Electric Vehicle

Traction Battery Pack The function of the

battery in an electric car is as an electrical energy
storage system in the form of direct-current electricity
(DC). If it gets a signal from the controller, the battery
will flow DC electrical energy to the inverter to then
be used to drive the motor. The type of battery used
is a rechargeable battery that is arranged in such a
way as to form what is called a traction battery pack
. There are various types of electric car batteries.
The most widely used is the type of lithium-ion
batteries.
Power Inverter The inverter functions to change
the direct current (DC) on the battery into an
alternating current (AC) and then this alternating
current is used by an electric motor. In addition, the inverter on an electric car also has a
function to change the AC current when regenerative braking to DC current and then used
to recharge the battery. The type of inverter used in some electric car models is the
bi-directional inverter category. Controller The main function of the controller is as a
regulator of electrical energy from batteries and inverters that will be distributed to electric
motors. While the controller itself gets the main input from the car pedal (which is set by
the driver). This pedal setting will determine the frequency variation or voltage variation
that will enter the motor, and at the same time determine the car’s speed.
Electric Traction Motor Because the controller provides electrical power from the
traction battery, the electric traction motors will work turning the transmission and wheels.
Some hybrid electric cars use a type of generator-motor that performs the functions of
propulsion and regeneration. In general, the type of electric motor used is the BLDC
(brushless DC) motor.
DC/DC Converter This one of electric car parts that to converts higher-voltage DC
power from the traction battery pack to the lower-voltage DC power needed to run vehicle
accessories and recharge the auxiliary battery.
Battery In an electric drive vehicle, the auxiliary battery provides electricity to power
vehicle accessories. Thermal System – Cooling This system maintains a proper
operating temperature range of the engine, electric motor, power electronics, and other
components. Charge Port The charge port allows the vehicle to connect to an external
power supply in order to charge the traction battery pack.
DC Motors
Series wound Motor
The DC Series Motor is similar to any other motor because the main
function of this motor is to convert electrical energy to mechanical
energy. The operation of this motor mainly depends on the
electromagnetic principle. Whenever the magnetic field is formed
approximately, a current carrying conductor cooperates with an exterior
magnetic field, and then a rotating motion can be generated.
Construction of D.C. Series Motor The D.C series
motor is consists of a rotor (armature), commutator, stator, axle,
field windings, and brushes. The fixed component of the motor is
the stator and is constructed with two or more electromagnet pole parts. The rotor consists
of the armature and windings at the associated core for the armature. The power source in
the brush array associated with the commutator can be connected to the armature winding.
The rotor includes a central axle for rotating, and due to a large amount of current in the
entire winding the field winding should be able to hold the
higher current, the larger will be the torque produced
with the motor. Working---
In this motor, field, as well as stator
windings, are coupled in series by each
other. Accordingly the armature and field
current are equivalent.==Huge current supply
straightly from the supply toward the field windings.
The huge current can be carried by field windings
because these windings have few turns as well as
very thick. Generally, copper bars form stator windings.
These thick copper bars dissipate heat generated by
the heavy flow of current very effectively. Note that the stator field windings S1-S2 are in
series with the rotating armature A1-A2.===In a series motor electric power is supplied
between one end of the series field windings and one end of the armature. When voltage is
applied, current flows from power supply terminals through the series winding and
armature winding. The large conductors present in the armature and field windings provide
the only resistance to the flow of this current. Since these conductors are so large, their
resistance is very low. This causes the motor to draw a large amount of current from the
power supply. When the large current begins to flow through the field and armature
windings, the coils reach saturation that results in the production of the strongest magnetic
field possible.===The strength of these magnetic fields provides the armature shafts with
the greatest amount of torque possible. The large torque causes the armature to begin to
spin with the maximum amount of power and the armature starts to rotate.
Advantages=== It is an easy assembly and simple design.---Vast starting torque.
---Protection is very easy.---It is cost-effective.---Series wound motors can use for AC or
DC supply so it is also known as universal motors.----Compare with shunt motor DC series
motor develop power for the same construction size.---Starting torque of DC series motor
is comparatively higher than other motor so this kind of motors are widely used for traction
applications. Disadvantages ----The speed control and regulation of the DC series
motor are not good, it is very poor.----It is necessary to have a load before starting the DC
series motor. So the series motor is not good to use load does not apply to the initial stage.
----When the speed is increased then the DC series motors torque will be decreased
sharply.---This motor always needs the load before running any type of motor. So these
type of motors is not suitable for where the motor's load is totally removed Applications
----Used where large starting torque is required like in elevators, electric tractions, cranes,
etc.---Used where load is subjected to heavy fluctuations and the speed is required to be
automatically regulated according to load requirements.----Also used in air compressors,
vacuum cleaners, hair driers, sewing machines etc.
Shunt wound Motor
A DC shunt motor (also known as a shunt wound DC motor) is a
type of self-excited DC motor where the field windings are shunted
to or are connected in parallel to the armature winding of the motor
. Since they are connected in parallel, the armature and field windings are
exposed to the same supply voltage. Though there are separate
branches for the flow of armature current and field current
Construction and Working Principle
The construction of a DC shunt motor is similar to other types
of DC motors. This motor can consist of basic parts such as field
windings (stator), a commutator, and an armature (rotor). The working principle of a DC
shunt motor is whenever a DC motor is turned ON suddenly DC flows across the entire
stator as well as the rotor. This current flow will create two fields particularly the pole as
well as the armature. In the air distance between the armature and the field shoes, there
are two magnetic fields, and they will react with each other to rotate the armature. The
commutator reverses the current flow direction of the armature at ordinary intervals.
Therefore the armature field as opposed to the pole field at all times keeps rotating the
armature in an equal direction.
Advantages---The power supply of the DC motor is any way cheap.---Shunt would
motor able to runs at a predetermined speed.---The speed of a dc shunt motor is
sufficiently constant.---Direct current machines can use for heavy industrial applications
where the torque and speed wider range. Disadvantages---- Dc motors are unreliable
at low-speed operations.---The size of Dc motors is large compared to alternative current
motors.----The installation of DC machines is expensive compare with other types of
machines.---Shunt motor is a constant speed motor, it would be disadvantages where it's
necessary to operate under variable speed.---For the same current input, its starting torque
is not a high as that of a DC series motor.
Applications ---This motors got great speed controlling characteristics so this type of
motors are used in rolling mills.---Use of lathe machines where constant speed is highly
required.----These motors are also widely used for fans, blowers, reciprocating and
centrifugal pumps.
Speed Control of DC Shunt Motors
The speed of a DC shunt motor can be changed by two methods −
Flux Control Method
Armature Resistance Control Method
Flux Control Method
The flux control method is based on the
principle that by varying the field
flux ϕ, the speed of DC shunt motor
can be changed. In this method, a
variable resistance (called field rheostat)
is connected in series with the shunt field
winding. By increasing the resistance of
the field rheostat, the shunt field current
Ish can be reduced and hence the field flux.
Thus, by the flux control method, the speed of a
DC shunt can only be increased above the normal speed. The flux control method is
frequently used for the speed control of DC shunt motors because it is simple and
inexpensive method.
Armature Resistance Control Method
The armature resistance control method is
based on the principle that by varying the
voltage available across the armature,
the back EMF of the motor can be
changed, which in turn changes the
speed of the shunt motor. In this
method, a variable resistance RC
(called controller resistance) is inserted
in series with the armature.

