AC generators which produce constant frequency, constant voltage output are

called as “synchronous generators”

Mainly two types

1. Cylindrical rotor generators (Non-salient pole)
Used with high-speed prime movers such as steam turbines, gas turbines
2. Salient-pole generator
Used with low-speed prime movers such as hydro turbines, diesel turbines
Construction of a synchronous generator

• Stator
▪ Same construction for both cylindrical rotor and salient pole generators
▪ Slots are symmetrically distributed
▪ Heavy due to large amount of copper and iron is used
▪ Cooling mechanisms are used for remove the heat in yoke
Rotor
Cylindrical rotor
• It has the DC field winding embedded in it
• Provides more mechanical strength and balancing

Salient pole
• There are projecting poles
• Winding is on these projecting poles
• The mechanical strength is low
• So to prevent rotor oscillations during operation and withstand
against disturbances, there is fixing called damper winding
Principle of operation

• Rotor is fitted with DC winding

• Energize the DC winding by supplying a DC current
• Then North-South pattern of magnetic poles are
created
• Then the rotor is rotated by the prime mover
• A time varying magnetic flux is applied to the 3-
phase winding in stator
• Stator induced a balance 3-phase voltage
By increasing the DC current for the rotor, generated voltage can be increased

𝟏𝟐𝟎𝐟
𝐍=
𝐏
P = no. of poles on the rotor
f = frequency
N = rpm speed of the rotor

Method of excitation
▪ To supply DC current to the rotor(field) winding
▪ Control the magnitude of direct current
• Using external DC source
• Using self generated DC
• Using self generated AC plus rectification
Cylindrical rotor generators
▪ Per phase equivalent circuit

Xs =reactance per phase

Ra = armature resistance per phase
V = terminal voltage per phase
E = internal (induced) emf per phase
Ia = armature current per phase
 Φ=Power factor angle
δ = Load angle

• For large generators, Ra value can be ignored.

Real power (P) and Reactive power (Q)

P = 3 𝑉𝑎 𝐼𝑎 cos 𝜃
Q = 3 𝑉𝑎 𝐼𝑎 sin 𝜃

From the diagram,

𝐸𝑎 sin 𝛿 = 𝑋𝑠 𝐼𝑎 cos 𝜃
𝐸𝑎 cos 𝛿 − 𝑉𝑎 = 𝑋𝑠 𝐼𝑎 sin 𝜃

3𝑉𝑎 𝐸𝑎 sin 𝛿
P=
𝑋𝑠

3 𝑉𝑎 (𝐸𝑎 cos 𝛿 − 𝑉𝑎 )
Q=
𝑋𝑠
Q1. A 4-pole, 60Hz, Y-connected, 3-phase generator has a regulated terminal (line-to-neutral) voltage
as = 260∠0 V , a synchronous reactance of 0.06Ω/phase , a stator resistance is negligible. The balanced
3-phase load draws 2MW at a 0.8 power factor lagging. Calculate ,
i. The armature current per phase
ii. Reactive power
iii. Generated emf/ phase
iv. Speed of the generator at this instant
v. Load angle
P = 3 𝑉𝑎 𝐼𝑎 cos 𝜃
cos 𝜃 = 0.8
2 x 1000,000 =3 x260 x 𝐼𝑎 x 0.8 𝜃 =36.86⁰
𝐼𝑎 = 3205.128∠ − 36.86⁰

Q = 3 𝑉𝑎 𝐼𝑎 sin 𝜃
120f
Q = 3 x 260 x 3205.128 x sin(36.86) N=
P
𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝐱 𝟔𝟎
Q = 1.499MVar N= = 1200 rpm
𝟒

