LESSON 5

STOICHIOMETRY

Overview:
This chapter will describe how to symbolize chemical reactions using chemical
equations, how to classify some common chemical reactions by identifying patterns of
reactivity, and how to determine the quantitative relations between the amounts of
substances involved in chemical reactions—that is, the reaction stoichiometry.

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this lesson, the students can:
1. Explain relative atomic mass;
2. Determine the molar mass of elements and compounds;
3. Calculate the mass from a given number of moles of an element or compound;
4. Solve problems relating to chemical composition;
5. Write equations for chemical reactions and balance them; and
6. Describe evidences that a chemical reaction has occurred.

Materials Needed:
 Periodic Table of Elements  PowerPoint Presentation
 Video clips

Duration: 10 hours
Learning Content:
Stoichiometry (Greek stiochion, meaning “element or part,” metron meaning
“measure”) is the study of the quantitative aspects of chemical formula and reactions.
If you know what is in a formula or reaction, stoichiometry tells you how much.

1. Mole Concept

In the laboratory, measuring a chemical substance to prepare a solution or “run”

a reaction is a routine activity. We want to know the number of atoms, molecules, or
formula units in s a substance because these are the entities that react with each
other. However, these entities are too small to count individually, so chemists use a
unit called the mole to count them by weighing them.

The mole, like the dozen, represents a certain number of objects. The SI
definition of mole (abbreviated mol) is the amount of a substance that contains the
number of entities equal to the number of atoms in exactly 12.0 g of carbon-12. These
number is called Avogadro’s Number (𝐍𝐀 ) in honor of the 19th – century Italian
physicist, Amadeo Avogadro. The currently accepted value is 𝟔. 𝟎𝟐𝟐𝟏𝟑𝟔𝟕 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑.
Generally, we round Avogadro’s number to 4 significant figure: 𝟔. 𝟎𝟐𝟐 𝐱 𝟏𝟎𝟐𝟑.

Mole - Abbreviated as mol

- SI unit for the amount of substance
- The counting unit for the amount of substance
- It is the amount of a substance that contains the number of
entities equal to the number of atoms in exactly 12.0 g of carbon -12.

1 mole atom = 6.022 x 1023 atoms

1 mole molecule = 6.022 x 1023 molecules
1 mole ion = 6.022 x 1023 ions

12
Examples: 1 mole C atoms = 6.022 x 1023 12
C atoms
1 mole H2 O molecules = 6.022 x 1023 H2 O atoms
1 mole NO3 ions = 6.022 x 1023 NO3 atoms

2. Atomic Mass

Atomic mass (also called atomic weight) is the mass of the atom in atomic mass
unit (amu). One atomic mass unit is defined as a mass exactly equal to one-twelfth the
mass of one carbon-12 atom. Carbon-12 is the carbon isotope that has six neutrons.
Setting the atomic mass of the carbon-12 at 12 amu provides the standards for
measuring the atomic mass of the other elements.
3. Molar Mass

Molar Mass (M) is defined as the mass (in gram or kilogram) of one mole units
(such as atoms or molecules) of a substance. Note that the molar mass of carbon (in
grams) is numerically equal to its atomic mass in amu. Likewise, the atomic mass of
sodium is 22.99 amu and its molar mass is 22.99 g.

4. Molecular Mass

Molecular Mass (also called molecular weight) is the number of the atomic
masses (in amu) in the molecule or compound. To calculate molecular mass, we need
to multiply the atomic mass of each element by the number of atoms of that element
present in the molecule and sum over all the element.

5. Percent Composition

The percent composition is the percent by mass of each element in a

compound. It is obtained by dividing the mass of each element in one mole of the
compound by the molar mass of the compound and multiplying by 100 percent.
Mathematically, the percent composition of an element in a compound is expressed
as
𝐧 𝐱 𝐌𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭
Percent composition of an element = x 100%
𝐌𝐨𝐥𝐚𝐫 𝐦𝐚𝐬𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐜𝐨𝐦𝐩𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝

where n is the number of moles of the element in 1 mole of

the compound.

Example: H2O2 %H = 5.926% and O = 94.06%

6. Chemical Formula

Chemical formula is a notation of atomic symbols and numerical subscripts that

shows the number of each atom present in a molecule or formula unit of a substance.
Types of chemical formula

1. Empirical Formula – it shows the lowest relative number of atoms of each

element in a compound or molecule. It is the simplest type of formula and is
derived from the masses of the component elements.

