 1-5 Days to weeks
Ricin No Variable 18-24 hours Days
Table G-4. Characteristics of Biological Weapons
Pathogens cause diseases such as anthrax, cholera, plague, smallpox, tularemia, or various
types of fever. These weapons could be used against targets such as food supplies, port
facilities, and population centers. Of
particular concern is the threat of contagious
diseases, such as smallpox. Since it has an
incubation period that can last over 2 weeks
without any symptoms, the release of smallpox
could easily infect a large number of people in a
short period of time.
Living organisms, such as snakes, spiders, sea

creatures, and plants, produce toxins. Toxins
are faster acting and more stable than live
pathogens. Most toxins are easily produced
Fig. G-3. Man with Smallpox
through genetic engineering. (Source: CDC/Barbra Rice)
Bioregulators are chemical compounds that

are essential for the normal psychological and physiological functions. A wide variety of
bioregulators are normally present in the human body in extremely minute concentrations.
These compounds can produce a wide range of harmful effects if introduced into the body at
higher than normal concentrations or if they have been altered. Psychological effects could
include exaggerated fear and pain. In addition, bioregulators can cause severe physiological
effects such as rapid unconsciousness, and, depending on such factors as dose and route of
administration, they could also be lethal. Unlike pathogens that take hours or days to act,
bioregulators could act in only minutes.
Another way to categorize biological warfare agents is by their effects. The four categories
and effects of biological agents are shown in Table G-5. There is a threat of agro-terrorism,
which affects plants and animals. The outbreaks of foot-and-mouth disease and mad cow
disease in Europe and the isolated case of mad cow in the U.S. state of Washington358 are
recent examples of the economic impact of such diseases. Additionally, this type terrorism
allows a terrorist group to inflict significant economic and social disruption without the
358
“Final BSE Update – Monday, February 9, 2004,” USDA United States Department of Agriculture website;
available from http://usda.gov/Newsroom/0074.04.html; Internet; accessed 12 July 2004.
G-10
stigma of inflicting large numbers of human casualties.359 Based on statements from al Qaeda
that they intend to target key sectors of the U.S. economy, agro-terrorism is a likely threat.
Agent Type Agent Effects

Antipersonnel Disease or death causing microorganisms and toxins
Antiplant Living micro-organisms that cause disease or death
Antianimal Agents that can be used to incapacitate or destroy domestic animals
through disease. Used to limit wool, hide, or fur production.
Antimaterial Agents used to deteriorate critical materiel needed for the war effort such
as leather, canvas, fuels, or electronics.
Table G-5. Effects of Biological Agents
Biological dissemination through aerosols, either as droplets from liquid or as particles from
powders, is the most efficient method. This method does create a challenge since aerosol
disseminators need to be properly designed for the agent used, and proper meteorological
conditions must exist to conduct an effective attack.360 The objective of biological weapon
delivery is to expose humans to an agent in the form of a suspended cloud of very fine agent
particles. Airborne particles, once inhaled, tend to lodge deep in the lungs close to vulnerable
body tissues and the bloodstream.
Terrorists can deliver biological weapons by unconventional dissemination means. These

include commercially available or specially designed sprayers or other forms of aerosol
generators mounted in automobiles, trucks, or ships. Smaller, more portable devices could be
used to effectively disseminate biological agent aerosols. Such devices could be used to
introduce an agent into heating, ventilating, and air conditioning systems. Drinking water can
be contaminated by means of high-pressure agent injectors attached to plumbing
system components. Insects, rodents, or other arthropod vectors are other feasible
vectors of dissemination. Methods of dissemination are varied and limited only by the
terrorist imagination.
Radiological Weapons
Radiological terrorism, a relatively new aspect of WMD and terrorism, is usually conceived
as the horrific use of a radiological device or an attack on a nuclear facility such as a nuclear
power plant.
Radioactivity is the release of energy in the form of radiation, as some naturally occurring
elements attempt to change their fundamental atomic structure. Isotopes are forms of these
particular elements that have distinct nuclear properties. When an isotope is unstable, it emits
359
360
Steve Bowman, Weapons of Mass Destruction: The Terrorist Threat, 5.
G-11
radiation and is called a radioisotope. Radiation from radioisotopes can damage human cells
and cause problematic health issues.361
Although physical destruction with a radiological device may be much less than a nuclear
detonation, radiological contamination, or the fear of radiation on long-term health issues,
may be a key psychological impact. Physical and psychological trauma of a radiological
threat can have significant negative effects on the economic, financial, and political programs
of a region and nation.
Radiological contamination can occur in multiple ways. One of the more well-known
dissemination descriptions is a radiological dispersal device (RDD). This capability uses any
number of mechanical means to spread radiation throughout a designated area. Another
common term, “dirty bomb,” is an example of using conventional explosives to disperse
radioactive material. Other forms of RDD could distribute radioactive material in the
atmosphere or in confined areas such as an office complex ventilation system. A passive
method of radiological attack could be the use of a radiation-emitting device (RED). In this
example, a RED could be positioned to expose a population to intense radiation for a short
period of time, or expose a selected population to low radiation over an extended period. The
knowledge of contamination, and the fear of physical or psychological harm could be significant.362
“When 100 years ago authorities had to worry about the anarchist placing a
bomb in the downtown square…now we must worry about the terrorist who
places the bomb in the square, but packed with radiological material.”
Spencer Abraham, U.S. Secretary of Energy 2003
The many industrial, scientific, agricultural, and public arena uses of radiation make access to
certain radiological equipment and materiel a distinct probability for a dedicated individual or
group. The 1995 demonstration of Chechnyan rebels burying a container of radioactive
material in a Moscow public park received international attention. Not as well known is a
1999 incident of thieves in Grozny, Chechnya attempting to steal a container of radioactive
material from a chemical factory. One thief died almost immediately after exposure to the
container, and an accomplice was hospitalized in serious condition.363 As an additional
example of radioactive material, the former Soviet Union employed highly radioactive
thermoelectric generators (RTG) to remotely power naval navigational systems and other
361
““Chemistry 101”: The Make-up and Importance of Radioisotopes,” Introduction to Radiological Terrorism,
1; available from http://www.nti.org/h_learnmore/radtutorial/chapter01_03.html; Internet; accessed 19 May
2004.
362
“What is Radiological Terrorism?” Introduction to Radiological Terrorism, 1 and 2; available from
http://www.nti.org/h_learnmore/radtutorial/chapter01_02.html; Internet; accessed 19 May 2004.
363
“History of Radiological Terrorism,” Introduction to Radiological Terrorism, 1 to 3; available from
G-12
military facilities.364 In one 2001 incident report, two people scavenging for lead in a Russian
facility were hospitalized after dangerous exposure to radioactive material. In a 2001 report
from the nation of Georgia, individuals received significant radiation contamination after they
handled abandoned containers holding a radioactive substance. In 2003, a report notes that
police in the nation of Georgia discovered radioactive containers and other materials in a
routine vehicle search.
Although radiation type devices may not necessarily cause mass casualties, they could present
a significant radiation contamination effect on the target area.365 Radiation casualties could
be low initially, but would potentially increase over time. However, just the fact that a
“nuclear” type weapon was employed would have a significant psychological impact on the
populace where it is detonated or used. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
guidelines recommend that if a cancer risk due to remaining radiation cannot be reduced to
less than one person per 10,000 people, the area should be abandoned. Disaster response and
recovery issues of decontamination would include medical treatment of people in the affected
area, possible evacuation or relocation of populations, and multiple actions to make physical
property and materiel useable with no fear of radiation.366
Instances of acquiring materiel to build radiological devices can be very easy with basic
knowledge of processes and a dedicated action plan. One example in 1994 is the attempt by a
U.S. citizen to build a breeder reactor in his mother’s garden shed. This incident had nothing
to do with terrorism but does highlight risk, and at the time, the relative ease of obtaining
radioactive material. As a teenager, David Hahn used his knowledge of chemistry, inquisitive
mind, false documents and statements, and false cover stories to acquire radiological material.
He constructed a crude radiological device that could have endangered 40,000 local residents.
Questioned by local police for an unrelated citizen complaint, the unexpected discovery of
radioactive material triggered the Federal Radiological Emergency Response Plan.367
To date, the U.S. has not been attacked with a radiological weapon by terrorists. Nonetheless,
theoretical case study examples illustrate the potential impacts of a radiological “dirty bomb.”
In testimony before the U.S. Senate Foreign Relations Committee, illustrations and degrees of
contamination were estimated on several factors.368 These model assumptions included
amount of material released, the specific radiological material, dispersal technique, wind
speed and direction and other weather conditions, size of particles released into the wind, and
types of urban building construction and urban pattern of populations. Complex models have
inherent uncertainties in predictive results, however, one example assumed a conventional
364
“Medical Uses,” Introduction to Radiological Terrorism, 3; available from
365
Research Service Report for Congress, 7 March 2002), 4; available from
http://www.fas.org/irp/crs/RL31332.pdf; Internet; accessed 23 December 2002.
366
“Economic Effects,” Introduction to Radiological Terrorism, 1; available from
367
Ken Silverstein, “David Hahn, Boy Atomic Scientist,” ASEPCO, [Originally printed in Harpers’s Magazine,
November 1998]; available from http://www.asepco.com/David_Hahn_Boy_Scientist.htm; Internet; accessed 31
August 2004.
368
“Dirty Bombs: Response to a Threat,” FAS Public Interest Report, The Journal of the Federation of American
Scientists vol 55 no2 (March/April 2002), 1-11; available from
http://ww.fas.org/faspir/2002/v55n2/dirtybomb.htm; Internet; accessed 15 April 2004.
G-13
explosion that dispersed radiological contamination in dust-like particles capable of being

inhaled. Dust settling in the affected area, as well as contaminated food or water
sources, could be vectors of potential radiation exposure. Any real incident of
radiological contamination would cause significant disruption of social, medical, economic,
fiscal, and governmental operations, compounded with overarching psychological trauma.
Attack on a nuclear facility is another means to cause radiological contamination. Even with
the redundant safeguards and security measures at nuclear facility locations, the possibility of
terrorist assault and breach of these measures is not impossible. Yet, considerable precautions
and security measures are in effect to preclude successful attacks by vehicle borne explosive
devices or aerial borne means. Although remote in expectation, the possibility of a member
of a nuclear facility workforce negating facility safeguards and assisting a terrorist act
receives constant review and evaluation.369
Although the 1986 Chernobyl accident at a nuclear power station in the Ukraine had no
connection to terrorism, the resulting political, financial, and social impacts are profound and
provide an illustration of what damage radiological contamination can cause. An 18-mile
radius around the nuclear plant was closed to everyone except official teams, the large local
city near the site was completely evacuated and abandoned. Evacuation numbers vary,
however, between 400,000 people370 and 130,000371 people were resettled to safe areas.
Reports note that over 20 towns and 3000 settlements were affected by radiation doses of
significance. Over 400 settlements had to be evacuated.372 Over 30 people died from the
accident while long-term effects on a regional population remain an open-ended issue. Health,
economic, and agricultural impacts are still being assessed as various international programs
deal with safety, decontamination, and stabilization
of equipment, facilities, and the region at a growing
cost in the hundreds of millions of dollars.373
The 1979 accident at Three Mile Island (TMI-2) is

the most serious nuclear power plant accident in the
United States to date. No terrorism was involved in
this accident, but the incident highlights the potential
for radiological disaster and psychological impact on
a regional population. The plant experienced a partial
core meltdown that could have breached the Fig. G-4. U.S. Nuclear Plant
containment building and dispersed massive (Source: U.S Government)
quantities of radiation into the environment.
369
“Terrorists and Radiological Terrorism,” Introduction to Radiological Terrorism, 2 and 3; available from
370
“History of the United Nations and Chernobyl,” The United Nations and Chernobyl, 1; available from
http://www.un.org/ha/Chernobyl; Internet; accessed 1 July 2004.
371
“Fact Sheet on the Accident at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant,” U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 1
to 4; available from http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/fact-sheets/fschernobyl.html; Internet;
accessed 1 July 2004.
372
“History of the Chernobyl disaster,’ 1 and 2; available from http://www.Chernobyl.org.uk/page 2.htm;
Internet; accessed 30 June 2004.
373
“Fact Sheet on the Accident at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant,” U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 1
to 4; available from http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/fact-sheets/fschernobyl.html; Internet;
accessed 1 July 2004.
G-14
Fortunately, this breach did not occur, even though a significant amount of radiation was
released into the atmosphere. No death or injury occurred to plant workers or citizens of
nearby communities during the Three Mile Island accident. Multiple government and
independent studies conclude that most of the radiation was contained and what radiation was
released caused negligible effects on the physical health of individuals or the environment.
Nonetheless, the safety and cleanup operations have spanned decades with a corresponding
major fiscal cost. 374
Nuclear Weapons
The use of a fully developed nuclear weapon is a possible attack scenario but would require
extraordinary terrorist financial and technical resources. A more likely scenario deals with
nuclear material and sabotage or a siege-hostage situation at a nuclear facility.375 This type
scenario aligns more correctly with a radiological incident. Nonetheless, the potential effects
could be catastrophic to a surrounding area and population.
Some groups may have state sponsors that possess or can obtain nuclear weapons, but the
CIA has no credible reporting at this time of terrorists successfully acquiring nuclear weapons
or sufficient material to make them.376 However, since the collapse of the Soviet Union in
1989, there has been a growth in nuclear trafficking. It’s believed that three shipments of
Plutonium 239 intercepted by the German police in 1994 came from Russia.377 Since 1991,
Russian authorities say there have been 23 attempts to steal fissile material, some of which
have been successful. Intelligence officials believe enough nuclear material has left Russia to
make a bomb.378 Public announcements of missing, stolen, or recovered fissile material in the
last 15 years indicate a market for such critical material to make a crude nuclear weapon.
Such material incidents range from less than .02 kilograms to several instances of 1 to 3
kilograms.379 The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) notes that the significant
amount of nuclear material required for the possible manufacturing of a nuclear explosive
device, depending on the type material, can range from eight kilograms to 75 kilograms.380 As
demonstrated in al Qaeda statements, when and if a terrorist group does obtain a nuclear
weapon, attack with a nuclear weapon of mass destruction is a distinct possibility.
The size of most nuclear weapons makes them hard to clandestinely transport. Backpacks and
images of “suitcase” nuclear bombs convey the concept of covertly delivering small nuclear
weapons or dangerous radiological dispersion devices. The most likely means of transporting
them would be via commercial shipping, such as trucks, vehicles, and ships.381
374
“Fact Sheet on the Accident at Three Mile Island,” U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 1 to 5; available
from http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/fact-sheets/3mile-isle,html; Internet; accessed 1 July 2004.
375
Encyclopedia of World Terrorism, 1997 ed., s.v. “Nuclear.”
376
Unclassified Report to Congress on the Acquisition of Technology Relating to Weapons of Mass Destruction and
Advanced Conventional Munitions, 1 January Through 30 June 2001 (Washington, D.C., January 2002), 9.
377
Encyclopedia of World Terrorism, 1997 ed., s.v. “Nuclear.”
378
Lewis M. Simons, “Weapons of Mass Destruction: An Ominous New Chapter Opens on the Twentieth
Century’s Ugliest Legacy,” National Geographic 202, no. 5 (November 2002): 16.
379
Richard Rhodes, “Living With The Bomb,” National Geographic, 208, No. 2 (August 2005): 104.
380
IAEA Safeguards Glossary, 2001 Edition, International Nuclear Verification Series No. 3, Table II, 23;
available from http:/www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications; Internet; accessed 22 July 2005.
381
Steve Bowman, Weapons of Mass Destruction: The Terrorist Threat, 4.
G-15
High Yield Explosives
High yield explosives are another significant threat for weapon effects of mass destruction or
mass disruption. Terrorist targeting includes critical infrastructure and key assets, and can also
aim at causing mass casualties. Terrorists are relentless and patient; they will seize on
opportunity and can demonstrate flexibility in strategy and tactics. Attack may occur against a
critical node, system, or function. Beyond the physical damage or destruction, attack may
cause a cascading disruption for government, social order, and economics as the public and
private sectors react. Intent may focus on damage to national prestige, morale, or confidence,
as well as legitimate concerns of public health and safety.382 An attack can also be exploited
to assist in near-simultaneous or follow-on assault against separate targets.
Acts of terrorism using high yield explosives have been conducted by foreign and domestic
terrorists against the United States. The incidents of the foreign terrorist bombing of the U.S.
Embassy and Marine Barracks in Lebanon in 1983 and the domestic terrorist bombing of the
Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City, Oklahoma in 1995 are well known examples.
In April 1983, a truck loaded with about 400 pounds of explosives rammed into the U.S.
Embassy in Beirut, Lebanon. This suicidal attack killed 63 people, including 17
Americans.383 Eight members were employees of the Central Intelligence Agency. In October
1983, a suicide bomber detonated a truck full of explosives at a U.S. Marine Corps barracks located
at Beirut International Airport. Casualties were 241 members of the U.S. Armed Services killed and
more than 100 others wounded.384
In the United States, a domestic terrorist parked a truck bomb at the base of the Alfred P.
Murrah Federal Building in April 1995, and casually detonated the truck bomb with a timed
fuse. The high yield explosive was a relatively simple device using several thousand pounds
of ammonium nitrate fertilizer, other materials, and explosives.385 The blast and immediate
aftermath killed 168 men, women, and children; and injured over 800 other people. The
explosion devastated a large area of downtown Oklahoma City, Oklahoma.
Another horrific example of a high yield explosive and mass destruction is the near-
simultaneous suicidal attack on the World Trade Center and Pentagon in September 2001. Other
logical considerations for large volume explosive material include commercial shipping,
railroad transportation, and major storage facilities.
Availability and Dual Use