Load angle = 22.29⁰

E = 𝑉𝑎 + 𝑗𝐼𝑎 𝑋
E = 260 ∠0 + j(3205.128∠ − 36.86⁰) x(0.06)
E = 405.67 ∠22.289⁰
Q2. A 3-phase, Y-connected, 6-pole, 50Hz generator has reactance of 1Ω/ phase , stator resistance of
0.003Ω/phase . The machine operates at a power angle of 31.48⁰ lagging. The line-to-neutral terminal
voltage is 240V. It delivers 200kW of power. Find,
i. Speed of the generator
ii. Armature current/phase
iii. Reactive power
iv. Generated emf/phase
v. Load angle
 120f
N= Q = 3 𝑉𝑎 𝐼𝑎 sin 𝜃
P
𝟏𝟐𝟎 𝐱 𝟓𝟎
N= = 1000 rpm Q = 3 x 240 x 325.715 x sin(31.48)
𝟔
Q = 122.465kVar
Load angle = 34.009⁰

E = 𝑉𝑎 + 𝑗𝐼𝑎 𝑋
P = 3 𝑉𝑎 𝐼𝑎 cos 𝜃
E = 240 ∠0 + (325.715∠ − 31.48⁰) x(0.003+j1)
200,000 =3 x240 x 𝐼𝑎 x cos (31.48)
E = 495.72 ∠34.009⁰
𝐼𝑎 = 325.715∠ − 31.48⁰ A
Power/ angle curve for a cylindrical rotor generator

• Graphical representation of electrical output and the

load angle.
• When load angle varies from 0⁰ to 90⁰, Output power
is also increases.
• When beyond 90 ⁰, Electrical power output is
decreasing
• As the output is less, poles of the machine start to
slip, then it will lose the synchronism
3𝑉𝑎 𝐸𝑎 sin 𝛿 • So the generator is not stable
P=
𝑋𝑠 • The stability limit is from 0 ⁰ to 90⁰
Safe operating region on P-Q plane

• MVA output should not exceed the rated MVA value

MVA = MW 2 + MVar 2
• Its load angle should not exceed 90
• Its excitation should not exceed maximum excitation limit
• Real power output should not exceed any specified upper limit

3𝑉𝑎 𝐸𝑎 sin 𝛿 3 𝑉𝑎 (𝐸𝑎 cos 𝛿 − 𝑉𝑎 )

P= Q=
𝑋𝑠 𝑋𝑠

𝑉𝑎2 2 3𝐸𝑉𝑡 2
𝑃2 + (𝑄 + 3 ) = ( )
𝑋𝑠 𝑋𝑠
Safe operating region on P-Q plane

When δ = 90
𝑉𝑎2
Q = (- 3 𝑋𝑠 )
Q3. A 3 phase, 100MVA star connected cylindrical rotor synchronous generator has a synchronous
reactance of 2Ω/ phase. The terminal voltage is 11kV (line voltage) and it generates 80% of full load at
power factor is 0.85 lagging.
Determine the load angle and the induced emf

Va = 11/√3 =6.35 kV

S = (MVA)out = 0.8 x 100 = 80 MVA

P = S cos 𝜃 = 80 x 0.85 Cos 𝜃 =0.85

P = 68 MW 𝜃 = 31.78

Q = S sin 𝜃 = 80 x sin(31.788)
Q = 42 MVar
 𝑉𝑎2 63502
3 = 3 = 62.5 𝑀𝑉𝑎𝑟
𝑋𝑠 2

−1
68
δ = tan [ ]
62.5 + 42
δ = 33⁰

3𝐸𝑉𝑡
= (42 + 62.5)2 +682
𝑋𝑠
3. 𝐸. 6350
= (42 + 62.5)2 +682
2
E = 12.67kV
Q4.A 3 phase 100 MVA cylindrical rotor synchronous generator has a synchronous reactance
of 2Ω/ phase. The maximum excitation voltage is 14V and the terminal voltage is 6.35V.
i. Sketch safe operating region indicating all the values.
ii. What is the maximum reactive power
3𝐸𝑉𝑡 3 ∗ 14 ∗ 6.35
= = 133.3
𝑋𝑠 2

𝑃2 + 𝑄2 = 1002
𝑃2 + (60.5 + 𝑄)2 = 133.32
P = 94.2MW
Q = 33.5 Mvar

Maximum reactive power = 133.3 – 33.5 = 72.8 MVar

Governor system
• Used to control real power
• By controlling the mechanical power
input to the turbine
Fly ball governor unit
• Senses the change in speed or frequency
• If the speed increases, The balls move outwards
• The point B on the linkage system comes done