Example: Hydrogen peroxide has the empirical formula of HO

2. Molecular formula - shows the actual number of atoms of each element in a

molecule
of a compound.

Example: Hydrogen peroxide has the molecular formula of H2O2.

3. Structural Formula - shows both the actual number of atoms and the
arrangement of the
atom in the molecule.

Example: Molecular formula of hydrogen peroxide is H-O-O-H

Types of Structural Formula

1. Condensed Structural Formula Example: Methane CH4, Ethane

CH3CH3
2. Expanded Structural Formula Example: see on the board

CHEMICAL REACTION & CHEMICAL EQUATION

The law of conservation of mass is a statement of the fact that in ordinary

chemical reactions, matter is neither created nor destroyed. At the macroscopic level,
this means that the total mass of the products is equal to the total mass of the reactants
used in the reaction. At the submicroscopic level, the atomic theory accounts for
these observations. In chemical reactions, atoms do not disappear nor appear All
atoms arranged in structures in the reactants are redistributed into new combinations
in the product.

Chemical reaction is a process that leads to the transformation of one set

of chemical substances to another. Strictly, it involves the motion of electrons in the
forming and breaking of chemical bonds between atoms, and can often be described
by a chemical equation.

Chemical equations are a collection of symbols used to represent chemical

reactions. Two parts of chemical reaction are reactant and product. The substances
on the left side of the equation are reactants (or reagent). The substances on the
right side of the equation are products.

Reactant(1) + Reactant(2) Product(1) + Product(2)

Chemical equations are used to symbolize chemical reactions and indicate

the number of atoms involved and how they are redistributed. All chemical equations
must be balanced to reflect the law of conservation of mass, which means that the
number of atoms of each kind must be the same in the products as in the reactants.

Coefficient indicate the number of units of a substance relative to other

reactants and products in a chemical equation.

Catalyst is a substance added in the reaction to speed up the rate of the

reaction. It can be retrieved completely at the end of the reaction.

Symbols Use in Writing Chemical Equations

read as “yield” or “produces”
 Reaction proceed in both directions (forward and backward or
reversible reaction)
(s) solid; written immediately after the substance
(l) liquid; written immediately after the substance
(g) gas; written immediately after the substance
(aq) aqueous - substance is dissolved in water.
 + plus; it is read “plus” or “and” - used to separate each reactants and
each products.
↑ a gas; written immediately after a gaseous product.
↓ a solid deposited from solution; written immediately after the
substance.
Δ heat; written above the arrow which indicate that the reaction is run at
high temperature

Guide in Balancing Chemical Equation

1. Identify all reactants and products and write there correct formula.
2. Begin balancing the equation by trying different coefficients to make the numbers
of atoms of each element the same both sides of the equation. You can change the
coefficient but not the subscript.
3. Check your balanced equation to be sure that you have same total number of
each atoms on both sides of the equation arrow (at the reactants and products side)

Types of Chemical Reactions

1. Combination Reactions

X + Y XY

A combination reaction involves the direct union of two or more substances

to produce one new substance. The two or more combining materials may be either
elements or compounds, or a combination of two. It is also called synthesis
reaction.

Examples: 1. Al(s) + O2(g) Al2O3(s)

2. S(s) + O2(g) SO2(g)
3. N2(g) + H2(g) NH3(g)
4. Na2O(s) + H2O(l) NaOH(aq)
5. Al2O3(s) + H2O(l) Al(OH)3(s)
6. MgO(s) + H2O(l) Mg(OH)2(aq)
2. Decomposition Reactions

XY X + Y

In a decomposition reactions, a single substance undergoes a breakdown

into two or more simple substances. The reactant is a compound, but the products
may be either elements or compounds.

Examples: 1. HgO(s) Hg(l) + O2(g)

2. KClO3(3) KCl + O2(g)

3. CaCO3(s) CaO + CO2(g)

4. NaHCO3(s) Na2CO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

3. Single Replacement Reactions

A + BY B + AY

In a single replacement reaction, one element substitutes for or replaces

another element in a compound. Thus, a new compound is produced and another
element liberated.

Examples: 1. Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s)

2. Sn(s) + HCl(aq) SnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

3. Zn(s) + H2SO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + H2(g)

4. As4O6(s) + C(s) As4(g) + CO(g)

4. Double Replacement Reactions

AX + BY AY + BY

In a double replacement reaction, two compounds exchange atoms or

group of atoms (such as polyatomic ions) to produce two different compounds.