The basic knowledge needed to produce an effective weapon of mass destruction can be
found in college and medical school textbooks, advanced engineering books, magazines and
382
The National Strategy for the Physical Protection of Critical Infrastructures and Key Assets, viii.
383
“April 1983 US Embassy bombing,” 1; available from http://encyclopedia.the
freedictionary.com/April%2011983%20US%20Embassy%20bombing; Internet; accessed 1 July 2004.
384
“Terrorist attacks on Americans 1979-1988,” 2; available from
http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/target/etc/cron.html; Internet; accessed 1 July 2004.
385
Lou Michel and Dan Herbeck, American Terrorist: Timothy McVeigh and the Oklahoma City Bombing (New
York: Harper Collins Publishers Inc., 2001), 164.
.
G-16
periodicals, and on the Internet. With minimal training, individuals can produce various types
of CBRNE weapons with relative ease in any home, school, or university laboratory, medical
production or research facility, or commercial production facility. Minimal special
equipment, purchased on the open market, can produce certain biological or chemical
weapons. Weapons production cost is low, compared to other types of weaponry. Some
precursor agents for biological and chemical production are dual use, are not expensive, and
are not illegal to acquire or possess. Of course, theft, false documentation, and other
techniques can surmount many of the normal regulatory control procedures for obtaining
restricted precursor materials, equipment, or production processes.
Distinguishing legitimate biological, medical, or commercial production plants from a

weapons production facility proves very difficult. Chemical and biological agents can be
produced in small laboratories with little or no signature to identify the facility or their
production. Normal biological warfare research facilities resemble completely legitimate bio-
technical and medical research facilities. The same production facilities that can produce
biological warfare agents may also produce wine and beer, dried milk, food and
agricultural products.
“When the spread of chemical and biological and nuclear weapons, along with
ballistic missile technology – when that occurs, even weak states and small
groups could attain catastrophic power to strike great nations. Our enemies have
declared this very intention, and have been caught seeking these terrible weapons…”
“The targets of these attacks are our military forces and our civilian
population.”
President Bush in The National Security Strategy of the United State of America
Biological agents are naturally occurring and relatively easy to obtain as compared to nuclear
material. They can be obtained from universities or medical schools. Chemical agents and
their precursors can be obtained from civilian agriculture sites, textile, plastic, or civilian
chemical production facilities, or military research and military facilities. Terrorist access to
these weapons can also be through a state sponsor or, given the increasing sophistication of
terrorist groups, might be manufactured in laboratories they have established and financed.
Security limitations for weapons of mass destruction in the former Soviet Union provide a
possible resource for terrorists to acquire radiological or nuclear weapons. Additionally,
radioactive materials or waste can be purchased legally and misused, or obtained illegally
through black market transactions. Substances can be obtained from governmental or civilian
research and medical facilities such as power plants, construction sites, laboratories, or
hospitals, or from military facilities concerned with the storage, production, and
weaponization of these materials.
G-17
A general concern exists that some unemployed scientists or weapons experts from the former
Soviet Union are willing to sell their knowledge and services to other countries. However, the
former Soviet Union is not the only potential source of concern. There are many other
sources available, to include the United States. Chemical plants, biological labs, food
irradiation plants, medical x-ray labs, and nuclear reactors and waste repositories are
examples on a much larger list of possible sources for obtaining radiological material.
Conclusion
A complex contemporary environment becomes even more complex as governments, nation-
states, and non-state organizations grapple with the issues on weapons of mass destruction
counterproliferation and nonproliferation, and a growing access to technology and delivery
means. Nations around the world have expanding nuclear energy programs, biological
business conglomerates, and chemical industries that remain susceptible to terrorist
penetration and attack. Weapons related technologies are ever more available in a world
market, sometimes sanctioned by legitimate government regulation and sometimes beyond the
constraint of rational controls. Rogue states demonstrate the willingness to supply specific WMD-
related technology and expertise to other countries, or in extraordinary unilateral decisionmaking, to
supply similar WMD expertise to non-state actors.386
“Our enemies have openly declared that they are seeking weapons of mass
destruction, and evidence indicates that they are doing so with determination.”
President Bush in The National Security Strategy of the United State of America
In the foreseeable near future, the U.S. military remains an essential capability to demonstrate
national awareness and commitment of our citizenry and elected civilian leaders, global
leadership, enhanced intelligence and analyses, scientific and technological superiority, and
resolve to protect the national security interests of the United States.387 Several enabling
functions stated in the U.S. National Strategy to Combat Weapons of Mass Destruction accent
these priorities: intelligence collection and analysis on WMD, delivery systems, and related
technologies; research and development to improve our ability to respond to evolving threats;
bilateral and multilateral cooperation; and targeted strategies against hostile states and terrorists.
386
Unclassified Report to Congress on the Acquisition of Technology Reacting to Weapons of Mass Destruction and
Advanced Conventional Munitions, 1 January Through 30 June 2003, (Washington, D.C., January 2002), 11;
available from http://www.cia.gov/cia/reports/721_reports/pdfs/jan_jun2003.pdf; Internet; accessed 19 May
2004.
387
Jon H. Moilanen, “Engagement and Disarmament: A U.S. National Security Strategy for Biological Weapons
of Mass Destruction,” Essays on Strategy XIII. (Washington, D.C.; National Defense University, 1996), 141-182.
G-18
WMD is one of the most dangerous security issues that face the United States of America in
the 21st Century. The three pillars of our National Strategy to Combat Weapons of Mass
Destruction remains (1) counterproliferation, (2) nonproliferation, and (3) consequence
management.388 The U.S. military and civilian organizations understand the threat of WMD
and remain ready to defend the Nations’ people and resources. The United States must
continue efforts – with friends, allies, and adversaries – to deter and dissuade the acquisition
and use of weapons of mass destruction. When appropriate, preemptive action may be
warranted to deny acquisition to WMD capabilities.
388
The White House, National Security Presidential Directive 17 (NSPD-17), National Strategy to Combat
Weapons of Mass Destruction, (Washington, D.C., December 2002), 2; available from
http://www.fas.org/irp/offdocs/nspd/nspd-17.html; Internet; accessed 8 December 2003.
G-19
G-20
Glossary
17 November: Revolutionary Organization 17 November based in Greece
AAIA: Aden-Abyan Islamic Army, a.k.a. Islamic Army of Aden (IAA) based in Yemen
ABB: Alex Boncayao Brigade based in the Philippines
ADCON: Administrative control, that is, exercise of authority in administration and support. See Appendix H
of terrorism handbook. (JP 1-02)
ADF: Allied Democratic Forces based in Uganda and the Congo
AI: Ansar al-Islam, a.k.a. Partisans of Islam, Helpers of Islam, Supporters of Islam, Jund al-Islam, and Jaish
Ansar al-Sunna based in Iraq
AIAI: Al-Ittihad al-Islami, a.k.a. Islamic Union based in Somalia
AIIB: Anti-Imperialist International Brigade, a.k.a. Japanese Red Army (JRA) based in Lebanon and Japan
Al-Badhr: Al-Badhr Mujahidin based in Pakistan
ALF: Animal Liberation Front
ALIR: Army for the Liberation of Rwanda, a.k.a. Interahamwe, Former Armed Forces of Rwanda (ex-FAR)
anarchism: A political theory holding all forms of governmental authority to be unnecessary and undesirable
and advocating a society based on voluntary cooperation and free association of individuals and groups.
(Webster’s)
ANO: Abu Nidal Organization, a.k.a. Fatah Revolutionary Council, Arab Revolutionary Brigades, Black
September, and Revolutionary Organization of Socialist Muslims based in Iraq
anti-terrorism: (AT) (JP 1-02) — Defensive measures used to reduce the vulnerability of individuals and
property to terrorist acts, to include limited response and containment by local military forces.
AOR: Area of responsibility
ASG: Abu Sayyaf Group based in the Philippines
asset (terrorist): A resource — person, group, relationship, instrument, installation, or

supply — at the disposition of a terrorist organization for use in an operational or support role. Often used
with a qualifying term such as suicide asset or surveillance asset. Based upon JP 1-02 asset (intelligence).
AUC: Autodefensas Unidas de Colombia, a.k.a. United Self-Defense Forces/Group of Colombia
AUM: Aum Supreme Truth, a.k.a. Aum Shinrikyo and Aleph based in Japan
backdoor: Used to describe a back way, hidden method, or other type of method of by passing normal computer
security in order to obtain access to a secure area.
biological agent: (JP 1-02) — A microorganism that causes disease in personnel, plants, or animals or causes the
deterioration of materiel.
biological weapon: (JP 1-02) — An item of materiel, which projects, disperses, or disseminates a biological
agent including arthropod vectors.
Glossary-1
bioregulators: (CBRN Handbook) Biochemicals that regulate bodily functions. Bioregulators that are produced
by the body are termed "endogenous." Some of these same bioregulators can be chemically synthesized.
blister agents: (CBRN Handbook) Substances that cause blistering of the skin. Exposure is through liquid or
vapor contact with any exposed tissue (eyes, skin, lungs).
blood agents: (CBRN Handbook) Substances that injure a person by interfering with cell respiration (the
exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between blood and tissues).
BR/PCC: New Red Brigades/Communist Combatant Party, a.k.a. Brigate Rosse/Partito Comunista Combattente
based in Italy
CBRNE: Chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear, and high yield explosive categories normally associated
with weapons of mass destruction.
CFF: Cambodian Freedom Fighters, a.k.a. Cholana Kangtoap Serei Cheat Kampouchea based in Cambodia
chemical weapon: (JP 1-02) — Together or separately, (a) a toxic chemical and its precursors, except when
intended for a purpose not prohibited under the Chemical Weapons Convention; (b) a munition or device,
specifically designed to cause death or other harm through toxic properties of those chemicals specified in
(a), above, which would be released as a result of the employment of such munition or device; (c) any
equipment specifically designed for use directly in connection with the employment of munitions or devices
specified in (b) above.
chemical agent: (CBRN Handbook) A chemical substance that is intended for use in military operations to kill,
seriously injure, or incapacitate people through its physiological effects. Excluded from consideration are riot
control agents, and smoke and flame materials. The agent may appear as a vapor, aerosol, or liquid; it can be
either a casualty/toxic agent or an incapacitating agent.
choking agents: (CBRN Handbook) Substances that cause physical injury to the lungs. Exposure is through
inhalation. In extreme cases, membranes swell and lungs become filled with liquid. Death results from lack
of oxygen; hence, the victim is "choked."
CIRA: Continuity Irish Republican Army based in Northern Ireland
conflict: (Army) — A political-military situation between peace and war, distinguished from peace by the
introduction of organized political violence and from war by its reliance on political methods. It shares many
of the goals and characteristics of war, including the destruction of governments and the control of territory.
See FM 100-20.
COCOM: Combatant command, that is, command authority. See page 247 footnote of handbook. (JP 1-02)
consequence management: Traditionally, consequence management has been predominantly an emergency