Hydraulic amplifier
• Have the pilot valve and the main piston
• Open or close the steam value due to high pressure system
Linkage mechanism
• Provides the movement to control the value
when the speed changes

Speed Changer
• Have a steady reference power value
• If it goes done, the upper pilot valve opens, and
more steam comes to the turbine
Two basic operations of governor system

• Pre-setting operation
Adjust the reference power up or down, So the mechanical power output
from the turbine goes up or down

• Free- running operation

Reference value is fixed. Fly ball governor unit regulates the power output
Governor characteristic/ Droop characteristic

• Represents a graph between Frequency and Power

(𝑓𝑁𝐿 − 𝑓𝐹𝐿)
𝐷𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑝 = x 100% 𝑓𝐹𝐿 = 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑
𝑓𝐹𝐿
 Reactive power control
3 𝑉𝑎 (𝐸𝑎 cos 𝛿 − 𝑉𝑎 )
Q=
𝑋𝑠
▪ To change reactive power output, generated emf should be changed.
▪ To change emf, excitation current should be changed
▪ To change the excitation current, Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) system is used
▪ Controls the output by sensing the terminal voltage
▪ Compares the terminal voltage and reference value
▪ The difference (error signal) used to adjust the field current.
𝑉𝑡(𝑟𝑒𝑓) >𝑉𝑡(𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙) →𝐼𝑛𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 If
𝑉𝑡(𝑟𝑒𝑓) < 𝑉𝑡(𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙) →De𝑐𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑠𝑒 If
Salient pole synchronous generator

As the air gap length of direct axis and quadrature axis are different, two reactance
should be considered
𝑋𝑞 = quadrature axis synchronous reactance
𝑋𝑑 = direct axis synchronous reactance
Always, 𝑋𝑞 < 𝑋𝑑

As the airgap is larger, then the reactance will be smaller

Salient pole synchronous generator

𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑑 + 𝐼𝑞
E = Vt + j 𝐼𝑑 𝑋𝑑 + 𝑗𝐼𝑞 𝑋𝑞 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
Phasor diagram for salient pole synchronous generator

𝐼𝑎 = 𝐼𝑑 + 𝐼𝑞
E = Vt + j 𝐼𝑑 𝑋𝑑 + 𝑗𝐼𝑞 𝑋𝑞 + 𝐼𝑎 𝑅𝑎
From the diagram,

𝐴𝐵 𝐵𝐶
=
𝑀𝑁 𝑀𝐿

𝐴𝐵 𝑋𝑞𝐼𝑞
=
𝐼𝑎 𝐼𝑞
AB = 𝑋𝑞𝐼𝑎

Also 𝐼𝑎 cos 𝜃 = 𝐼𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 + 𝐼𝑞 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿

𝐼𝑎 sin 𝜃 = −𝐼𝑞 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 + 𝐼𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿
𝑉𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿= 𝑋𝑞 𝐼𝑞
𝑋𝑑 𝐼𝑑 = 𝐸 − 𝑉𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿
Q. A salient pole rotor generator has 𝑋𝑑 = 1.815Ω and 𝑋𝑞 = 1.21Ω when it is rated at 6.35kV
(phase voltage) and 100MVA. The generator is delivering 60MW of real power at 0.8pf
lagging. Determine load angle and generated emf.