Examples: 1. AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) AgCl(s) +

NaNO3(aq)

2. BaCl2(aq) + H2SO4(aq) BaSO4(s) +

HCl(aq)

3. Ni(NO3)2(aq) + KOH(aq) KNO3(aq) +

Ni(OH)2(s)
4. MgCO3(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
+ CO2(g)

OTHER TYPES OF REACTION

5. Combustion Reaction

Combustion reaction occur when an oxygen combines with another

compounds releasing large amount of energy in the form of light and heat. These
reactions are exothermic, meaning they produce heat.

Examples: 1. C10H8 + 12O2 10CO2 + 4H2O

2. CH4 + O2 CO2 + H2O
3. Mg + O2 MgO
4. S2 + O2 SO2

6. Neutralization Reaction

HX + BOH BX + H2O
 Neutralization reaction occur whenever an acid or an acidic oxide react with a
base or a basic oxide. The various combination of reactants possible for a
neutralization reaction are

1. Acid and base 3. Basic oxide and acid

2. Base and acidic oxide 4. Acidic oxide and basic
oxide

In most neutralization reactions, one of the products is water and the other is
often an ionic compound, which is also called salt. Notice that this type of reaction
generally resembles that of double replacement reaction.

Examples: 1. HCl + Mg(OH)2 MgCl2 + H2O

2. HNO3(aq) + KOH(aq) KNO3(aq) + H2O(l)

3. HCl(aq) + Ca(OH)2(aq) CaCl2 + H2O(l)

The reaction of basic oxide and an acid is also neutralization reaction

because the product of the reaction are salt and water.

3. CaO(s) + HClO4(aq) Ca(ClO4)2(s) +

H2O(l)

The reaction of acidic oxide and a base is another example of neutralization

reaction because it produces salt and water.

4. LiOH(aq) + CO2(g) Li2CO3(s) + H2O(l)

7. Photosynthesis Reaction

CO2(g) + H2O(l) C6H12O6(s) + O2(g)

Photosynthesis is process by which green plants and certain other organisms

use the energy of light to convert carbon dioxide and water into the simple sugar
glucose. In so doing, photosynthesis provides the basic energy source for virtually all
organisms. An extremely important byproduct of photosynthesis is oxygen, on which
most organisms depend.

Photosynthesis occurs in green plants, seaweeds, algae, and certain bacteria.

These organisms are veritable sugar factories, producing millions of new glucose
molecules per second.

8. Fermentation Reaction

Fermentation reaction is the breakdown of carbohydrates by microorganisms.

Alcoholic fermentation, also referred to as ethanol fermentation, is a biological

process in which sugars such as glucose, fructose, and sucrose are converted
into cellular energy and thereby produce ethanol and carbon dioxide as metabolic
waste products. Because yeasts perform this conversion in the absence of oxygen,
alcoholic fermentation is considered an anaerobic process.
Alcoholic fermentation occurs in the production of alcoholic beverages and ethanol
fuel, and in the rising of bread dough.

The chemical equations below summarize the fermentation of sucrose

(C12H22O11) into ethanol (C2H5OH). Alcoholic fermentation converts one mole of
sucrose into four moles of ethanol and four moles of carbon dioxide, producing two
moles of ATP in the process.

The overall chemical formula for alcoholic fermentation is:

C12H22O11 4 C2H5OH + 4CO2

Alcoholic beverages
1. All ethanol contained in alcoholic beverages is produced by means of
fermentation
induced by yeast.
2. Wine is produced by fermentation of the natural sugars present in grapes and
other kinds of fruit.
3. Mead is produced by fermentation of the natural sugars present in honey.
4. Beer, whiskey, and vodka are produced by fermentation of grain starches that
have been
converted to sugar by the enzyme amylase, which is present in grain kernels that
have
been germinated.
5. Rum is produced by fermentation of sugarcane.

In all cases, fermentation must take place in a vessel that allows carbon
dioxide to escape but prevents outside air from coming in. This is because exposure
to oxygen would prevent the formation of ethanol.