management function and included measures to protect public health and safety, restore essential government
services, and provide emergency relief to governments, businesses, and individuals affected by the consequences of
terrorism. The requirements of consequence management and crisis management are combined in the NRP.
CONUS: Continental United States
counter-terrorism: (CT) (JP 1-02) — Offensive measures taken to prevent, deter, and respond to terrorism.
CPP/NPA: Communist Party of the Philippines/New People’s Army based in the Philippines
crisis management: Traditionally, crisis management was predominantly a law enforcement function and
included measures to identify, acquire, and plan the use of resources needed to anticipate, prevent, and/or
resolve a threat or act of terrorism. The requirements of consequence management and crisis management are
combined in the NRP.
Glossary-2
cyber-terrorism: (FBI) — A criminal act perpetrated by the use of computers and telecommunications
capabilities, resulting in violence, destruction and/or disruption of services to create fear by causing
confusion and uncertainty within a given population, with the goal of influencing a government or population
to conform to a particular political, social, or ideological agenda.
Defense Coordinating Officer: (DCO) The single point of contact at an incident management location for
coordinating and validating the use of DOD resources. DCO works directly with the FCO or designated
Federal representative, and coordinates request for assistance with the joint force commander, when a JTF is
tasked to an incident response. See NRP.
Defense Information System Network: (DISN) The global, end-to-end information transfer infrastructure of
DOD. It provides long haul data, voice, video, and transport networks and services needed for national
defense command, control, communication, and intelligence requirements, as well as corporate defense
requirements.
DSWA: Defense Special Weapons Agency
Defense Support of Civil Authorities: (DSCA) An emergent term under consideration for inclusion to the 2004
National Response Plan that incorporates the Department of Defense support to domestic emergencies, law
enforcement, and other activities. A traditional overarching term is Military Assistance to Civil Authorities
(MACA) which includes Military Support to Civil Authorities (MSCA) and Military Assistance to Law
Enforcement (MACLEA). See NRP.
denial of service attack: (DOS) An attack designed to disrupt network service, typically by overwhelming the
system with millions of requests every second causing the network to slow down or crash.
Designated Foreign Terrorist Organization: (DFTO) A political designation determined by the U.S.
Department of State. Listing as a DFTO imposes legal penalties for membership, prevents travel into the
U.S., and proscribes assistance and funding activities within the U.S. or by U.S. citizens. From Patterns of
Global Terrorism 2001, U.S. Department of State.
DIRLAUTH: Direct liaison authorized
DFLP: Democratic Front for the Liberation of Palestine based in the Occupied Territories
DHS: Department of Homeland Security
DHKP/C: Revolutionary People’s Liberation Party/Front, a.k.a. Devrimci Sol, Revolutionary Left, or Dev Sol
based in Turkey
distributed denial of service attack: (DDOS) Similar to a denial of service attack, but involves the use of
numerous computers to simultaneously flood the target.
Domestic Emergency Support Team: (DEST) See NRP.
dysfunctional state: Used in this circular to mean a nation or state whose declared government cannot fulfill one
or more of the core functions of governance, such as defense, internal security, revenue collection, resource
allocation, etc.
ELA: Revolutionary People’s Struggle based in Greece
ELF: Earth Liberation Front
ELN: National Liberation Army based in Colombia
e-mail spoofing: A method of sending e-mail to a user that appears to have originated from one source when it
actually was sent from another source.
Glossary-3
Emergency Response Team: (ERT) See NRP.
ETA: Basque Fatherland and Liberty based in Spain
ETIM: Eastern Turkistan Islamic Movement based in China
FACT: Federation of Associations of Canadian Tamils, a.k.a. World Tamil Movement (WTM), World Tamil
Association (WTA), Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), Ellalan Force, and Sangilian Force based in
Sri Lanka
failed state: For the purposes of this circular, a dysfunctional state which also has multiple competing political
factions in conflict within its borders, or has no functioning governance above the local level. This does not
imply that a central government facing an insurgency is automatically a failed state. If essential functions of
government continue in areas controlled by the central authority, it has not “failed.”
FALN: Fuerzas Armadas de Liberacion Nacional Puertorriquena, a.k.a. Armed Forces for Puerto Rican National
Liberation
FARC: Revolutionary Armed Forces of Colombia
Federal Coordinating Officer: (FCO) A Federal representative who manages Federal resource support
activities related to Stafford Act disasters and emergencies; supports and is subordinate to the Principle
Federal Official (PFO) when one is designated by DHS.
FEMA: Federal Emergency Management Agency. See NRP.
force protection: Security program designed to protect Service members, civilian employees, family members,
facilities, and equipment, in all locations and situations, accomplished through planned and integrated
application of combating terrorism, physical security, operations security, personal protective services, and
supported by intelligence, counterintelligence, and other security programs.
force protection condition (FPCON): There is a graduated series of Force Protection Conditions ranging from
Force Protection Conditions Normal to Force Protection Conditions Delta. There is a process by which
commanders at all levels can raise or lower the Force Protection Conditions based on local conditions,
specific threat information and/or guidance from higher headquarters. The four Force Protection Conditions
above normal are:
Force Protection Condition ALPHA--This condition applies when there is a general threat of possible terrorist
activity against personnel and facilities, the nature and extent
of which are unpredictable, and circumstances do not justify full implementation of Force Protection
Conditions BRAVO measures. The measures in this Force Protection Conditions must be capable of being
maintained indefinitely.
Force Protection Condition BRAVO--This condition applies when an increased and more predictable threat of
terrorist activity exists. The measures in this Force Protection Conditions must be capable of being
maintained for weeks without causing undue hardship, affecting operational capability, and aggravating
relations with local authorities.
Force Protection Condition CHARLIE--This condition applies when an incident occurs or intelligence is
received indicating some form of terrorist action against personnel and facilities is imminent. Implementation
of measures in this Force Protection Conditions for more than a short period probably will create hardship
and affect the peacetime activities of the unit and its personnel.
Force Protection Condition DELTA--This condition applies in the immediate area where a terrorist attack has
occurred or when intelligence has been received that terrorist action against a specific location or person is
likely. Normally, this Force Protection Conditions is declared as a localized condition.
FPM: Morzanist Patriotic Front based in Honduras

Glossary-4
FPMR: Manuel Rodriquez Patriotic Front based in Chile
GIA: Armed Islamic Group based in Algeria
GICM: Moroccan Islamic Combatant Group based in Western Europe
Global Information Grid: (GIG) DOD’s globally interconnected set of information capabilities, processes, and
personnel for collecting, processing, storing, disseminating, and managing information on demand to
warfighters, policymakers, and support personnel.
GRAPO: Grupo de Resistencia Anti-Fascista Premero de Octubre, a.k.a. First of October Antifascist Resistance
Group based in Spain
GSPC: The Salafist Group for Call and Combat based in Algeria
guerrilla warfare: (JP 1-02, NATO) — Military and paramilitary operations conducted in enemy-held or hostile
territory by irregular, predominantly indigenous forces. (See also unconventional warfare (UW).
GWOT: Global war on terrorism
hacker: Advanced computer users who spend a lot of time on or with computers and work hard to find
vulnerabilities in IT systems.
hactivist: These are combinations of hackers and activists. They usually have a political motive for their
activities, and identify that motivation by their actions, such as defacing opponents’ websites with counter-
information or disinformation.
HIG: Hizb-I Islami Gulbuddin based in Afghanistan and Pakistan
Homeland Security Advisory System (HSAS): The advisory system provides measures to remain vigilant,
prepared, and ready to deter terrorist attacks. The following Threat Conditions each represent an increasing
risk of terrorist attacks. Beneath each Threat Condition are suggested protective measures, recognizing that
the heads of Federal departments and agencies are responsible for developing and implementing appropriate
agency-specific protective measures:
• Low Condition (Green). This condition is declared when there is a low risk of terrorist attacks.
Federal departments and agencies should consider the following general measures in addition to the
agency-specific Protective Measures they develop and implement: refining and exercising as
appropriate preplanned Protective Measures; ensuring personnel receive proper training on the
Homeland Security Advisory System and specific preplanned department or agency Protective
Measures; and institutionalizing a process to assure that all facilities and regulated sectors are
regularly assessed for vulnerabilities to terrorist attacks, and all reasonable measures are taken to
mitigate these vulnerabilities.
• Guarded Condition (Blue). This condition is declared when there is a general risk of terrorist
attacks. In addition to the Protective Measures taken in the previous Threat Condition, Federal
departments and agencies should consider the following general measures in addition to the
agency-specific Protective Measures that they will develop and implement: checking
communications with designated emergency response or command locations; reviewing and updating
emergency response procedures; and providing the public with any information that would
strengthen its ability to act appropriately.
• Elevated Condition (Yellow). An Elevated Condition is declared when there is a significant risk
of terrorist attacks. In addition to the Protective Measures taken in the previous Threat Conditions,
Federal departments and agencies should consider the following general measures in addition to the
Protective Measures that they will develop and implement: increasing surveillance of critical
locations; coordinating emergency plans as appropriate with nearby jurisdictions; assessing
Glossary-5
whether the precise characteristics of the threat require the further refinement of preplanned
Protective Measures; and implementing, as appropriate, contingency and emergency response
plans.
• High Condition (Orange). A High Condition is declared when there is a high risk of terrorist
attacks. In addition to the Protective Measures taken in the previous Threat Conditions, Federal
departments and agencies should consider the following general measures in addition to the
agency-specific Protective Measures that they will develop and implement: coordinating necessary
security efforts with Federal, State, and local law enforcement agencies or any National Guard or
other appropriate armed forces organizations; taking additional precautions at public events and
possibly considering alternative venues or even cancellation; preparing to execute contingency
procedures, such as moving to an alternate site or dispersing their workforce; and restricting
threatened facility access to essential personnel only.
• Severe Condition (Red). A Severe Condition reflects a severe risk of terrorist attacks. Under most
circumstances, the Protective Measures for a Severe Condition are not intended to be sustained for
substantial periods of time. In addition to the Protective Measures in the previous Threat
Conditions, Federal departments and agencies also should consider the following general measures
in addition to the agency-specific Protective Measures that they will develop and implement:
increasing or redirecting personnel to address critical emergency needs; signing emergency
response personnel and pre-positioning and mobilizing specially trained teams or resources;
monitoring, redirecting, or constraining transportation systems; and closing public and government
facilities.
HM: Hizb ul-Mujahidin based in Kashmir, India
HUA: Harakat ul-Ansar based in Pakistan
HUJI: Harakat ul-Jihad-I-Islami, a.k.a. Movement of Islamic Holy War based in Pakistan
HUJI-B: Harakat ul-Jihad-I-Islami/Bangladesh, a.k.a. Movement of Islamic Holy War based in Bangladesh
HUM: Harakat ul-Mujahidin, a.k.a. Movement of Holy Warriors, and Jamiat ul-Ansar (JUA) based in Pakistan
HUMINT: Human intelligence
IAA: Islamic Army of Aden, a.k.a. Aden-Abyan Islamic Army (AAIA) based in Yemen
IBDA-C: Great East Islamic Raiders – Front based in Turkey
IED: Improvised Explosive Device. Devices that have been fabricated in an improvised manner and that
incorporate explosives or destructive, lethal, noxious, pyrotechnic, or incendiary chemicals in their design.
IG: Al-Gama’a al-Islamiyya, a.k.a. Islamic Group based in Egypt
IIPB: Islamic International Peacekeeping Brigade based in Chechnya
IMU: Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan based in Uzbekistan
incapacitating agent: (CBRN Handbook) Produce temporary physiological and/or mental effects via action on
the central nervous system. Effects may persist for hours or days, but victims usually do not require medical
treatment. However, such treatment speeds recovery.
Incident Command System (ICS): A standardized on-scene emergency management concept specifically
designed to allow its user(s) to adopt an integrated organizational structure equal to the complexity and
demands of single or multiple incidents without being hindered by jurisdictional boundaries. The national
standard for ICS is provided by NIMS.
Glossary-6
industrial agent: (CBRN Handbook) Chemicals developed or manufactured for use in industrial operations or
research by industry, government, or academia. These chemicals are not primarily manufactured for the
specific purpose of producing human casualties or rendering equipment, facilities, or areas dangerous for use
by man. Hydrogen cyanide, cyanogen chloride, phosgene, chloropicrin and many herbicides and pesticides
are industrial chemicals that also can be chemical agents.
INLA: Irish National Liberation Army based in Northern Ireland
INRP: Initial National Response Plan. As the time of this handbook publication, is a final draft document that
consolidates several Federal-level incident management and emergency response plans into a national framework for
domestic incident management.
insurgency: (JP 1-02, NATO) — An organized movement aimed at the overthrow of a constituted government
through the use of subversion and armed conflict.
international: of, relating to, or affecting two or more nations (Webster’s). For our purposes, affecting two or
more nations.
IP address spoofing: A method that creates Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) packets
using somebody else's IP address
IRA: Irish Republican Army based in Northern Ireland
IMU: Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan
JEM: Jaish-e-Mohammed, a.k.a. Army of Mohammed based in Pakistan
JI: Jemaah Islamiya based in Malaysia and Singapore
Joint Field Office: (JFO) See National Response Plan.
JRA: Japanese Red Army, a.k.a. Anti-Imperialist International Brigade (AIIB) based in Lebanon and Japan
JUA: Jamiat ul-Ansar, a.k.a. Harakat ul-Mujahidin (HUM), and Movement of Holy Warriors
JUD: Jamaat ud-Dawa, a.k.a. Lashkar-e-Tayyiba, and Army of the Righteous (LT) based in Pakistan
JUM: Jamiat ul-Mujahidin based in Kashmir, India
KADEK: Kurdistan Freedom and Democracy Congress, a.k.a. Kongra-Gel (KGK), Kurdistan Workers’ Party
(PKK), and Freedom and Democracy Congress of Kurdistan based in Turkey
keylogger: A software program or hardware device that is used to monitor and log each of the keys a user
types into a computer keyboard.
KGK: Kongra-Gel, a.k.a. Kurdistan Workers’ Party (PKK), Kurdistan Freedom and Democracy
Congress (KADEK), and Freedom and Democracy Congress of Kurdistan based in Turkey
KMM: Kumpulan Mujahidin Malaysia based in Malaysia
LFA: Lead Federal Agency. See NRP.
LJ: Lashkar I Jhangvi, a.k.a. Army of Jhangvi based in Pakistan
logic bomb: A program routine that destroys data by reformatting the hard disk or randomly inserting garbage
into data files.
LRA: Lord’s Resistance Army based in Uganda