Compound wound Motor

A compound wound DC motor is a type of self-excited
motor, and consists of both series of field coils and shunt
field coils are attached to the armature winding. Both
field coils provide for the expected amount of magnetic
flux, which links with the armature coil and delivers about
the torque required to facilitate rotation at the desired
speed. a compound wound motor is basically formed
by the amalgamation of a shunt wound DC motor and
series wound DC motor to obtain better closure
properties of both these types. Like a shunt wound, a
DC motor is offered with a highly efficient speed
regulation characteristic, while a DC series motor has high starting torque. So the
compound wound DC motor makes a compromise in terms of both these characteristics
and has a good combination of proper speed regulation and high starting torque. However,
its initial torque is not as high as in the case of a DC motor, nor is its speed regulation as
good as a DC shunt motor. The overall characteristics of a DC shunt motor come in
between these 2 extreme limits working principle With a DC compound motor, the
majority of the field is wound for a shunt field but with a few turns of series winding on top.
The shunt is connected across the field supply and the series turns are connected in series
with the armature. This provides a motor with a combination of the shunt and series
characteristics.
Short Shunt Compound DC Motor
The type of compound DC motor in which
the parallel combination of shunt field
winding and the armature winding is
connected in series with the series
field winding is known as a short-shunt
compound DC motor.