AMOUNT OF REACTANT AND PRODUCT

A. MOLE METHOD

Basic questions in the laboratory is “How much product will be formed from
the specific amount of starting materials (reactants)?” Or in some cases, we might
ask the reverse questions: “How much starting materials may be used to obtain a
specific amount of product?” To interpret the reactions quantitatively, we need to
apply knowledge of molar mass and the mole concept. Stoichiometry is the
quantitative study of reactants and products in a chemical reaction.

Whether the units given for the reactants (or products) are moles, grams or
liter, or some other units, we use moles to calculate for the amount of product formed
in a reaction. This approach is called the mole method, which mean simply that the
stoichiometric coefficients in a chemical equation can be interpreted as the number
of moles of each substance.
B.LIMITING AND EXCESS REAGENTS

a. Limiting reagent is the reactant used up first in a reaction.

b. Excess reagents are the reactants present in quantities greater than necessary
to react with the quantity of the limiting reagent.

C.REACTION YIELD

a. Theoritical yield is the amount of product that would result if all the limiting reagent
reacted.
The amount of limiting reagent present at the start of the reaction determines
the
thoeoritical yield of the reaction.

b. Actual yield is the amount of product actually obtained from a reaction. Actual
yield is almost always less than the theoretical yield.

Reasons for the difference in the amount of theoritical and actual yields

1. Many reactions are reversible, and so they do not proceed 100% from left to
right.
2. Some reactions are complex in nature and the product formed may react further
among themselves or with the reactants to form still other products. These
additional reactions will reduce the yield of the reactions.

c. Percent yield is the proportion of the actual yield to the theoretical yield. This
method is employed to determine how efficient a given reaction is. It values range
from 1% to 100%. Chemist strive to maximize the percent yield in a reaction.
Factors that affect the percent yield include temperature and pressure.

Learning Activities:
Instructions: Solve the problems correctly. Show all your solutions.
 LESSON 6
GAS

Overview:
We are surrounded by an ocean of gas—the atmosphere—and many of the
properties of gases are familiar to us from our daily activities. Heated gases expand,
which can make a hot air balloon rise or cause a blowout in a bicycle tire left in the sun
on a hot day. Gases have played an important part in the development of chemistry.
In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, many scientists investigated gas
behavior, providing the first mathematical descriptions of the behavior of matter. In this
chapter, we will examine the relationships between gas temperature, pressure,
amount, and volume. We will study a simple theoretical model and use it to analyze
the experimental behavior of gases. The results of these analyses will show us the
limitations of the theory and how to improve on it.

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of this lesson, the students can:
1. Define pressure and give the common units of pressure;
2. Use the gas laws to determine pressure, volume, or temperature of a gas under
certain conditions of change;
3. Use the Ideal Gas Equation to calculate pressure, volume, temperature, or
number of moles of a gas;
4. Use Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures to relate mole fraction and partial
pressure of gases in a mixture;
5. Apply the principles of stoichiometry to determine the amounts (volume);
6. Explain the gas laws in terms of the kinetic molecular theory of gases; and
7. Demonstrate Graham’s law of effusion in an experiment

Materials Needed:
 PowerPoint Presentation  Video clip

Duration: 10 hours
Learning Content:
 During the ancient time, there were only four elements known to the
alchemists: air (gas), earth (solid), water (liquid) and fire. The term gas is a Greek
word for chaos because gases consist of a chaotic collection of particles in a state
of constant, random motion.

Atmosphere is the mixture of gases that surrounds the Earth. The atmosphere
is composed of two major gases: nitrogen (N2) and oxygen (O2) . Nitrogen (N2) is
unreactive gas and the most abundant gas in the atmosphere (78%).

Table 1. Composition of Dry Air

Gas Symbol % by Volume

1. Nitrogen N2 78.084 9. Krypton Kr

0.0001
2. Oxygen O2 20.948 10. Carbon monoxide CO
0.00001
3. Argon Ar 0.934 11. Xenon Xe
0.000008
4. Carbon dioxide CO2 0.033 12. Ozone O3
0.000002
5. Neon Ne 0.00182 13. Ammonia NH3
0.000001
6. Hydrogen H 0.0010 14. Nitrogen dioxide NO2
0.0000001
7. Helium He 0.00052 15. Sulfur dioxide SO2
0.00000002
8. Methane CH4 0.0002

Physical Characteristics of Gases

1. Gases assume the volume and shape of

their containers.
2. Gases are highly compressible and the
most compressible
of the three states of matter.
3. Gases are thermally expandable.
4. Most gases have much lower densities than
liquids and solids.
5. Gases are infinitely miscible. Gases will
mix evenly and
completely when confined to the same
container.
6. Gases have very low viscosity

Gas – substance that are normally in the gaseous state at ordinary temperature and
pressure.
Examples: oxygen, carbon dioxide, noble gases, air , etc.
Vapor – the gaseous form of any substance that is liquid or solid at normal
temperature and pressure.
Examples: water vapor, iodine vapor, vapor of mercury, etc.