Glossary-7
LT: Lashkar-e-Tayyiba, a.k.a. Army of the Righteous and Jamaat ud-Dawa (JUD) based in Pakistan
LTTE: Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, a.k.a. World Tamil Association (WTA), World Tamil Movement
(WTM), Federation of Associations of Canadian Tamils (FACT), Ellalan Force, and Sangilian Force based in
Sri Lanka
LVF: Loyalist Volunteer Force based in Northern Ireland
MAGO: Muslims Against Global Oppression, a.k.a. Qibla and People Against Gangsterism and Drugs
(PAGAD), and Muslims Against Illegitimate Leaders (MAIL) based in South Africa
MAIL: Muslims Against Illegitimate Leaders, a.k.a. Muslims Against Global Oppression (MAGO), and Qibla
and People Against Gangsterism and Drugs (PAGAD) based in South Africa
MCC: The Maoist Communist Center, a.k.a. Naxalites and Maoist Communist Center of India (MCCI) based in
India
MCCI: Maoist Communist Center of India, a.k.a. The Maoist Communist Center (MCC) and Naxalites based in
India
MEK: Mujahidin-e Khalq Organization, a.k.a. Holy Warriors of the People, National Liberation Army of Iran
(NLA), People’s Mujahidin of Iran (PMOI), National Council of Resistance (NCR), National Council of
Resistance of Iran (NCRI), and Muslim Iranian Student’s Society based in Iraq
millenarian: Apocalyptic; forecasting the ultimate destiny of the world; foreboding imminent disaster or final
doom; wildly unrestrained; ultimately decisive. (Merriam –Webster’s)
MRTA: Tupac Amaru Revolutionary Movement based in Peru
narco-terrorism: (JP 3-07.4) Terrorism conducted to further the aims of drug traffickers. It may include
assassinations, extortion, hijackings, bombings, and kidnappings directed against judges, prosecutors, elected
officials, or law enforcement agents, and general disruption of a legitimate government to divert attention
from drug operations.
nation: A community of people composed of one or more nationalities and possessing a more or less defined
territory and government or a territorial division containing a body of people of one or more nationalities and
usually characterized by relatively large size and independent status.
nation-state: A form of political organization under which a relatively homogeneous people inhabits a sovereign
state; especially a state containing one as opposed to several nationalities.
NCR: National Council of Resistance, a.k.a. National Liberation Army of Iran (NLA), Mujahidin-e Khalq
Organization (MEK), Holy Warriors of the People, People’s Mujahidin of Iran (PMOI), National Council of
NCRI: National Council of Resistance of Iran, a.k.a. National Liberation Army of Iran (NLA), Mujahidin-e
Khalq Organization (MEK), Holy Warriors of the People, People’s Mujahidin of Iran (PMOI), National
Council of Resistance (NCR), and Muslim Iranian Student’s Society based in Iraq
nerve agents: (CBRN Handbook) Substances that interfere with the central nervous system. Exposure is
primarily through contact with the liquid (skin and eyes) and secondarily through inhalation of the vapor.
Three distinct symptoms associated with nerve agents are: pin-point pupils, an extreme headache, and severe
tightness in the chest.
National Incident Management System: (NIMS). See National Incident Management System published by the
Department of Homeland Security, 1 March 2004. The NIMS represents a core set of doctrine, concepts,
principles, technology and organizational processes to enable effective, efficient, and collaborative incident
Glossary-8
management. Nationwide context is an all-hazards, all jurisdictional levels, and multi-disciplines approach to
incident management.
NIPR: Revolutionary Proletarian Initiative Nuclei based in Italy
NLA: National Liberation Army of Iran, a.k.a. Mujahidin-e Khalq Organization (MEK), Holy Warriors of the
People, People’s Mujahidin of Iran (PMOI), National Council of Resistance (NCR), National Council of
NPA: New People’s Army based in the Philippines
National Response Plan (NRP): The National Response Plan (December 2004) is an all-discipline, all-hazards
plan that establishes a single, comprehensive framework for the management of domestic incidents. It
provides the structure and mechanisms for the coordination of Federal support to State, local, and tribal
incident managers and for exercising direct Federal authorities ad responsibilities.
NTA: Anti-Imperialist Territorial Nuclei based in Italy
nuclear weapon: (JP 1-02) — A complete assembly (i.e., implosion type, gun type, or thermonuclear type), in
its intended ultimate configuration which, upon completion of the prescribed arming, fusing, and firing
sequence, is capable of producing the intended nuclear reaction and release of energy.
OPCON: Operational control, that is, transferable command authority. See Appendix H of terrorism handbook.
(JP 1-02).
operations security: (OPSEC) A process of identifying critical information and subsequently analyzing friendly
actions attendant to military operations and other activities to: a. Identify those actions that can be observed
by adversary intelligence systems. b. Determine indicators hostile intelligence systems might obtain that
could be interpreted or pieced together to derive critical information in time to be useful to adversaries. c.
Select and execute measures that eliminate or reduce to an acceptable level the vulnerabilities of friendly
actions to adversary exploitation. Also called OPSEC. (Joint Pub 1-02)
OV: Orange Volunteers based in Northern Ireland
PAGAD: Qibla and People Against Gangsterism and Drugs, a.k.a. Muslims Against Global Oppression (MAGO),
and Muslims Against Illegitimate Leaders (MAIL) based in South Africa
Pathogen: (CBRN Handbook) Any organism (usually living) capable of producing serious disease or death,
such as bacteria, fungi, and viruses
PFLP: The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine based in Syria
PFLP-GC: The Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine – General Command based in Syria
physical security: That part of security concerned with physical measures designed to safeguard personnel; to
prevent unauthorized access to equipment, installations, material and documents; and to safeguard them
against espionage, sabotage, damage, and theft. (Joint Pub1-02)
PIJ: The Palestine Islamic Jihad based in Syria
PIRA: Provisional Irish Republican Army based in Northern Ireland
PKK: Kurdistan Workers’ Party, a.k.a. Kongra-Gel (KGK), Kurdistan Freedom and Democracy Congress
(KADEK), and Freedom and Democracy Congress of Kurdistan based in Turkey
PLF: Palestine Liberation Front based in Iraq
Glossary-9
PMOI: People’s Mujahidin of Iran, a.k.a. National Liberation Army of Iran (NLA), Mujahidin-e Khalq
Organization (MEK), Holy Warriors of the People, National Council of Resistance (NCR), National Council
of Resistance of Iran (NCRI), and Muslim Iranian Student’s Society based in Iraq
Principle Federal Official: (PFO) Senior representative of Secretary of Homeland Security and lead Federal
official on-scene to coordinate Federal domestic incidents management and resource allocation on-scene.
See NRP.
PWG: Peoples War Group, a.k.a. Peoples War and Naxalites based in India
Radiological Dispersal Device: (RDD) (CBRN Handbook) A device (weapon or equipment), other than a
nuclear explosive device, designed to disseminate radioactive material in order to cause destruction, damage,
or injury by means of the radiation produced by the decay of such material.
Radiological Emitting Device: (RED) A device designed to disseminate radioactive material in order to cause
destruction, damage, or injury by means of the radiation produced by the decay of such material. RED
dissemination techniques can include intense, short duration exposure or progressive, long term exposure to
radiation.
radiological operation: (JP 1-02) — The employment of radioactive materials or radiation producing devices to
cause casualties or restrict the use of terrain. It includes the intentional employment of fallout from nuclear
weapons.
RIRA: Real IRA, a.k.a. True IRA based in Northern Ireland
RHD: Red Hand Defenders based in Northern Ireland
RN: Revolutionary Nuclei based in Greece
RSRSBCM: Riyadus-Salikhin Reconnaissance and Sabotage Battalion of Chechen Martyrs based in Chechnya
RUF: Revolutionary United Front based in Sierra Leone
setback: Distance between outer perimeter and nearest point of buildings or structures within. Generally referred
to in terms of explosive blast mitigation.
SL: Sendero Luminoso, a.k.a. Shining Path based in Peru
sniffer: A program and/or device that monitors data traveling over a network.
SPIR: Special Purpose Islamic Regiment based in Chechnya
SSP: Sipah-I-Sahaba/Pakistan based in Pakistan
state: A politically organized body of people usually occupying a definite territory; especially one that is
sovereign.
steganography: The process of hiding information by embedding messages within other, seemingly harmless
messages. The process works by replacing bits of useless or unused data in regular computer files (such as
graphics, sound, text) with bits of different, invisible information. This hidden information can be plain text,
cipher text, or even images.
TACON: Tactical control, that is, command authority with detailed limitations and responsibilities inherent to
operational control. See Appendix H of terrroism handbook. (JP 1-02).
TCG: The Tunisian Combatant Group, a.k.a. The Tunisian Islamic Fighting Group or Jama’a Combattante
Tunisienne based in Tunisia
Glossary-10
terror tactics: Given that the Army defines tactics as “the art and science of employing available means to win
battles and engagements,” then terror tactics should be considered “the art and science of employing
violence, terror and intimidation to inculcate fear in the pursuit of political, religious, or ideological goals.”
terrorism: (JP 1-02) — The calculated use of violence or threat of violence to inculcate fear; intended to coerce
or to intimidate governments or societies in the pursuit of goals that are generally political, religious, or
ideological.
terrorist: (JP 1-02) — An individual who uses violence, terror, and intimidation to achieve a result.
terrorist goals: The term goals will refer to the strategic end or end state that the terrorist objectives are intended
to obtain. Terrorist organization goals equate to the strategic level of war as described in FM 101-5-1.
terrorist group: Any group practicing, or that has significant subgroups that practice, international terrorism
(U.S. Dept of State)
terrorist objectives: The standard definition of objective is – “The clearly defined, decisive, and attainable aims
which every military operation should be directed towards” (JP 1-02). For the purposes of this work, terrorist
objectives will refer to the intended outcome or result of one or a series of terrorist operations or actions. It is
analogous to the tactical or operational levels of war as described in FM 101-5-1.
toxic chemical agent: (CBRN Handbook) Produce incapacitation, serious injury, or death. They can be used to
incapacitate or kill victims. These agents are the choking, blister, nerve, and blood agents.
toxin agent: (JP 1-02) — A poison formed as a specific secretion product in the metabolism of a vegetable or
animal organism, as distinguished from inorganic poisons. Such poisons can also be manufactured by
synthetic processes.
transnational: Extending or going beyond national boundaries (Webster’s). In this context, not limited to or
centered within a single nation.
trojan horse: A program or utility that falsely appears to be a useful program or utility such as a screen saver.
However, once installed performs a function in the background such as allowing other users to have access to
your computer or sending information from your computer to other computers.
virus: A software program, script, or macro that has been designed to infect, destroy, modify, or cause other
problems with a computer or software program.
UDA/UFF: Ulster Defense Association/Ulster Freedom Fighters based in Northern Ireland
underground: A covert unconventional warfare organization established to operate in areas denied to the
guerrilla forces or conduct operations not suitable for guerrilla forces.
unified command: As a term in the Federal application of the Incident Command System (ICS), defines
agencies working together through their designated Incident Commanders at a single Incident Command Post
(ICP) to establish a common set of objectives and strategies, and a single Incident Action Plan. This is NOT
“unified command” as defined by the Department of Defense.
UVP: Ulster Defense Force based in Northern Ireland
UXO: Unexploded ordnance
VBIED: Vehicle borne improvised explosive device
WOT: War on terrorism
Glossary-11
WTA: World Tamil Association, a.k.a. Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), World Tamil Movement
(WTM), Federation of Associations of Canadian Tamils (FACT), Ellalan Force, and Sangilian Force based in
Sri Lanka
WTM: World Tamil Movement, a.k.a. World Tamil Association (WTA), Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam
(LTTE), Federation of Associations of Canadian Tamils (FACT), Ellalan Force, and Sangilian Force based in
Sri Lanka
WCOTC: World Church of the Creator
WEG: Worldwide Equipment Guide. A document produced by the TRADOC ADCSINT – Threats that
provides the basic characteristics of selected equipment and weapons systems readily available for use by the
OPFOR.
WMD: (JP 1-02) — Weapons of Mass Destruction. Weapons that are capable of a high order of destruction
and/or of being used in such a manner as to destroy large numbers of people. Weapons of mass destruction
can be high explosives or nuclear, biological, chemical, and radiological weapons, but exclude the means of
transporting or propelling the weapon where such means is a separable and divisible part of the weapon.
WMD-CST: Weapons of Mass Destruction – Civil Support Team
WMD/E: Weapons of mass destruction or effect is an emergent term referenced in the 2004 U.S. National
Military Strategy to address a broader range of adversary capabilities with potentially devastating results.
worm: A destructive software program containing code capable of gaining access to computers or networks and
once within the computer or network causing that computer or network harm by deleting, modifying,
distributing, or otherwise manipulating the data.
zombie: A computer or server that has been basically hijacked using some form of malicious software to help a
hacker perform a Distributed Denial Of Service attack (DDOS).
Glossary-12
Selected Bibliography
ABCNews.com, 18 October 2000. Available from http://www.abcnews.go.com/ sections/
world/DailyNews/cole001018b.html; Internet; Accessed 9 January 2003.
“Abu Nidal.” Encyclopedia of the Orient. Available from http://i-cias.com/e.o/abu_nidal.htm; Internet;

Accessed 24 February 2004.
“Abu Nidal Organization.” Terrorism Questions and Answers. Available from

http://cfrterrorism.org/groups/abunidal.html. Internet; Accessed 24 February 2004.
“Abu Nidal Organization (ANO).” FAS Intelligence Resource Program. Available from
http://www.fas.org/irp/world/para/ano.htm; Internet; Accessed 24 February 2004.
“April 1983 US Embassy bombing.” Available from http://encyclopedia.the

freedictionary.com/April%2011983%20US%20Embassy%20bombing; Internet; Accessed 1 July 2004
Albright, David. “Al Qaeda’s Nuclear Program: Through the Window of Seized Documents.” Policy Forum
Online 47 (6 November 2002): 1-12. Available from http://www.nautilus.org/fora/Special-Policy-
Forum/47_Albright.html; Internet; Accessed 13 February 2003.
Anderson, Sean K., and Stephen Sloan. Historical Dictionary of Terrorism. Lanham, MD: Scarecrow Press, Inc, 2002.
AR 190-52. Countering Terrorism and Other Major Disruptions on Military Installations. 1978.
Aras, Djanguir. Militant 2000: World Handbook on Non-governmental Militarized Structures. Baku: Center
for Low Intensity Conflict Studies, 2000.
Army War College, How The Army Runs; A Senior Leader Reference Handbook 2003-2004.
Carlisle, PA: U.S. Army War College, Department of Command, Leadership, and Management, 23
September 2003. Available at http://carlisle-www.army.mil/usawc/dclm/linkedtextchapters.htm; Internet;
Accessed 31 December 2003.
Arquilla, John and David Ronfeldt, ed. Networks and Netwars. Santa Monica: RAND, 2001.
Ashcroft, John. “Remarks of Attorney General John Ashcroft, Indictment for the Bombing of the U.S.S. Cole.
“Washington, D.C., 15 May 2003. Available from
http://www.usdoj.gov/ag/speeches/2003/051503agremarksucccole.htm; Internet; Accessed 19 February 2004.
Associated Press Newswires. 12 February 2002. Available from http://www. Stop eco
violence.org/pdfs/2_12_02.pdf; Internet; Accessed 17 January 2003.
“Attack on the USS Cole.” Yemen Gateway. Available from http://www.al-bab.com/yeman/cole1.htm; Internet;
Accessed 6 April 2004.
Axtman, Kris. “The Terror Threat At Home, Often Overlooked.” Christian Science Monitor, 29 December 2003.
Available at http://ebird.afis.osd.mil/ebfiles/s20031229244982.html; Internet; Accessed 29 December 2003.
“2002 Bali Terrorist Bombing.” Wikipedia, 2004 ed., s.v. Available from
http://en.wikipedia.org/w/wiki.phtml?title=2002_Bali_terrorist_bombing&printable=yes; Internet;
Accessed 17 March 2004.
The Basics of Terrorism: Parts 1-6. The Terrorism Research Center, 1997. Available from
http://www.terrorism.com/terrorism/bpart1.html through /bpart6.html; Internet; Accessed 29 August 2002.
BBC News, 21 December 1998. Available from http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/special

_report/1998/12/98/lockerbie/235632.stm; Internet; Accessed 12 December 2002.
Bibliography-1
Beyler, Clara. “Messengers of Death – Female Suicide Bombers.” International Policy Institute for
Counterterrorism (12 February 2003): 3. Available from
http://www.ict.org.il/articles/articledet.cfm?articleid=470; Internet; Accessed 18 March 2004.
________. “Female Suicide Bombers – An Update.” International Policy Institute for Counterterrorism 7 March
2004: 1. Available from http://www.ict.org.il/articles/articledet.cfm?articleid=508; Internet; Accessed 31
March 2004.
Billingslea, William. “Illicit Cigarette Trafficking and the Funding of Terrorism.” The Police Chief, February
2004. 49-54.
Black, Cofer. “The International Terrorism Threat,” Testimony before the House International Relations
Committee, Subcommitteee on International Terrorism, Nonproliferation, and Human Rights.
Washington, D.C., 26 March 2003; 6. Available from http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/rm/2003/19136.htm; Internet;
Blythe, Will. “A Weatherman in Autumn.” Newsweek: Arts & Opinion, 12 June 2003. Available from
http://msnbc.msn.com/id/3069267/; Internet; Accessed 12 February 2004.
Bolkcom, Christopher, Bartholomew Elias, and Andrew Feickert. Homeland Security: Protecting Airliners from
Terrorist Missiles. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research Service Report for Congress, November 3,
2003. Available from http://www.fas.org/irp/crs/RL31741.pdf; Internet; Accessed 1 April 2004.
Bowman, Steve. Homeland Security: The Department of Defense’s Role. Congressional Research Service Report
for Congress, Order Code RL 31615, 7, 14 May 2003.
________. Weapons of Mass Destruction: The Terrorist Threat. Washington, D.C.: Congressional Research
Service Report for Congress, 7 March, 2002. Available from http://www.fas.org/irp/crs/RL31332.pdf;
Internet; Accessed 23 December 2002.
Bryan, Major General James D. See U.S. Congress.
Burghardt, Tom. “Leaderless Resistance and the Oklahoma City Bombing.” BACORR: Bay Area Coalition for
Our Reproductive Rights. Available from http://nwcitizen.com/publicgood/reports/leadless.htm; Internet;
Burke, Jason. “You Have to Kill in the Name of Allah until You are Killed.” Guardian Unlimited Observer
Special Report, 27 January 2002: 1-6. Available from
http://www.observer.co.uk/islam/story/0,1442,640288,00.html; Internet; Accessed 15 January 2003.
Buse, Margaret. “Non-State Actors and Their Significance.” Journal of Mine Action (December 2002): 1-9.
Available from http://maic.jmu.edu/journal/5.3/features/ maggie_buse_nsa/maggie_buse.htm; Internet;
accessed 13 December 2002.
“CAMERA ALERT: CBS’ 60 Minutes Exposes. “The Arafat Papers.” Available from
http://www.camera.org/index.asp?x_article=289&x_context=3; Internet; Accessed 2 February 2004.
Canadian Security Intelligence Service. “Report 2000/05 Biological Weapons Proliferation.” Perspectives (9
June 2000): 1-8. Available from http://www.csis-scrs.gc.ca/eng/ miscdocs/200005_e.html; Internet;
Carr, Caleb. The Lessons of Terror: A History of Warfare Against Civilians: Why it has Always Failed and Why
it will Fail Again. New York: Random House, 2002.
Carr, Caleb. “TIME.com Interview with Calib Carr.” 1 February 2002. Available at
http://www.time.com/time/2002/carr/interview.html; Internet; Accessed 31 August 2004.
Bibliography-2
CBS News.com, 21 January 2003. Available from http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/