Long Shunt Compound DC Motor

A compound wound DC motor in which the
series combination of armature winding and
the series field winding is connected in
parallel with the shunt field winding is
known as a long-shunt compound DC motor.
Advantages Quick start and stop of the
motor can do.---Reversing and acceleration
of the motor can do fast
Disadvantages---Operation and
maintenance cost of DC motors are expensive.-----DC motors unable to operate in hazard
situation where spark occurs at the brush of the motor.----In generally Every DC motor
using brushes so the lifetime of such motors is less compared with AC motors.
Applications ----Compound motors are widely used in applications such as elevators,
conveyor belts, air compressors, and punches.----Can use for variable speed domestic
appliances
Characteristics Of Dc Compound Motor
----In dc compound motors both shunt field and series field will be acting simultaneously.
---In cumulative compound motors the series field assists the shunt field. ----- In such
motors when armature current increases the field flux increases. ----- So for given armature
current the torque developed will be greater and speed lower when compared to a shunt
motor.----- In differentially compounded motors the series field opposes the shunt field.
Therefore when armature current increases the field flux decreases.------ So for given
armature current, the torque developed will be lower and the speed greater when
compared to shunt motor.
Speed Control of a DC Compound Motor
Speed is controlled by variable resistors in the
shunt field and armature circuit. The series
winding may be arranged that it aids the shunt field
(cumulative compound) or opposes it
(differential compound).