PROPERTIES OF GASES

The characteristics or properties of gases vary widely. Some gases are

transparent, some have a strong smell, some dissolve in water, and some react
violently with almost any substance. Other gases exhibit exactly the opposite
properties. The chemical structure of gases also varies greatly.

A. Color

All gases are transparent, although some gases have a characteristic color.
For example, chlorine (Cl2) is greenish yellow, fluorine (F2) is light yellow, bromine
(Br2) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) are appear reddish brown, Iodine vapor (I2) is violet.

B. Odor

Many gases, including nitrogen, oxygen, and hydrogen, are odorless.

Ammonia (NH3), however, has a sharp and pungent odor. Because fuel gases
(inside an LPG tank) such as methane, propane, and butane are odorless, an
intensely odoroussulfur compound is added to them to ensure early detection should
these gases leak from their containers. The majority of gases, however, are
colorless.

C. Solubility

Some gases, such as carbon dioxide, dissolve well in water. Many others,
including nitrogen, hydrogen, and oxygen, are only slightly soluble in water. The
solubility of any gas decreases as the temperature of the gas increases, and it
increases as the pressure increases.

D. Chemical Reactivity

The chemical reactivity of gases varies widely. Oxygen (O2), chlorine (Cl2),
and fluorine (F2) are extremely reactive gases. In fact, fluorine (F2) will react with
almost any other substance; even water and glass will burn in a fluorine atmosphere.
At the other extreme are the noble gases, which are generally considered inert
(unreactive). Neon, a noble gas, is not known to react with any other substance.

E. Structure

Gas particles are the smallest units into which a gas can be divided without
changing the chemical properties of the gas. These particles can either be single
atoms or molecules (combinations of atoms). The noble gases, such as He, Ne, Ar,
Kr, Xe, Rn, are composed of individual atoms.
 Other gases, including carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and ammonia
(NH3), contain atoms of more than one element chemically bound together in
molecules. Some gases contain only a single element, such as hydrogen (H2),
oxygen (O2), and nitrogen (N2), are also composed of molecules. The oxygen in
Earth’s atmosphere, for example, consists mostly of oxygen molecules (O 2) rather
than individual oxygen atoms (O).

Important Gases for Human Beings

1. O2 is the most familiar gas since it occurs in the atmosphere (21%) and
animals require it to survive. Animals, including humans, take in oxygen from the air
when they breathe. Fires require oxygen to burn; familiar items such as candles, gas
stoves, and fireplaces will not work without oxygen. Oxygen is also used as a fuel in
rockets.

2. CO2 is another familiar gas. Some of the oxygen that animals breathe in is
combined with carbon to produce carbon dioxide that is subsequently exhaled. The
bubbles in soft drinks, soda and beer are actually bubbles of carbon dioxide. The gas
is dissolved under pressure in flavored solutions to produce many kinds of
carbonated beverages (soft drinks).

3. He is used to fill party balloons, airships, and weather balloons because it

is much less dense than air. Helium and other gases such as Ar, N2, Kr, and Xe do
not react with most elements. They are inert gases.Incandescent light bulbs often
contain argon because their extremely hot filaments would quickly react and
disintegrate if exposed to air.

PHASE TRANSITION
ORIGIN OF PRESSURE

Gases exert pressure on any surface with which they come in contact,
because gas molecules are constantly in motion. Pressureis defined as force
exerted per unit of surface area. Gas molecules are moving in every direction and it
exert uniform pressure on the floor, walls, ceiling and every object in a room or in its
container. Due to the gravitational attraction of the earth, the gases that make up the
atmosphere are pulled toward its surface and exert a force on all the objects present
there

Equation of Pressure: P=F/A where: F - force, A - area

Table 3. Units of Pressure

Unit Symbol Atmospheric Pressure Scientific
Field
Pascal Pa 1.01325x105 Pa SI Units, Physics,
Chemistry
Atmosphere atm 1 atm Chemistry
Millimeter of Mercury mmHg 760 mmHg Chemistry,
Medicine, Biology
Torr torr 760 torr Chemistry
2
Pound per square inch psi or lb/in 14.7 lb/in2 Engineering
Bar bar 1.01325 bar Meteorology,
Chemistry, Physics

Atmospheric Pressure

Atmospheric pressure is the pressure exerted by Earth’s atmosphere. The

actual value of atmospheric pressure depends on location, temperature, and weather
condition.