2003/01/21/attack/main537258.shtml; Internet; Accessed 10 February 2003.
CBS News.com. “Evidence Points to Yemen Terror Attack.” Available from

http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/10/06/world/main524488.shtml; Internet; Accessed 21 January 2004.
Central Intelligence Agency. Director of Central Intelligence. Cyber Threat Trends and U.S. Network Security.`
Statement for the Record for the Joint Economic Committee by Lawrence K. Gershwin, National
Intelligence Officer for Science and Technology. (Washington, D.C., 21 June 2001), 1. Available from
http://www.cia.gov/cia/public_affairs/speeches/2001/gershwin_speech_06222001.html; Internet; Accessed
14 April 2004.
Chalk, Peter. “Threats to the Maritime Environment: Piracy and Terrorism.” RAND Stakeholder Consultation
briefing presented at Ispra, Italy 28-30 October 2002. Available from
http://www.rand.org/randeurope/news/seacurity/piracyterrorism.chalk. pdf; Internet; Accessed 4 April 2004.
“’Chemistry 101’: The Make-up and Importance of Radioisotopes.” Introduction to Radiological Terrorism, 1.
Available from http://www.nti.org/h_learnmore/radtutorial/chapter01_03.html; Internet; Accessed 19 May 2004.
Chester, Steven A. See U.S. Department of Defense.
Chetak’s Explosive Pages. Chetak’s Website, 2002. Available from http://www.geocities.

com/chetak74/explosives.html; Internet; Accessed 11 December 2002.
“Chinese Satellite TV Hijacked by Falun Gong Cult.” People’s Daily Online, 9 July 2002. Available from
http://english.peopledaily.com.cn/200207/08/eng20020708_99347.shtml; Internet; Accessed 27 Nov 2002.
CJCS CONPLAN 0500-98. Military Assistance to Domestic Consequence Management Operations in Response
to a Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, or High-Yield Explosive Situation. 11 February 2002.
CJCSI 3125.01. Military Assistance to Domestic Consequence Management Operations in Response to a

Chemical, Biological, Radiological, Nuclear, and High-Yield Explosive Situation. 3 August 2001.
Clark, C.J. Mine/UXO Assessment: Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia. New York: United Nations Mine
Action Coordination Center, 8 October 2001. Available from
http://www.mineaction.org/sp/mine_awareness/_refdocs.cfm?doc_ID=707; Internet; Accessed 13
December 2002.
CNN.com, 10 October 1995. Available from http://www.cnn.com/US/9510/amtrak/10-10/; Internet; Accessed 15

January 2003.
CNN.com International, “Fuel rod parts missing from nuclear plant,” 22 April 2004. Available from
http://edition.cnn.com/2004/US/Northeast/04/21/nuclear.fuel.missing.ap/index.html; Internet; Accessed 22
April 2004.
CNN.com LAW CENTER, 10 August 2004. “Terry Nichols Gets Life, No Parole.” Available on
http://www.cnn.com/2004/LAW/08/09/Nichols.sentence.ap/; Internet; Accessed 25 August 2004.
CNN.com. WORLD, 22 November 2002. “Fishing Boat Explodes Near Israeli Vessel.” Available from
http://www.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/meast/11/22/mideast/; Internet; Accessed 21 January 2004.
CNN.com, WORLD, 26 April 2004. “Jordan says major al Qaeda plot disrupted.” Available from
http://www.cnn.com/2004/WORLD/meast/04/26/jordan.terror; Internet; Accessed 9 August 2005.
CNN.com, World-Middle East, 13 December 2000. “Yemen Names 6 Suspects in USS Cole Bombing.”
Available at http://www.cnn.com/2000/WORLD/meast/12/13/yemen.cole.ap/; Internet; Accessed 26 April 2004.
Bibliography-3
CNS News.com, 3 December 2002. Available from http://www.cnsnews.com/

ForeignBureaus/archive/200212/FOR20021203a.html; Internet; Accessed 19 March 2004.
Cohen, William S. See U.S. Department of Defense.
Coleman, Kevin. “Cyber Terrorism,” Directions Magazine, 10 October 2003. Available from
http://www.directionsmag.com/article.php?article_id=432; Internet; Accessed 15 March 2004.
Colonel James “Nick” Rowe. Psychological Operations Website, n.d. Available from
http://www.psywarrior.com/ rowe.html; Internet; Accessed 7 January 2003.
Committee on the Judiciary Subcommittee on Crime. Opening Statement by Louis J. Freech, Director, Federal
Bureau of Investigation Before the Committee on the Judiciary Subcommittee on Crime. 104th Congress, 3
May 1995. Available from http://www.lectlaw.com/files/cur13.htm; Internet; Accessed 5 March 2004.
Conventional Terrorist Weapons. New York: United Nations Office for Drug Control and Crime Prevention,
2002. Available from http://www.undcp.org/odccp/terrorism _weapons_conventional.html; Internet;
Accessed 12 November 2002.
Corpus, Victor N. “The Invisible Army.” Briefing presented at Fort Leavenworth, KS, 5 November 2002.
TRADOC ADCSINT-Threats Files, Fort Leavenworth, KS.
Crenshaw, Martha. “The Logic of Terrorism: Terrorist Behavior as a Product of Strategic Choice.” In Origins of
Terrorism: Psychologies, Ideologies, Theologies, States of Mind, rev. ed., edited by Walter Reich.
Washington: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1998.
Cyber-Terrorism. Statement by Major General James D. Bryan, U.S. Army Commander, Joint task Force-
Computer Network Operations, U.S. Strategic Command and Vice Director, Defense Information Systems
Agency. Washington, D.C., 24 July 2003, 5. Available from
http://www.defenselink.mil/search97/s97is.vts?Action=FilterSearch&Filter=dl.hts&query=cyber-terrorism;
Internet; Accessed 6 April 2004.
DA Pamphlet 550-104. Human Factors Considerations of Undergrounds in Insurgencies, September 1966.
“Defense Information System Network.” Defense Information Systems Agency, Network Services [Website on
line, n.d.]. Available from http://www.disa.mil/ns/gig.html; Internet; Accessed 7 April 2004.
Defense Threat Reduction Agency. Domestic WMD Incident Management Legal Deskbook, 3-12 and 3-13,
December 2003. Available at http://biotech.law.lsu.edu/blaw/DOD/manual; Internet; Accessed 23 April 2004.
Director of Central Intelligence, DCI Weapons Intelligence, Nonproliferation, and Arms Control Center.
Unclassified Report to Congress on the Acquisition of Technology Reacting to Weapons of Mass
Destruction and Advanced Conventional Munitions, 1 January Through 30 June 2003, 11. Available from
http://www.cia.gov/cia/reports/721_reports/pdfs/jan_jun2003.pdf; Internet; Accessed 19 may 2004.
“Dirty Bombs: Response to a Threat.” FAS Public Interest Report, The Journal of the Federation of American
Scientists 55 no. 2 (March/April 2002), 1-11. Available from
http://ww.fas.org/faspir/2002/v55n2/dirtybomb.htm; Internet; Accessed 15 April 2004.
Dobson, Christopher, and Ronald Payne. The Terrorist: Their Weapons, Leaders, and Tactics. New York: Facts
on File, Inc, Revised Edition, 1982.
DOD Directive 3025.1, Military Support to Civil Authorities (MSCA), 15 January 1993.
DOD Directive 3025.12, Military Assistance for Civil Disturbances (MACDIS), 4 February 1994.
Bibliography-4
DOD Directive 3025.15, Military Assistance to Civil Authorities, 18 February 1997.
Dolinar, Lou. “Cell Phones Jury-rigged to Detonate Bombs.” Newsday.com, 15 March 2004. Available from
http://www.newsday.com/news/nationworld/ny-wocell153708827mar15,0,1644248.story?coll=ny-
nationworld-headlines; Internet; Accessed 15 March 2004.
“Economic Effects.” Introduction to Radiological Terrorism, 1. Available from

http://www.nti.org/h_learnmore/radtutorial/chapter02_02.html; Internet; Accessed 19 May 2004.
Ehrenfeld, Rachael. IRA + PLO + Terror. Journal on-line. American Center for Democracy (ACD), 21 August
2002. Available from http://public-integrity.org/publications21.htm; Internet; Accessed 13 February 2004.
“Eligible Receiver.” Global Security.org, 9 June 2002. Available from

http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/eligible-receiver.htm; Internet; Accessed 24 June 2004.
Ellis, John. “In My Humble Opinion: Genomics is the Most Economic, Political, and Ethical Issue Facing
Mankind.” Fast Company, November 1999. Available from
http://www.fastcompany.com/online/29/jellis.html; Internet; Accessed 26 February 2004.
“Fact Sheet on the Accident at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant.” U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 1.
Available at http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/fact-sheets/fschernobyl.html; Internet;
Accessed 1 July 2004.
“Fact Sheet on the Accident at Three Mile Island.” U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission, 1 to 5. Available at
http://www.nrc.gov/reading-rm/doc-collections/fact-sheets/3mile-isle,html; Internet; Accessed 1 July 2004.
Falkenrath, Richard A. “Problems of Preparedness: US Readiness for a Domestic Terror Attack.” International
Security 25, no. 4 (Spring 2001): 147-186.
“False Calls on Casualties Upset Camp Pendleton Spouses.” Mustang Daily Online News, 11 April 2003.
Available from http://www.mustangdaily.calpoly.edu/archive/20030411/print.php?story=inat; Internet;
Accessed 13 August 2004.
Fischer, Lynn F. The Threat Of Domestic Terrorism. The Terrorism Research Center, 2002. Available from
http://www.terrorism.com/terrorism/DomesticThreat.shtml; Internet; Accessed 10 September 2002.
FM 1. The Army. June 2005
FM 1-02 (FM 101-5-1)(MCRP 5-12A) Operational Terms and Graphics. September 2004
FM 3-06. Urban Operations. June 2003.
FMI 3-07.22. Counterinsurgency Operations. October 2004 (Expires October 2006)
FM 3-23.30. Grenades and Pyrotechnic Signals. September 2000.
FM 5-0 (FM 101-5). Army Planning and Orders Production. January 2005.
FM 5-25. Explosives and Demolitions. March 1986.
FM 7-100. Opposing Force Doctrinal Framework and Strategy. May 2003.
FM 20-32. Countermine Operations. October 2002.
FM 100-37. Terrorism Counteraction. July 1987.
Ford, Franklin L. Political Murder: From Tyrannicide to Terrorism. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1985.
Bibliography-5
Frances, Sabil. “Uniqueness of LTTE’s Suicide Bombers.” Institute of Peace and Conflict Studies, Article no.
321 (4 February 2000): 1. Available from http://www.ipcs.org; Internet; Accessed 7 September 2002.
Franks, Tommy. “General Tommy Franks Testimony on USS Cole.” Washington, D.C., 25 October 2000.
Available from http://www.fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/ship/docs/man-sh-ddg51-001025zd.htm; Internet;
Freeh, Louis. See Committee on the Subcommittee on Crime.
“French Tanker Explosion Confirmed as Terror Attack.” Available from

http://www.ict.org.il/spotlight/det.cfm?id=837; Internet; Accessed 21 January 2004.
Freund, Charles Paul. “Old School Osama: What We Found While Looking for Bin Laden.” Reason Online 12
September 2002: 1-7. Available from http://reason.com/ hod/cpf091202.shtml; Internet; Accessed 12
September 2002.
Frittelli, John F. Port and Maritime Security: Background and Issues for Congress. Washington, D.C.:
Congressional Research Service Report for Congress, December 5, 2003. Available from
http://www.usembassy.at/en/download/pdf/port_sec.pdf; Internet; Accessed 5 April 2004.
“From Push to Shove.” Southern Poverty Law Center Intelligence Report, no. 107 (Fall 2002): 1-18. Available
from http://www.splcenter.org/intelligenceproject/ip-index.html; Internet; Accessed 17 January 2003.
Fuller, Fred L. “New Order Threat Analysis: A Literature Survey.” Marine Corps Gazette, 81 (April 1997): 46-48.
Garamone, Jim. See U.S. Department of Defense.
Gellman, Bartom. “Cyber-Attacks by Al Qaeda Feared,” Washingtonpost.com, 27 June 2002. Available from
http://www.wahsingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A50765-2002Jun26; Internet; Accessed 12 April 2004.
“Global Information Grid.” Defense Information Systems Agency, Network Services Website on line, n.d.
Available from http://www.disa.mil/ns/gig.html; Internet; Accessed 7 April 2004.
Gorin, Stuart. “Timothy McVeigh Executed for Oklahoma City Bombing.” Washington File Staff Writer; U.S.
Department of State International Information Programs. 11 June 2001. Available from
http://usinfo.state.gov/topical/pol/terrro/01061101.htm; Internet; Accessed 16 February 2004.
Gray, Colin S. “Thinking Asymmetrically in Times of Terror.” Parameters (Spring, 2002): 5-14.
Greenberg, Maurice R., Chair; William F. Wechsler, and Lee S. Wolosky, Project Co-Directors. Terrorist
Financing: Report of an Independent Task Force Sponsored by the Council on Foreign Relations. New
York: Publication Office, Council on Foreign Relations, 25 November 2002.
Gresh, Alain. “The unsolved mystery of a Saudi bomb attack.” Le Monde diplomatique. September 1997, 2.
Available from http://mondediplo.com/1997/09/saudi; Internet; Accessed 19 February 2004.
Grigg, William Norman. “’Respectable’ Terrorists.” The New American, 19 November 2001. Available from
http://www.the newamerican.com/tna/2001/11-19-2001/vol17no24_terrorists.htm; Internet; Accessed 12
February 2004.
Gunaratna, Rohan. “Suicide Terrorism: A Global Threat.” Jane’s Intelligence Review (20 October 2000): 1-7.
Available from http://www.janes.com/security/international _security/news/usscole/jir001020_1_n.shtml;
Internet; Accessed 7 September 2002.
________. “Suicide Terrorism in Sri Lanka and India.” In Countering Suicide Terrorism. Herzilya, Israel: The
International Policy Institute for Counter Terrorism, The Interdisciplinary Center, 2002.
Bibliography-6
Harmon, Christopher C. Terrorism Today. London: Frank Cass Publishers, 2000;Reprint, Portland: Frank Cass
Publishers, 2001.
Hellman, Christopher, and Reyko Huang. List of Known Terrorist Organizations. Washington: Center for
Defense Information Terrorism Project, 2001. Available from http://www.cdi.org/terrorism/terrorist-
groups-pr.cfm; Internet; Accessed 24 October 2002.
Hendershot, Harold M. “CyberCrime 2003 – Terrorists’ Activity in Cyberspace.” [Briefing slides from the
Cyber Division] Federal Bureau of Investigation, Washington, D.C. Available from
http://www.4law.co.il/L373.pdf; Internet; Accessed 6 April 2004.
Henderson, Harry. Terrorism. New York: Facts on File, 2001.
Hettena, Seth . “Earth Liberation Front Claims Responsibility for San Diego Arson.” The Mercury News, 18
August 2003. Available from http://www.mercurynews.com/mld/mercurynews/news/local/6562462.htm;
Internet; Accessed 17 March 2004.
“History of Radiological Terrorism.” Introduction to Radiological Terrorism, 1 to 3. Available from