−1 𝑥𝑞 𝐼𝑎 cos(𝜃)
P = 3 𝑉𝑎 𝐼𝑎 cos 𝜃 𝛿= tan [ ]
𝑉𝑡 +𝑥𝑞 𝐼𝑎 sin(𝜃)
60, 000, 000 = 3* 6.35 *1000 * 𝐼𝑎 * 0.8 1.21 ∗3.94∗0.8
𝛿= tan−1 [ ]
6.35+1.21∗3.94∗0.6
𝐼𝑎 = 3.94 kA
𝛿 = 22.5⁰

E = 𝑉𝑎 cos(𝛿)+ 𝐼𝑑 𝑋𝑑
cos 𝜃 = 0.8
E = 6.35 cos(22.5) + (3.94 sin(22.5+36.86)) x 1.815
𝜃 =36.86⁰
E = 12.01kV
Real power (P) and Reactive power (Q) P = 3 𝑉𝑡 𝐼𝑎 cos 𝜃
P = 3 𝑉𝑡 𝐼𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 + 𝐼𝑞 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿
(𝐸 − 𝑉𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿) 𝑉𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿
P = 3 𝑉𝑡 ( )𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿
𝑋𝑑 𝑋𝑞

3𝑉𝑡 𝐸𝑎 sin 𝛿 3𝑉𝑡2 (𝑋𝑑 −𝑋𝑞 ) sin 2𝛿

P= +
𝑋𝑑 2𝑋𝑑 𝑋𝑞

Q = 3 𝑉𝑡 𝐼𝑎 sin 𝜃
Q = 3 𝑉𝑡 (−𝐼𝑞 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 + 𝐼𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿)
𝑉𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 (𝐸 − 𝑉𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿)
Q = 3 𝑉𝑡 (− 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 + 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿)
𝑋𝑞 𝑋𝑑
𝐼𝑎 cos 𝜃 = 𝐼𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 + 𝐼𝑞 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿
𝐼𝑎 sin 𝜃 = −𝐼𝑞 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿 + 𝐼𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿 3 𝑉𝑡 (𝐸𝑎 cos 𝛿 − 𝑉𝑡 ) 3𝑉𝑡2 (𝑋𝑑 −𝑋𝑞 ) sin 𝛿
Q= -
𝑋𝑑 𝑋𝑑 𝑋𝑞
𝑉𝑡 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿= 𝑋𝑞 𝐼𝑞
𝑋𝑑 𝐼𝑑 = 𝐸 − 𝑉𝑡 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿
Synchronization
▪ When a live generator is connecting to a live bus bar there’s a process called
synchronization.
▪ There are essential conditions for connecting.
▪ The generator and bus bar should have
• Same frequency
• Same line-line voltage
• Same phase sequence
• Same phase instant
Dark Lamp Method

Homework
Find out the process of dark lamp method
Real Power sharing/ Parallel operation of generators
Q. Two generators A and B, with rated power of 500MW and 300MW and governor
droops of 3% and 4% are operating in parallel. The combination delivers a total power of
600MW at 50Hz with generator A taking 65% share. The rated frequency is 50Hz.
Find,
i. The maximum total power that the combination can deliver without overloading any
generator
ii. The frequency of operation after the load power goes down from 600MW to
200MW.
 𝑓1 − 𝑓3
= 0.03
50

𝑓1 − 𝑓3 500
50 =
𝑓1 − 50 390

𝑓1 = 51.17Hz
𝑓3 = 49.67Hz

𝑓2 − 𝑓4
= 0.04
For generator A; 50

0.65x 600 = 390MW 𝑓2 − 𝑓4 300

=
𝑓2 − 50 210
For generator B;
600-390 =210MW
𝑓2 = 51.40Hz
𝑓4 = 49.40Hz
 𝑃𝐴 = 500𝑀𝑊

𝑓2 − 𝑓3
𝑃𝐵 = 300
𝑓2 − 𝑓4

51.4−49.67
𝑃𝐵 = 300 = 259.5MW
51.4−49.4

Total power = 500 + 259.5 =759.5MW

𝑃𝐴1 + 𝑃𝐵1 = 200

𝑓1 −𝑓5 𝑓2 −𝑓5
𝑓1 = 51.17Hz 500 + 300 =200
𝑓1 −𝑓3 𝑓2 −𝑓4
𝑓3 = 49.67Hz
51.17−𝑓5 51.4−𝑓5
500 +300 = 200
𝑓2 = 51.40Hz 51.17−49.67 51.4−49.4

𝑓4 = 49.40Hz 𝑓5 = 50.827Hz
THE END