Standard Condition - STP

Standard Temperature and Pressure or STP, in order to understand better

the factors that influence gas behavior:

Standard temperature = 0°C = 32 oF =

273.15 K
Standard Pressure = 1 atm = 760 mmHg =
760 torr
Standard molar volume = 22.4 L

Absolute Temperature

Absolute zero ( 0K = -273.15 °C) is the temperature at which the pressure of the gas
become zero when a plot of pressure versus temperature for gas is extrapolated. It is
the lowest attainable temperature. The Kelvin temperature scale takes 0 K as
absolute zero temperature.

Ordinary condition – normal or room condition is when Temp = 20 °C and

Pressure =1.00 atm

Measuring Pressure of Gases

1. Barometer
Invented by Italian mathematician and physicist Evangelista Torricelli in 1643,
a barometeris a device used to measure atmospheric pressure.

Barometer is use as basis for all

meteorological prediction.

2. Aneroid Barometer

A more convenient form of barometer (and one

that is almost as accurate) is the aneroid, in which
atmospheric pressure bends the elastic top of a
partially evacuated drum, actuating a pointer. A
suitable aneroid barometer is often used as an
altimeter (instrument measuring altitude), because
pressure decreases rapidly with increasing altitude
(about 25 mm/1 in. of mercury per 305 m/1000 ft at low altitudes).

3. Manometer

Manometers are devices used to measure the pressure of the gas other than
atmosphere. The principal operation of manometer is similar to that of a barometer.
Two types are closed-end and opened-end manometer.

a. Closed-end manometer - It is normally used to measure pressures below

atmospheric pressure.
b. Opened-end manometer– used to measure pressure equal to or greater than the
atmospheric pressure.

Two types of manometer:

Closed-end
and Opened-end manometer

Pgas = Ph Pgas = Ph + Patm

Closed-end manometer
Opened-end manometer

LAWS OF GAS
A sample of gas can be described in term of four variables:

T - Temperature P - Pressure
V - Volume n - Amount or moles of gases

1. Boyle’s Law Pressure – Volume Relationship

Proposed by a British chemist and a natural philosopher Robert Boyle in

seventeen century, the law states that “the pressure of a fixed amount of gas at a
constant temperature is inversely proportional to the volume of the gas.”

Boyle’s Law equation: P ∞ 1/V or P1V1 = P2V2 at T, n = constant

where P1 – initial pressure V1 – initial volume

P2 – final pressure V2 – final volume
Examples:
a. A gas occupying a volume of 725 mL at a pressure of 0.970 atm is allowed to
expand at constant temperature until it pressure reaches 0.541 atm. What is its final
volume?

b. The volume of a gas is 5.80 L, measured at 1.00 atm. What is the pressure of the
gas in mmHg if the volume is changed to 9.65 L? (The temperature remains
constant.)

c. A sample of air occupies a volume of 3. 8 L when the pressure is 1.2 atm. a)

What volume does it occupies at 6.6 atm. b) What pressure is required in order to
compress it to 0.075 L? (The temperature is kept constant).
2. Charles’s and Gay-Lussac’s Law Temperature – Volume Relationship

The temperature-volume relationship of gas particles were first investigated

by French Physicist Jacques Charles and French chemist and physicist Joseph
Gay-Lussac.

The law states that “the volume of a fixed amount of gas maintained at
constant pressure is directly proportional to the absolute temperature of the gas.”

Equation: V1 = V2 at P, n - constant
T1 T2

Where : V1 - initial volume T1 - initial temperature (in K)

V2 - final volume T2 - final temperature (in K)
Another form of Charles’s and Gay-Lussac’s Law shows that at constant
amount of gas and volume, the pressure of a gas is proportional to temperature.