“History of the United Nations and Chernobyl.” The United Nations and Chernobyl, 1. Available at
http://www.un.org/ha/Chernobyl; Internet; Accessed 1 July 2004
Hoffman, Bruce. “All You Need Is Love: How the Terrorists Stopped Terrorism.” Atlantic Monthly December
2001: 1-6. Available from http://www.theatlantic.com/issues/ 2001/12/hoffman.htm; Internet; Accessed 21
October 2002.
________. Inside Terrorism. New York: Columbia University Press, 1998.
Homer-Dixon, Thomas. “The Rise of Complex Terrorism.” Foreign Policy Magazine 1, 6, and 7, January-
Febraury 2002; available from http:// www.foreighnpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=170; Internet;
accessed 26 August 2004.
Huntington, Samuel.“The Clash of Civilizations.” Foreign Affairs (Summer 1993): 1-29. Available from
http://www.lander.edu/atannenbaum/Tannenbaum%20courses%
20folder/POLS%20103%20World%20Politics/103_huntington_clash_of_civilizations_full_text.htm#I.%2
0THE%20NEXT%20PATTERN%20OF%20CONFLICT; Internet; Accessed 6 December 2002.
IAEA Safeguards Glossary, 2001 Edition, International Nuclear Verification Series No. 3, 23. Available from
http:/www-pub.iaea.org; Internet; Accessed 22 July 2005.
Illegal Incidents Report. Washington: Foundation for Biomedical Research, 2002. Available from
http://www.fbresearch.org/animal-activism/eventsummary.xls; Internet; Accessed 4 December 2002.
Improvised Explosives, vol. I, version 2.0. N.p., 15 May 1990. Available from http://www.
logicsouth.com/~lcoble/password/firearms.html; Internet; Accessed 11 December 2002.
Improvised Explosives. N.p., n.d. Available from http://members.odinsrage.com/ white88/

18_ImprovisedExplosives.htm; Internet; Accessed 11 December 2002.
Improvised Explosive Devices. Salem: Oregon State Police Website, 2002. Available from
http://www.osp.state.or.us/html/improvised_explosives.html; Internet; Accessed 11 December 2002.
International Encyclopedia of Terrorism, 1997 ed., s.v. “The Media and International Terrorism.”
International Herald Tribune, 25 March 2004. Available from http://iht.com/articles/511745.html; Internet;

Bibliography-7
Italiansrus.com. Di Meglio, Francesco. “Italian Terrorists Generate Fear in Europe.” Available from
http://www.italianrus.com/articles/ourpaesani/redbrigade.htm; Internet; Accessed 25 February 2004.
Jarboe, James. See U.S. Congress.
Jenkins, Brian. See National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States.
Joint Chiefs of Staff, National Military Strategy of the United States of America, 1, May 2004.
Joint Pub 1-02. Department of Defense Dictionary of Military and Associated Terms. 12 April 2001, as amended
through 9 June 2004.
Joint Pub 3-07.2. Joint Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures for Antiterrroism. 17 March 1998.
Joint Task Force – Civil Support (JTF-CS)[U.S. Northern Command] website. Available at
http://www.jtfcs.northcom.mil; Internet; Accessed 14 April 2004.
“Joint Task Force-Computer Network Operations.” Offutt Air Force Base: U.S. Strategic Command Fact Sheet,
2003. Available from http://www.stratcomaf.mil/factsheetshtml/jtf-cno.htm; Internet; Accessed 25 June 2004.
“Jordan ‘was chemical bomb target’.” BBC News UK Edition, 17 April 2004. Available at
http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/middle_east/3635381.stm; Internet; Accessed 28 April 2004.
Juergensmeywer, Mark. Terror in the Mind of God. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2000.
Kaihla, Paul. “Forging Terror.” Business 2.0 December 2002: 1-3. Available from
http://www.business2.com/articles/mag/0,1640,45486%7C5,00.html; Internet; Accessed 22 November 2002.
Kaplan, Robert. The Coming Anarchy: Shattering the Dreams of the Post Cold War. New York: Random
House, 2000.
Kelley, Jack. “Terror Groups Hide Behind Web Encryption.” USA Today, 5 February 2001. Available from
http://www.usatoday.com/tech/news/2001-02-05-binladen.htm; Internet; Accessed 6 April 2004.
Kurz, Anat. “War Against Terror: United We Stand?” Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies – Strategic
Assessment 4, no. 4 (February 2002): 1-6. Available from http://www. tau.ac.il/jcss/sa/v4n4p3Kur.html;
Internet; Accessed 11 September 2002.
Kushner, Harvey W. Terrorism in America: A Structured Approach to Understanding the Terrorist Threat.
Springfield, IL. : Charles C. Thomas, Publisher, Ltd., 1998.
Laqueur, Walter. The New Terrorism: Fanaticism and the Arms of Mass Destruction. Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1999.
Lasseter, Tom. “Suicide Attackers Strike Karbala,” Knight Ridder, 27 December 2003. Available from
http://www.realcities.com/mld/krwashington/news/special_packages/iraq/7581568.htm; Internet; Accessed
20 January 2004.
Lemos, Robert. “What are the Real Risks of Cyberterrorism?” ZDNet, 26 August 2002. Available from
http://zdnet.com.com/2102-1105_2-955293.html; Internet; Accessed 6 April 2004.
Liang, Qiao and Wang Xiangsui. Unrestricted Warfare. Translated by Department of State, American Embassy
Beijing Staff Translators. Washington, D.C., 1999.
Long, David E. The Anatomy of Terrorism. New York: THE FREE PRESS, A Division of Macmillan, Inc., 1990.
Bibliography-8
Lowe, Alan C. “Todo o Nada: Montonerosa Versus the Army: Urban Terrorism in Argentina.” In Block by
Block: The Challenges of Urban Operations, ed. William G. Robertson and Lawrence A. Yates. Fort
Leavenworth, KS: U.S. Army Command and General Staff College Press, 2003.
“Man Portable Air Defense System (MANPADS).” Global Security.org (n.d.): 1. Available from
http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/intro/manpads.htm; Internet; Accessed 19 March 2004.
Manchester, William. The Arms of Krupp. Boston: Little, Brown, 1968.
McGuire, Frank G., ed. Security Intelligence Sourcebook, Including Who’s Who in Terrorism. Silver Spring,
MD. : Interests, Ltd., 1990.
MCIA-1100-001-93. Infantry Weapons Identification Guide. N.d.
“Medical Uses.” Introduction to Radiological Terrorism, 3. Available from

Michel, Lou and Dan Herbeck. American Terrorist: Timothy McVeigh and the Oklahoma City Bombing. New
York: Harper Collins Publishers Inc., 2001.
Moilanen, Jon H. “Engagement and Disarmament: A U.S. National Security Strategy for Biological Weapons of
Mass Destruction.” Essays on Strategy XIII. Washington, D.C.; National Defense University, 1996, 141-182.
Molnar, Andrew R. See DA Pamphlet 550-104.
Murphy, Shelley. “White Supremacist Accused of Targeting D.C. Museum.” Globe, 20 September 2001.
Available from http://www.rickross.com/reference/supremacists/supremacists57.html; Internet; Accessed
16 February 2004.
Myre, Greg. “Palestinian Bomber, 14, Thwarted before Attack.” International Herald Tribune March 2004: 1.
Available from http://www.iht.com/articles/511745.html; Internet; Accessed 26 March 2004.
National Commission on Terrorist Attacks Upon the United States. Statement of Brian Jenkins to the
Commission, March 31, 2003. Available from http://www.9-
11commission.gov/hearings/hearing1/witness_jenkins.htm; Internet; Accessed 23 September 2004.
National Response Plan [DHS], Final Draft, 30 June 2004. Available at

https://www.niscc.org/download/NRP%20Final%20Draft%2030%20JUN%2004.pdf; Internet; Accessed 4
October 2004.
National Security Institute. Homeland Security Warns about Vehicle Bombs. (Medway, MA, n.d.), 1-4. Available
from http://nsi.org/Library/Terrorism/Vehicle_Bombs.doc; Internet; Accessed 14 January 2004.
“NE-NE Remote Login Initial Solution Evaluation Criteria.” SONET Interoperability Forum Document Number
SIF-RL-9605-043-R4, (12 June 1996): 4. Available from
http://www.atis.org/pub/sif/approved/sif96008.pdf; Internet; Accessed 9 April 2004.
Newman, Bob. “Terrorists Feared to Be Planning Sub-Surface Naval Attacks.” CNS News.com, 3 December
2002. Available from http://www.cnsnews.com/ForeignBureaus/archive/200212/FOR20021203a.html;
Newman, David, ed. Boundaries, Territory and Postmodernity. Portland: Frank Cass Books, 1999.
Newsday.com, 23 July 1996. Available from http://www.newsday.com/news/nytwa96-

jet3bomb,0,2501618.story; Internet; Accessed 12 December 2002.
New York Times, 18 December 1981. “Red Brigades Kidnap an American General in Verona.”.
Bibliography-9
New York Times, 13 January 2003. Available from http://www.nytimes.com/2003/01/13/ politics/13INTE.html;

Internet; Accessed 13 January 2003.
“Oklahoma Bombing Chronology.” Washington Post. Available from http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-

srv/national/longterm/oklahoma/stories/chron.htm; Internet; Accessed 5 March 2004.
Oman, Paul, and Edmund Schweitzer, and Jeff Roberts, “Protecting the Grid from Cyber Attack Part I:
Recognizing Our Vulnerabilities.” Utility Automation and Engineering T&D, November 2001. Available
from http://uaelp.pennnet.com; Internet; Accessed 24 June 2004.
Ong, Graham Gerard. “Next Stop, Maritime Terrorism.” Viewpoints (12 September 2003): 1-2. Available from
http://www.iseas.edu.sg/viewpoint/ggosep03.pdf; Internet; Accessed 2 April 2004.
“Operation Winter Harvest: The Rescue of Brigadier James Dozier.” Special Operations. Com. Available from
http://www.specialoperations.com/Counterterrorism/Dozier.html; Internet; Accessed 26 February 2004.
Pawle, Gerald. Secret Weapons of World War II. New York: Ballantine Books, 1967.
Paz, Reuven. Hamas Publishes Annual Report on Terrorist Activity for 1998. Herzliya, Israel: International
Policy Institute for Counterterrorism, May 3, 1999. Available from
http://www.ict.org.il/spotlight/det.cfm?id=259; Internet; Accessed 6 December 2002.
Perl, Raphael and Ronald O’Rourke.“Terrorist Attack on USS Cole: Background and Issues for Congress.”
Congressional Research Service, The Library of Congress. Order Code RS20721, 1. 30 January 2001.
Available from http://news.findlaw.com/cnn/docs/crs/coleterrattck13001.pdf; Internet; Accessed 5 April 2004.
Phillips, Thomas D. “The Dozier Kidnapping: Confronting the Red Brigades.” Air & Space Power Chronicles
(February 2002): 1. Available from http://www.airpower.maxwell/af.mil/airchronicles/cc/phillips.html;
Popenker, Max R. Modern Firearms and Ammunition. [Encyclopedia online]. N.p., n.d. Available from
http://world.guns.ru/main-e.htm#md; Internet; Accessed 31 October 2002.
Poulsen, Kevin. “Rumsfeld Orders .mil Web Lockdown.” The Register, 17 January 2003. Available from
http://www.theregister.co.uk/2003/01/17/rumsfeld_orders_mil_web_lockdown; Internet; Accessed 8 April 2004.
Powell, William. The Anarchist Cookbook. Secaucus, NJ: Lyle Stuart, Inc., 1971.
Prados, Alfred B. Congressional Research Service (CRS) Issue Brief for Congress. Saudi Arabia: Current
Issues and U.S. Relations, 15 September 2003. Order Code IB93113.
Quinn, Andrew. “Teen Hackers Plead Guilty to Stunning Pentagon Attacks.” Reuters, 31 July 1998, 1.
Available from http://www.geocities.com/Area51/Shadowlands/6583/project395.html; Internet; Accessed 14
April 2004.
Ra’anan, Uri, ed., et al. Hydra of Carnage: International Linkages of Terrorism. Lexington: Lexington Books, 1986.
Rapoport, David C., ed. Inside Terrorist Organizations. New York: Columbia University Press, 1988.
Raufer, Xavier. “New World Disorder, New Terrorisms: New Threats for the Western World.” In The Future of
Terrorism, edited by Max. Taylor and John Horgan. Portland: Frank Cass Publishers, 2000.
Reich, Walter, ed. Origins of Terrorism: Psychologies, Ideologies, Theologies, States of Mind. Rev. ed.
Washington: Woodrow Wilson Center Press, 1998.
“Revolutionary Organization 17 November (17N).” CDI Terrorism Project, 5 August 2002. Available from
http://www.cdi.org/terrorism/17N-pr.cfm; Internet; Accessed 24 September 2004.
Bibliography-10
Rhodes, Richard. “Living With The Bomb.” National Geographic, 208, No. 2 (August 2005): 104.
Richardson, Michael. “A Time Bomb for Global Trade: Maritime-related Terrorism in an Age of Weapons of
Mass Destruction.” Viewpoints (25 February 2004): 8. Available from
http://www.iseas.edu.sg/viewpoint/mricsumfeb04.pdf; Internet; Accessed 5 April 2004.
Robinson, Colin. Military and Cyber-Defense: Reactions to the Threat Washington: Center for Defense
Information Terrorism Project, 2002. Available from http://www.cdi.org/terrorism/cyberdefense-pr.cfm;
Internet; Accessed 24 June 2004.
Rosenbraugh, Craig. “Craig Rosenbraugh on the Anti-War Struggle.” Houston Independent Media Center, 17
March 2003. Available from http://houston.indymedia.org/news/2003/03/9125.php ; Internet; Accessed 16
February 2004.
“Ruby Ridge Federal Siege, Bibliography.” [Bibliography on-line]. Available from

http://users.skynet.be/terrroism/html/usa_ruby_ridge.htm; Internet; Accessed 16 March 2004.
Rumsfeld, Donald H. See U.S. Department of Defense.
St. Petersburg Times, 9 December 1999. Dougherty, Larry. “Indictment details plot to blow up power lines.”
Available from http://www.sptimes.com/News/120999/TampaBay/Indictment_details_pl.shtml; Internet;
“SAMs and the Targeting of Israeli Airliners.” Jane’s Terrorism Intelligence Center (28 November 2002): 1.
Available from http://www.janes.com/security/international _security/news/jtic/jtic021128_1_n.shtml;
Schama, Simon. Citizens: A Chronicle of The French Revolution. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1989.
Schoomaker, Peter. Army Chief of Staff, “CSA Interview: Joint and Expeditionary Capabilities.” (Washington,
D.C.: Pentagon, 4 October, 2004). Available from http://www.army.mil/leaders/leaders/csa/interviews/04Oct04.html;
________U.S. Army Chief of Staff, “Media Roundtable at the Association of the United States Army Annual
Convention.” Washington, D.C., 4 October 2004. Available from:
http://www.army.mil/leaders/leaders/csa/interviews/04Oct04Roundtable.html; Internet; Accessed 11
January 2005.
Schuurman, Jan. Tourists or Terrorists? Press review on-line. Radio Netherlands, 25 April 2002. Available from
http://www.rnw.nl/hotspots/html/irel020425.html; Internet; Accessed 13 February 2004.
Schweitzer, Glenn E., and Carole C. Dorsch. Superterrorism; Assassins, Mobsters, & Weapons of Mass
Destruction. New York: Plenum Trade Press, 1998.
Schweitzer, Yoram. “Suicide Terrorism: Development and Main Characteristics.” In Countering Suicide
Terrorism. Herzilya, Israel: The International Policy Institute for Counter Terrorism, The Interdisciplinary
Center, 2002.
Serrano, Richard A. “Terry Nichols Sentenced to Life With No Hope of Parole.” Los Angeles Times, 5 June
1998. Available from http://www.-tech.mit.edu/V118/N27/nichols.27w.htm; Internet; Accessed 16
February 2004.
Silverstein, Ken. “David Hahn, Boy Atomic Scientist.” ASEPCO, [Originally printed in Harpers’s Magazine,
November 1998]. Available at http://www.asepco.com/David_Hahn_Boy_Scientist.htm.; Internet;
Accessed 31 August 2004.
Simons, Lewis M. “Weapons of Mass Destruction: An Ominous New Chapter Opens on the Twentieth Century’s
Ugliest Legacy.” National Geographic 202, no. 5 (November 2002): 2-35.
Bibliography-11
Smith, Brent L. Terrorism in America: Pipe Bombs and Pipe Dreams. Albany: State University of New York
Press, 1994.
“Software - Programming Jobs are Heading Overseas by the Thousands. Is there a Way for the U.S. to Stay on
Top?” Business Week online, 1 March 2004. Available from
http://businessweek.com/magazine/content/04_09/b3872001_mz001.htm; Internet; Accessed 9 April 2004.
“Sprint Inks Outsourcing Pacts with EDS, IBM.” Dallas Business Journal, (16 September 2003). Available from
http://www.bizjournals.com/dallas/stories/2003/09/15/daily21.html; Internet; Accessed 9 April 2004.
Sprinzak, Ehud. “Rational Fanatics.” Foreign Policy, no. 120 (September/October 2000): 66-73.
Straits Times Interactive, 16 October 2003. Rekhi, Shefali. “Next terror target.” Available from
http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&lr=&ie=UTF-
8&q=terrro+AND+attack+AND=underwater&btnG=Google+Search; Internet; Accessed 21 January 2004.
Suicide Terror: It’s Use and Rationalization. Jerusalem: Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs Website, 23 July
2002. Available from http://www.mfa.gov.il/mfa/ go.asp? MFAH0m6k0; Internet; Accessed 11 November 2002.
“Suicide Terrorism.” The Economist (January 2004): 3. Available from

http://quicksitebuilder.cnet.com/supfacts/id396.html; Internet; Accessed 17 March 2004.
“Suicide Terrorism in Comparative Perspective.” In Countering Suicide Terrorism. Herzilya, Israel: The
International Policy Institute for Counter Terrorism, The Interdisciplinary Center, 2002.
“Suicide Terrorism: a Global Threat.” Jane’s Intelligence Review (October 2000): 1, 4-5. Available from
http://www.janes.com/security/international_security/news/usscole/jir001020_1_n.shtml; Internet;
Accessed 20 January 2004.
Sullivan, John P., et al. Jane's Unconventional Weapons Response Handbook. Alexandria, VA: Jane’s
Information Group, 2002.
Sunzi. The Art of War/Sun Tzu. Translated by Samuel B. Griffith. New York: Oxford University Press, 1971.
Tal, Nachman. “Suicide Attacks: Israel and Islamic Terrorism.” Jaffee Center for Strategic Studies – Strategic
Assessment 5, no. 1 (June 2002): 1-9.
Taylor, Max, and John Horgan, ed. The Future of Terrorism. Portland: Frank Cass Publishers, 2000.
Teitelbaum, Joshua and David Long. “Islamic Politics in Saudi Arabia.” The Washington Institute for Near East
Policy, Policywatch: Special Policy Forum Report Number 259, 9 July 1997, 1 to 3. Available at
http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/watch/Policywatch/policywatch1997/259.htm; Internet; Accessed 19
February 2004.
“Terrorist Attacks on Americans 1979-1988.” 2. Available from

http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/target/etc/cron.html; Internet; Accessed 1 July 2004
“Terrorists Demand Extortion Cash in Euros.” TCM Breaking News (September 2001): 1. Available from
http://archives.tcm.ie/breakingnews/2001/09/04/story22584.asp; Internet; Accessed 31 March 2004.
“Terrorists and Radiological Terrorism.” Introduction to Radiological Terrorism, 2 and 3. Available from
Thachuck, Kimberly L. “Terrorism’s Financial Lifeline: Can it Be Severed.” Strategic Forum no. 191 (May
2002): 1-15. Available from http://www.ndu.edu/inss/strforum/sf191.htm; Internet; Accessed 29 August 2002.
Bibliography-12
“The Asymmetric Threat From Maritime Terrorism.” Available from

http://jfs.janes.com/public/jfs/additional_info.shtml; Internet; Accessed 2 February 2004.
The Madrid Agenda, Club de Madrid, available from http://www.clubmadrid.org/cmadrid; Internet; accessed 26
April 2005.
“The New Threat of Organized Crime and Terrorism.” Jane’s Terrorism & Security Monitor (6 June 2000): 1-5.
Available from http://www.janes.com/security/international_security/ news/jtsm/jtsm000619_1_n.shtml;
Internet; Accessed 27 June 2000.
The Posse Comitatus Act, 18 U.S.C. 1385
The Robert. T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act, 42 U.S.C. 5121-5206
The White House. National Security Presidential Directive 17 (NSPD-17), National Strategy to Combat
Weapons of Mass Destruction, 2, December 2002. Available at http://www.fas.org/irp/offdocs/nspd/nspd-
17.html; Internet; Accessed 8 December 2003.
The White House, The National Strategy for the Physical Protection of Critical Infrastructure and Key Assets.
Washington, D.C., February 2003. Preface by The President of the United States of America. Available
from http://www.whitehouse.gov/pcipb/physical_strategy.pdf; Internet; Accessed 8 December 2003.
The White House. The National Security Strategy of the United Sates of America, 1, 17 September 2002.
Available at http://www.whitehouse.gov/nsc/nss.html; Internet; Accessed 30 April 2004.
The White House. The National Strategy to Secure Cyberspace. Washington, D.C., February 2003. Preface by
The President of the United States of America. Available from
http://www.whitehouse.gov/pcipb/cyberspace_strategy.pdf; Internet; Accessed 8 December 2003.
TM 31-201-1. Unconventional Warfare Devices and Techniques: Incendiaries. May 1966.
TM 31-210. Improvised Munitions Handbook. 1969.
“Too Painful.” ABC News. News on-line, 11 November 2004. Available from
http://abcnews.go.com/sections/Primetime/US/Jessica_Lynch_031106-1.html; Internet; Accessed 12
February 2004.
“Transcript of President George Bush’s Address 10/07/01. ‘Attack on America’.” Available

http://multimedia.belointeractive.com/attack/bush/1007bushtranscript.html; Internet; Accessed 13 July 2004.
Truby, J. David. How Terrorists Kill: The Complete Terrorist Arsenal. Boulder: Paladin Press, 1978.
USAEUR Pamphlet 30-60-1. Identification Guide: Part One, Weapons and Equipment East European
Communist Armies; Volume I: General, Ammunition and Infantry Weapons. 30 September 1972.
U.S. Air Force. Independent Review of the Khobar Towers Bombing, Part A (31 October 1996) by Lieutenant
General James F. Record. Available from http://www.fas.org/irp/threat/khobar_af/recordf.htm; Internet;
U.S. Air Force. Independent Review of the Khobar Towers Bombing, Part A; Appendix 1, Comments Regarding
the Downing Report (31 October 1996) by Lieutenant General James F. Record. Available from
http://www.fas.org/irp/threat/khobar_af/recordap.htm; Internet; Accessed 9 February 2004.
U.S. Army Field Manual FM 7-100, Opposing Force Doctrinal Framework and Strategy, May 2003, iv to xvi.
U.S. Congress. House. Armed Services Special Oversight Panel on Terrorism, Cyberterrorism, Testimony by
Dorothy E. Denning, Georgetown University. Washington, D.C., 23 May 2000. Available from
http://www.cs.georgetown.edu/~denning/infosec/cyberterror.html; Internet; Accessed 9 April 2004.
Bibliography-13
U.S. Congress. House. Armed Services Subcommittee on Terrorism, Unconventional Threats and Capabilities.
Cyber-Terrorism. Statement by Major General James D. Bryan, U.S. Army Commander, Joint task Force-
Computer Network Operations, U.S. Strategic Command and Vice Director, Defense Information Systems
Agency. Washington, D.C., 24 July 2003. Available from http://www.defenselink.mil/search97/s97is.vts?
Action=FilterSearch&Filter=dl.hts&query=cyber-terrorism; Internet; Accessed 6 April 2004.
U.S. Congress. House. Resources Subcommittee on Forests and Forest Health. The Threat of Eco-Terrorism.
Statement by the FBI's Domestic Terrorism Section Chief, James Jarboe. Washington, D.C., 12 February
2002. Available from http://www.fbi.gov/ congress/congress02/jarboe021202.htm; Internet; Accessed 17
January 2003.
U.S. Congress. Senate. Armed Services Committee. SASC Cole Commission Testimony: Hearing before the
Armed Services Committee. 107th Cong. 3 May 2001. Comments by Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff.
U.S. Congress. Senate. Judiciary Subcommittee on Terrorism, Technology, and Homeland Security, Cyber
Terrorism. Testimony of Keith Lourdeau, Deputy Assistant Director, Cyber Division, FBI, Washington,
D.C., 24 February 2004, 3. Available from http://www.fbi.gov/congress/congress04/lourdeau022404.htm;
U.S. Department of Agriculture. “Final BSE Update – Monday, February 9, 2004.” Newsroom Release
Statement No. 0074.04. Available from http://www.usda.gov/Newsroom/0074.04.html; Internet; Accessed
12 July 2004.
U.S. Department of Commerce. National Institute of Standards and Technology, Risk Management Guide for
Information Technology Systems, NIST Special Publication 800-30, by Gary Stoneburner, Alice Goguen,
and Alexis Feringa. Washington, D.C., 2001: 22. Available from
http://csrc.nist.gov/publications/nistpubs/800-30/sp800-30.pdf; Internet; Accessed 12 April 2004.
U.S. Department of Defense. 11th Psychological Operations Task Force After Action Report for SFOR X, by
Clint A. Venekamp. Upper Marboro, MD, July 2002.
U.S. Department of Defense. “A Global Terror Group Primer,” by Jim Garamone. Defense Link (14 February
2002): 1-7. Available from http://www.defenselink.mil/news/ Feb2002/n02142002_200202141.html;
Internet; Accessed 29 August 2002.
U.S. Department of Defense, Defense Science Board, Defense Science Board Task Force on The Role and Status
of DoD Red Teaming Activities, (Washington, D.C.: Office of the Under Secretary of Defense for
Acquisition, Technology, and Logistics, September 2003).
U.S. Department of Defense. Defense Security Service, Technology Collection Trends in the U.S. Defense
Industry 2002. Alexandria, VA, n.d. Available from http://www.wright.edu/rsp/Security/TechTrends.pdf;
U.S. Department of Defense. DoD USS Cole Commission Report (9 January 2001) by U.S. Army Gen. (Ret)
William Crouch and U.S. Navy Adm. (Ret) Harold Gehman. Open-File Report, U.S. Department of
Defense. 1 (Washington, D.C., 9 January 2001). Available at http://www.fas.org/irp/threat/cole.html;
Internet; Accessed 16 February 2004.
U.S. Department of Defense. Naval Explosive Ordnance Disposal Technology Division. ORDATA II - Enhanced
Deminers’ Guide to UXO Identification, Recovery, and Disposal, Version 1.0, [CD-ROM]. Indian Head,
MD: Naval Explosive Ordnance Disposal Technology Division, 1999.
U.S. Department of Defense. News Release Archive. “DoD News: Navy Announces Results of Its Investigation
on USS Cole.” Available from http://www.defenselink.mil/releases/2001/b011192001_bt031-01.html;
Internet; Accessed 11 February 2004.
Bibliography-14
U.S. Department of Defense. Report of the Assessment of the Khobar Towers Bombing (30 August 1996) Letter
by General (USA Retired) Wayne A. Downing. Available from
http://www.fas.org/irp/threat/downing/downltr.html; Internet; Accessed 10 February 2004.
U.S. Department of Defense. Report of the Assessment of the Khobar Towers Bombing (30 August 1996) by
General (USA Retired) Pre by Wayne A. Downing. Available from
http://www.fas.org/irp/threat/downing/prefuncl.html; Internet; Accessed 10 February 2004.
U.S. Department of Defense. Report of the Assessment of the Khobar Towers Bombing (30 August 1996) by
General (USA Retired) Rpt by Wayne A. Downing. Available from
http://www.fas.org/irp/threat/downing/unclf913.html; Internet; Accessed 9 February 2004.
U.S. Department of Defense. Report to Congress on The Role of the Department of Defense in Supporting
Homeland Security. Washington, D.C., September 2003.
U.S. Department of Defense. Report on Personal Accountability for Force Protection at Khobar Towers, by
William S. Cohen. Washington, D.C., July 31, 1997.
U.S. Department of Defense. Report to the President. The Protection of U.S. Forces Deployed Abroad (15
September 1996) by Secretary of Defense William J. Perry. Available from
http://www.fas.org/irp/threat/downing/report_f.html; Internet; Accessed 18 February 2004.
U.S. Department of Defense. Special Briefing on the Unified Command Plan, by Donald H. Rumsfeld.
Department of Defense News Briefing Transcript presented at the Pentagon, Wednesday, 17 April 2002 –
11:30a.m. Available from http://www.defenselink.mil/ news/Apr2002/t04172002_t0417sd.html; Internet;
U.S. Department of Defense. The National Defense Strategy of the United States of America. (Washington, D.C.:
GPO, 1 March 2005), iv.
U.S. Department of Defense. Threat Support Directorate TRADOC DCSINT. Homeland Defense Handbook.
Fort Leavenworth, KS, 31 October 2001.
U.S. Department of Defense. Threat Support Directorate TRADOC DCSINT. OPFOR Worldwide Equipment
Guide. Fort Leavenworth, KS, 24 September 2001.
U.S. Department of Defense. U.S. Army John F. Kennedy Center for Special Warfare. U.S. Army Special
Forces Foreign Weapons Handbook. Fort Bragg, N.C., 1 January 1967.
U.S. Department of Defense. U.S. Army Intelligence Agency. Foreign Science and Technology Center.
(S/NF/WN/NC) Terrorist Weapons Handbook – Worldwide (U), by Steven A. Chester. Washington, D.C.,
15 December 1989. [Unclassified extract].
U.S. Department of Defense. U.S. Marine Corps. Marine Corps University. Corporals Noncommissioned
Officers Program. Force Protection. Quantico, VA, January 1999.
U.S. Department of Defense. Washington Headquarters Services. Directorate for Information Operations and
Reports. Global War on Terrorism – Casualty Summary Operation Enduring Freedom. Washington, D.C.,
As of 4 March 2004. Available from http://web1.whs.osd.mil/mmid/casualty/WOTSUM.pdf; Internet;
Reports. Table 13, Worldwide U.S. Active Duty Military Deaths, Selected Military Operations.
Washington, D.C., n.d. Available from http://web1.whs.osd.mil/mmid/casualty/table13.htm; Internet;
Bibliography-15
Reports. U.S. Active Duty Military Deaths – 1980 through 2002. Washington, D.C., As of 10 April 2003.
Available from http://web1.whs.osd.mil/mmid/casualty/Death_Rates.pdf; Internet; Accessed 16 January 2004.
Reports. War on Terrorism – Operation Iraqi Freedom, By Casualty Category within Type. Washington,
D.C., As of 26 February 2004. Available from http://web1.whs.osd.mil/mmid/casualty/OIF-Total.pdf;
U.S. Department of Justice. “Al Qaeda Associates Charged in Attack on USS Cole, Attempted Attack on
Another U.S. Naval Vessel.” Public Relations Release #298: 05-15-03, 3. 15 May 2003. Available on
Http://www.usdoj.gov/opa/pr/2003/May/03_298.htm; Internet; Accessed 16 February 2004.
U.S. Department of Justice. Federal Bureau of Investigation. Counterterrorism Threat Assessment and Warning
Unit. Counterterrorism Division. Terrorism in the United States 1999. Report 0308. Washington, D.C., n.d.
U.S. Department of Justice. Office of Justice Programs. Office for Victims of Crime. Responding to Terrorism
Victims (October 2000), by Kathryn M. Turman, Director. Available at
http://www.ojp.usdoj.gov/ovc//publications/infores/respterrorism/welcome.html; Internet; Accessed 11
March 2004.
U.S. Department of Justice. U.S. Attorney, Northern District of California. Press Release, Louisiana Man
Arrested for Releasing 911 Worm to WebTV Users, (San Francisco, CA, 19 February 2004), 1. Available
from http://www.usdoj.gov/criminal/cybercrime/jeansonneArrest.htm; Internet; Accessed 12 April 2004.
U.S. Department of Justice. U.S. Attorney, Southern District of California. Press Release, President of San
Diego Computer Security Company Indicted in Conspiracy to Gain Unauthorized Access into Government
Computer. San Diego, CA, 29 September 2003. Available from
http://www.usdoj.gov/criminal/cybercrime/okeefeArrest.htm; Internet; Accessed 12 April 2004.
U.S. Department of Justice. U.S. District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia. Alexandria Division,
Indictment, United States of America v. Gary McKinnon. Alexandria, VA, November 2002. Available
from http://news.findlaw.com/hdocs/docs/cyberlaw/usmck1102vaind.pdf; Internet; Accessed 16 April 2004.
U.S. Department of State. Bureau of Diplomatic Security. State Department Diplomatic Security Surveillance
Detection Program Course of Instruction [CD-ROM]. Washington, D.C., October 1999.
U.S. Department of State. “Clinton Letter to Congress on U.S.S. Cole Attack.” International Information
Programs, Washington File. Available from http://usinfo.state.gov/topical/pol/terrro/00101603.htm;
U.S. Department of State. International Information Programs Bulletin. Justice Department on Khobar Towers
Explosion Indictments, 21 June 2001. Available from
http://usinfo.state.gov/topical/pol/terror/01062102.htm; Internet; Accessed 10 February 2004.
U.S. Department of State. Office of the Coordinator for Counterterrorism. Patterns of Global Terrorism 2001.
Washington, D.C., May 2002.
Washington, D.C., 2003.
Washington, D.C., 2004, revised 22 June 2004.
U.S. Department of State. Office of Counterterrorism. Foreign Terrorist Organizations. Washington, D.C., 9
August 2002. Available from http://www.state.gov/s/ct/rls/fs/ 2002/12389.htm; Internet; Accessed 29
August 2002.
Bibliography-16
U.S. Department of State. Office of the Historian. Bureau of Public Affairs. Significant Terrorist Incidents,
1961-2001: A Chronology. Washington, D.C., 31 October 2001. Available from
http://www.fas.org/irp/threat/terror_chron.html; Internet; Accessed 30 January 2003.
U.S. Department of State. U.S. Embassy, Jakarta, Indonesia. Threats Involving Vehicle Borne Improvised
Explosive Devices. Jakarta, Indonesia, 2003, 2. Available from
http://www.usembassyjakarta.org/vbied_vehicles.html; Internet; Accessed 14 January 2004.
U.S. Department of the Treasury. Office of the Comptroller of the Currency. Infrastructure Threats from Cyber-
Terrorists, OCC Bulletin 99-9. Washington, D.C., 5 March 1999, 2. Available from
http://www.occ.treas.gov/ftp/bulletin/99-9.txt; Internet; Accessed 6 April 2004.
U.S. Director of Central Intelligence. DCI Counterterrorist Center. International Terrorism in 1997: A
Statistical View. Washington, D.C., 1998. Available from http://www.fas.org/irp/threat/terror97cia;
Internet; Accessed 3 February 2003
U.S. Director of Central Intelligence. DCI Weapons Intelligence. Nonproliferation, and Arms Control Center.
Unclassified Report to Congress on the Acquisition of Technology Relating to Weapons of Mass
Destruction and Advanced Conventional Munitions, 1 January Through 30 June 2001. Washington, D.C.,
January 2002.
U.S. Director of Central Intelligence. Interagency Intelligence Committee on Terrorism. Chemical, Biological
and Radiological (CBRN) Subcommittee. Chemical/Biological/Radiological Incident Handbook.
Washington, D.C., October 1998. Available from
http://images.google.com/imgres?imgurl=www.usis.usemb.se/
Environment/images/p1.gif&imgrefurl=http://www.usis.usemb.se/Environment/&h=158&w=168&prev=/i
mages%3Fq%3Dus%2Bgovernment%26svnum%3D10%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D%26ie%3DUTF-
8%26oe%3DUTF-8; Internet; Accessed 13 February 2003.
U.S. Director of Central Intelligence. Interagency Intelligence Committee on Terrorism. Community