Equation: P1 = P2 V, n - constant
T1 T2

Where : P1 - initial pressure T1 - initial temperature (in K)

P2 - final pressure T2 - final temperature (in K)
Examples:

a. A 36.4-L volume of methane gas is heated from 25 oC to 88 oC at constant

pressure. What is the final volume of the gas?

b. Under constant-pressure conditions of a sample of hydrogen gas initially at 88 oC

and 9.6 L is cooled until its final volume is 3.4 L. What is its final temperature?

c. A 1-L steel tank is fitted with a safety valve that opens if the internal pressure
exceeds 1.00x103 torr. It is filled with a helium at 23oC and 0.991 atm and placed in
boiling water at exactly 100 oC. Will the safety valve open?

3. Avogadro’s Law Volume - Amount Relationship

The volume-amount relationship of gas particles was investigated by Italian

scientist Amadeo Avogadro’s in 1881. Avogadro’s law states that “at constant
pressure and temperature, the volume of a gas is directly proportional to the
number of moles of the gas present.”

Equation: V1 = V2 at P, T - constant
n1 n2

where : V1 - initial volume n1 - initial amount (mole)

V2 - final volume n2 - final amount (in mole)

4. Ideal Gas Law

The ideal gas law provides accurate predictions for the pressure, volume,
temperature, and amount of a gas well above its boiling point
 An ideal gas is a hypothetical gas whose pressure-volume-temperature
behavior can be completely accounted for by the ideal gas equation. The molecule
of an ideal gas do not attract or repel one another, and their volume is negligible
compared with the volume of the container

Ideal Gas Law Equation: PV = nRT or V = nRT / P

where R – Universal gas constant Values of R in

Different Units
P - pressure *R = 0.08206 atm-L /
mol-K
V - volume *R = 62.36 torr-L / mol-
K
T – temperature (in K) R = 8.314 kPa-
3
dm /mol-K
n – mole of gas R = 8.314 J / mol-K
(n = mass / molar mass) *R = 62.36 mmHg-L /
mol-K

The amount of substance n (mole) is given by the equation

n = mass / molar mass or n = m/M

Application of Ideal Gas Equation:

1. Density (d) Calculations d = PM/RT where d - density

2. Molar Mass (M) Calculations M = dRT/P where M – molar

mass

EXAMPLES:

a. Sulfur hexafluoride (HF6) is a colorless, very unreactive gas. Calculate the

pressure (in atm) exerted by 1.82 moles of the gas in a steel vessel of volume 5.43 L
at 69.5 oC.

b. Calculate the volume in (in L) occupies by 2.12 moles of nitric oxide (NO) at 6.54
atm and 76 oC.

c. Calculate the volume (in L) occupies by 7.40 g of NH3 at STP.

d. Calculate the density of carbon dioxide (CO2) in grams per liter (g/L) at 0.990 atm
and 55oC.

e. A chemist has synthesized a greenish-yellow compound of chlorine and oxygen

and find that its density is 7.71 g/L at 36 oC and 2.88 atm. Calculate the molar
mass of the compound and determine its molecular formula.
f. The density of a gaseous organic compound is 3.38 g/L at 40 oC and 1.97 atm.
What is its molar mass?

KINETIC MOLECULAR THEORY OF GASES

The gas laws help us to predict the behavior of gases, but they do not explain
what happens at the molecular level to cause the changes we observe in the
macroscopic world. For example, why does gas expands on heating?

1. A gas is composed of molecules that are separated from each other by distances
far greater than their own dimensions. The molecules can be considered to be
“points”; that is, they posses mass but have negligible volume.

2. Gas molecules are in constant motion and in random directions, and they
frequently collide with one another.

3. Gas molecules exert neither attractive nor repulsive forces on one another.

4. The average kinetic energy of the molecules is proportional to the temperature of

the gas in Kelvin. Any two gases at the same temperature will have the same
average kinetic energy.

DIFFUSION AND EFFUSION

A. Diffusion of Gas Particles
● Diffusion is the movement of a gas into a space or the mixing of one gas
with another.
● Diffusion always proceeds from a region of higher concentration to a region
of lower
concentration.

B. Effusion of Gas Particles

● Effusionis a term thatdescribes the escape of a gas through a tiny hole.

C. Graham’s Law of Diffusion and Effusion

In 1832 British chemist Thomas Graham proposed that “the rates of effusion
and diffusion of gases are inversely proportional to the square roots of the masses of
their particles”. In other words, gases made up of smaller particles effuse and
diffuse faster than gases made up of larger particles.