Counterterrorism Board. (FOUO) Improvised Explosive Devices (IEDs) and Other Criminal and Terrorist
Devices: A Basic Reference Manual. Washington, D.C., September 2000.
U.S. District Court, District of Colorado. Criminal Action No. 95-CR-110. United States of America, Plaintiff,
vs. Timothy James McVeigh and Terry Lynn Nichols, Defendants. “8/95 Grand Jury Indictment of
McVeigh and Nichols.” Indictment Count One (Conspiracy to Use a Weapon of Mass Destruction), 1995,
1. Available from http://www.lectlaw.com/files/cas44.htm; Internet; Accessed 2 February 2004.
U.S. District Court, District of Colorado. Criminal Action No. 96-CR-68. United States of America, Plaintiff, vs.
Timothy James McVeigh, Defendant. The McVeigh Trial’s April 24, 1997 Opening Statement by the [U.S.]
Government. Available from http://www.lectlaw.com/bomb.html; Internet; Accessed 5 March 2004.
U.S. District Court, Eastern District of Virginia, Alexandria Division. Grand Jury Indictment of 46 counts
against named and unspecified terrorists charged in the Khobar Towers bombing attack of 25 June 1996.
Available from http://www.fbi.gov/pressrel/pressrel01/khobar.pdf; Internet; Accessed 10 February 2004.
U.S. District Court, Southern District of New York. Indictment S12 98 Cr. 1023 (KTD). United States of
America, Plaintiff, vs. Jamal Ahmed Mohammed Ali Al-Badawi and Fahd Al-Quso, Defendants.
Available from http://news.findlaw.com/hdocs/docs/cole/usalbadawi051503ind.pdf; Internet; Accessed 5
April 2004.
U.S. District Court, Western District of Oklahoma. Case No. M-95-105-H. United States of America. Plaintiff,
vs. Terry Lynn Nichols, Defendant. “Terry Nichols Criminal Complaint.” Affidavit. 9 May 1995, 2.
Available from http://www.lectlaw.com/files/cur18.htm; Internet; Accessed 16 February 2004.
U.S. District Court, Western District of Oklahoma. Case No. M-95-105-H. United States of America. Plaintiff,
vs. Michael J. Fortier, Defendant. “Michael Fortier’s Plea Agreement.” Affidavit. 10 August 1995, 2. Available
from http://www.lectlaw.com/files/cas37.htm; Internet.; Accessed 16 February 2004.
Bibliography-17
U.S. General Accounting Office. Information Security: Computer Attacks at Department of Defense Pose
Increasing Risks, Report AIMD-96-84. Washington, D.C., 22 May 1996. Available from
http://www.fas.org/irp/gao/aim96084.htm; Internet; Accessed 12 April 2004.
U.S. House National Security Committee. Report on the Bombing of Khobar Towers 14 August 1996. Statement
of Chairman Floyd D. Spence and Staff Report. Available from http://www.fas.org/irp/threat/saudi.pdf;
Internet; Accessed10 February 2004.
U.S. Joint Chiefs of Staff, J5 War on Terrorism, Strategic Planning Division. Briefing (U) The National Military
Strategic Plan for the War on Terrorism (NMSP-WOT. Version 18 April 2005.
Joint Chiefs of Staff, J5 War on Terrorism, Strategic Planning Division. Briefing (U) Countering Ideological
Support for Terrorism. Version 19Jan05, 5 April 2005.
USNORTHCOM [U.S. Northern Command] website. Available at http://www.northcom.mil; Internet; Accessed

28 April 2004.
“U.S. Officials Charge Briton for Hacking Pentagon.” Asian School of Cyber Laws, November 2002. Available
from http://www.asianlaws.org/cyberlaw/archives/11_02_penta.htm; Internet; Accessed 16 April 2004.
U.S. Title 28. Code of Federal Regulations. Section 0.85. Judicial Administration. Washington, D.C., July 2001.
Van Creveld, Martin L. The Transformation of War. New York: The Free Press, 1991.
Venekamp, Clint A. See U.S. Department of Defense.
Venzke, Ben N. Al-Qaeda Targeting Guidance – v1.0, Thursday 1 April 2004. Alexandria: IntelCenter/Tempest
Publishing, 2004.
Venzke, Ben N., and Aimee Ibrahim. Al-Qaeda Tactic/Target Brief. Alexandria: Intel Center/Tempest
Publishing, 2002.
________. The al-Qaeda Threat: An Analytical Guide to al-Qaeda’s Tactics and Targets. Alexandria: Tempest
Publishing, LLC, 2003, 36, quoting Abu ‘Ubeid al-Qurashi, “The Nightmares of America, 13 February 2002.
von Clausewitz, Karl. War, Politics and Power. Chicago: Regnery Gateway, 1962.
Vinocur, John. “Bomb Attempt on Gen. Haig’s Life Not Tied to Major Terrorist Groups.” New York Times, 27
June 1979.
________. “U.S. General Safe in Raid in Germany.” New York Times. 16 September 1981.
“Waco – Branch Davidian Files.” Available from http://www.paperlessarchives.com/waco.html; Internet;

Wagamon, Ed. “Tactical Combat in Chechnya: Mines & Booby Traps: The Number One Killer” (Part 1 of 2).
How They Fight: Armies of the World, NGIC-1122-0062-01, vol 4-01 (August 2001): 33-37.
Walsh, Elsa. “Louis Freech’s Last Case.” The New Yorker, 14 May 2001. Available from
http://www.newyorker.com/printable/?archive/010924fr_archive06; Internet; Accessed 12 February 2004.
The War on Terrorism: The U.S. and the S.P.L.A. London: The European-Sudanese Public Affairs Council
Press Release, 12 October 2001. Available from http://allafrica.com/stories/200110120528.html; Internet;
Washington Times.com. 1 December 2003. Available from http://www.washtimes.com/upi-breaking/20031201-

025645-3524r.htm; Internet; Accessed 2 April 2004.
Bibliography-18
Weapons of Mass Destruction. New York: United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime, December 2002.
Available from http://www.undcp.org/odccp/terrorism_weapons _mass_destruction_page006.html;
“Weapons of Terror.” ADL (8 April 2002): 1. Available from http://www.adl.org/ israel/weapons_list.asp;

West, Woody. “The Last Word.” Insight: On the News, 16 November 2001. Available from
http://www.insightmag.com/news/2001/12/10/Features/The-Last-Word-148069.shtml; Internet; Accessed
12 February 2004.
“What is Radiological Terrorism?” Introduction to Radiological Terrorism, 1 and 2. Available from

White, Jerry. “Ridding the World of Land Mines.” Union-Tribune (January 24, 2002): 4-5. Available from
http://www.wand.org/9-11/discuss6.html; Internet; Accessed 13 December 2002.
Williscroft, Robert G. “The Economics of Demining Defines Success and Failure.” Defense Watch February 13,
2002: 1-17. Available from http://www.sftt.org/ dw02132002.html; Internet; Accessed 13 December 2002.
Zakis, Jeremy. Annual Report of International Terrorist Activity, 2001. Chicago: The Emergency Response and
Research Institute, 2002. Available from http://www. emergency.com/2002/erri_ter2001.pdf; Internet;
Accessed 7 November 2002
Bibliography-19
Bibliography-20
Bibliography-1
“The battle is now joined on many fronts.

We will not waiver, we will not tire,
we will not falter, and we will not fail.
Peace and freedom will prevail…
To all the men and women in our military,
every sailor, every soldier, every airman,
every coast guardsman, every marine,
I say this: Your mission is defined.
The objectives are clear. Your goal is just.
You have my full confidence, and you will have
every tool you need to carry out your duty.”
President
United States of America
A Military Guide to Terrorism in the 21st Century
U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command
Deputy Chief of Staff for Intelligence
Assistant Deputy Chief of Staff for Intelligence-Threats
Fort Leavenworth, Kansas
DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Bibliography-2

Approved for public release; distribution unlimited.

Military Guide To Terrorism in The Twenty-First Century

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Military Guide To Terrorism in The Twenty-First Century

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Military Guide To Terrorism in The Twenty-First Century

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

A Military Guide to Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century 15 August 2005

A Military Guide to Terrorism in the Twenty-First Century 15 August 2005

Specifically, this handbook dated 15 August 2005 –

Deletes Appendix H, WMD and CBRNE Consequence Management.

Deletes Appendix I, Cyber Operations.

Deletes Appendix J, Case Studies in Terrorism.

Expands the Selected Bibliography.

U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command

Page Intentionally Blank

Chapter 1 Nature and History of Terror ............................................................................ 1-1

Chapter 2 Terrorist Behaviors, Motivations, and Characteristics................................... 2-1

Chapter 3 Terrorist Group Organization........................................................................... 3-1

Chapter 4 Assessing Terrorist Capabilities and Intentions .............................................. 4-1

Chapter 5 Terrorist Targeting of U.S. Military Forces..................................................... 5-1

Chapter 6 Future of Terrorism............................................................................................ 6-1

Section I: Future Trends in Terrorism................................................................................. 6-1

Appendix A Terrorist Threat to Combatant Commands ................................................ A-1

Appendix B Terrorist Planning Cycle................................................................................ B-1

Appendix C Terrorist Operations and Tactics.................................................................. C-1

Appendix D Firearms .......................................................................................................... D-1

Appendix E Improvised Explosive Devices ....................................................................... E-1

Appendix F Conventional Military Munitions ...................................................................F-1

Rocket Propelled Grenade...................................................................................................F-3

Appendix G Weapons of Mass Destruction/Effect............................................................G-1

Selected Bibliography .......................................................................................Bibliography-1

Page Intentionally Blank

Purpose. This informational handbook supports operational missions, institutional training,

Proponent Statement. Headquarters, U.S. Army Training and Doctrine Command

Page Intentionally Blank

U.S. Northern Command, J2 Combined Intelligence and Fusion Center (CIFC)

U.S. Army Network Enterprise Technology Command, 9th ASC, G2

Interaction among these elements may range

Chart Intro-1: U.S. Active Duty Military Deaths 1980-2002

(Source: Department of Defense)

h Complement research, analysis, and contingency techniques within a “red teaming”

Scope of the Issue

Terrorism is a special type of violence; while

“Many potential adversaries, as reflected in doctrinal writings and statements,

This perception among present and potential adversaries will continue to

National Intelligence Council's "Global Trends 2015: A Dialogue About the

U.S. Strategic Overview

U.S. Goals and Objectives

“No group or nation should mistake America’s intention:

GWOT and the Contemporary Operational Environment

The U.S. National Defense Strategy identifies four types of

As an example, denying resources to terrorists and terrorist networks is critical to countering

Interaction among these elements may range from

or a contingency of threat capabilities used to present conditions, circumstances, and

Approach to Understanding Terrorism

Chapter 2: Terrorist Behaviors, Motivations, and Characteristics, presents recent examples

Chapter 3: Terrorist Group Organization, provides examples and diagrams of hierarchical

Appendices to Army TRADOC DCSINT Handbook No. 1 provide additional information to

A: Terrorist Threat to Combatant Commands. The annual publication of Patterns of Global

D: Firearms. Illustrations, photographs, and descriptions present a survey of conventional small

E: Improvised Explosive Devices. Illustrations, photographs, and descriptions present a survey of

F: Conventional Military Munitions. Illustrations, photographs, and descriptions present a survey

U.S. Army TRADOC DCSINT Handbook No. 1

Terror Operations Cyber Operations Suicide Bombing Defense Support

MAY 20 MAY 20 MAY 20 MAY 20