Separately Excited DC Motor

As the name suggests, the field windings otherwise
coils are energized through a separate DC source. The unique
fact of these motors is that the armature current does not supply
throughout the field windings, because the field winding is
strengthened from a separate exterior DC current
source. The torque equation of DC motor is
Tg = Ka φ Ia, In this case, the torque is changed
through changing filed flux ‘φ’ & independent of the ‘Ia’
armature current.
working principle
Construction: A separately excited DC motor consists of two main parts: the stator and
the rotor. The stator is the stationary part that houses the field winding, which is typically
wound around poles made of ferromagnetic material. The rotor is the rotating part and
includes the armature winding. It is connected to the motor shaft and the mechanical load.
Field winding: The field winding is connected to a separate DC power source. It creates a
magnetic field when current flows through it. The field winding is wound in such a way that
the magnetic field it generates is perpendicular to the armature winding.
Armature winding: The armature winding is connected to a DC power supply through a
commutator and brushes. The commutator is a cylindrical arrangement of metal segments
insulated from each other but connected to different coils of the armature winding. The
brushes make contact with the commutator, allowing the flow of current into the armature
winding.Interaction of magnetic fields: When current flows through the armature
winding, it creates an electromagnetic field around the coils. This field interacts with the
magnetic field generated by the field winding. The interaction between these two magnetic
fields produces a force, known as the Lorentz force, that causes the rotor to rotate.
Commutation: As the rotor rotates, the brushes make contact with different segments of
the commutator, changing the direction of current flow in the armature winding. This
commutation process ensures that the magnetic field of the armature winding always
opposes the magnetic field of the field winding, resulting in continuous rotation.Control:
The speed and direction of a separately excited DC motor can be controlled by adjusting
the voltage applied to the armature winding or the field winding. By changing the strength
of the magnetic field or the armature current, the motor's speed and torque can be varied.
Advantages It has a broad range of output voltage and can function in stable
conditions with any field excitation. ---Disadvantage these kinds of generators is that
it is more expensive to provide a separate excitation source For this reason, the use of
this type of generator is limited to experimental and testing laboratories where such a
source is available and a wide variation of the output voltage is desirable.
Applications Separately excited dc motors have industrial applications. They are often
used as actuators. This type of motors is used in trains and for automatic traction
purposes. Operating characteristics of Separately excited dc motor Both
in shunt wound dc motor and separately excited dc motor field is supplied from constant
voltage so that the field current is constant. Therefore these two motors have similar speed
-armature current and torque – armature current characteristics. In this type of motor flux is
assumed to be constant. • Speed – armature current (N – Ia) characteristics:
We know that speed of dc motor is proportional to back emf / flux i.e Eb / φ . When load is
increased back emf Eb and φ flux decrease due to armature resistance drop and armature
reaction respectively .However back emf decreases more than φ so that the speed of the
motor slightly decreases with load. • Torque – armature current ( τ – Ia)
characteristics : Here torque is proportional to the flux and armature current .
Neglecting armature reaction, flux φ is constant and torque is proportional to the armature
current Ia . τ – Ia characteristics is a straight lien passing through the origin. From the
curve we can see that huge current is needed to start heavy loads. So this type of motor
do not starts on heavy loads. Speed control of separately excited DC motor
Speed of this type of dc shunt motor is controlled by the following methods: I. Field
control methods: Weakening of field causes increase in speed of the motor while
strengthening the field causes decreases the speed. Speed adjustment of this type of
motor is achieved from the following methods: Field rheostat control: – Here a
variable resistance is connected in series with the field coil. Thus the speed is controlled by
means of flux variation. Reluctance control involving variation of reluctance of magnetic
circuit of motor. Field voltage control by varying the voltage at field circuit while keeping
armature terminal voltage constant. II. Armature control methods: Speed
adjustment of separately excited DC motor by armature control may be obtained by any
one of the following methods: Armature resistance control: – Here, the speed is
controlled by varying the source voltage to armature. Generally, a variable resistance is
provided with the armature to vary the armature resistance. Armature terminal voltage
control involving variation of variation of voltage in armature circuit.
AC Motors An AC motor or alternating current motor is an electric motor that consists of
a stator with a coil that is supplied with alternating current to convert electric current into
mechanical power. The stator is the stationary part of the motor while the rotor is the
rotating part. AC motors can be single or three phase, with three phase motors mainly
used for bulk power conversion. Single phase AC motors are used for small power
conversions
Synchronous motorsThe definition of synchronous motor states that ” An AC Motor
in which at steady state, rotation of the shaft is in sync with the frequency of applied
current”. The synchronous motor works as AC motor but here the total number of rotations
made by the shaft is equal to the integer multiple of the frequency of the applied current.
The synchronous motor doesn’t rely on induction current for working. In these motors,
unlike induction motor, multiphase AC electromagnets are present on the stator, which
produces a rotating magnetic- field. Here rotor is of a permanent magnet which gets
synced with the rotating magnetic- field and rotates in
synchronous to the frequency of current applied to
It. Construction Of Synchronous Motor
It consists of a stator and a rotor.
The stator core is constructed with
thin silicon lamination and insulated
by a surface coating, to minimize
the eddy current and hysteresis losses.
The stator has axial slots inside, in
which three phase stator winding is placed.
The stator is wound with a three
phase winding for a specific
number of poles equal to the rotor
poles. The rotor in synchronous motors is mostly of salient pole type. DC supply is given to
the rotor winding via slip-rings. The direct current excites the rotor winding and creates
electromagnetic poles. In some cases permanent magnets can also be used.
Synchronous Motor Working Principle Working of synchronous motors depends
on the interaction of the magnetic field of the stator with the magnetic field of the rotor. The
stator contains 3 phase windings and is supplied with 3 phase power. Thus, stator winding
produces a 3 phased rotating Magnetic- Field. DC supply is given to the rotor. The rotor
enters into the rotating Magnetic-Field produced by the stator winding and rotates in
synchronization. Now, the speed of the motor depends on the frequency of the supplied
current. Speed of the synchronous motor is controlled by the frequency of the applied
current. The speed of a synchronous motor can be calculated as: Ns=60f/P=120f/p
where, f = frequency of the AC current (Hz) p = total number of poles per phase P = total
pair number of poles per phase. If the load greater than breakdown load is applied, the
motor gets desynchronized. The 3 phase stator winding gives the advantage of
determining the direction of rotation. In case of singlephase winding, it is not possible to
derive the direction of rotation and the motor can start in either of the direction. To control
the direction of rotation in these synchronous motors, starting arrangements are needed.
Advantages--- It has a constant operating speed called synchronous speed that only
depends on supply frequency and does not vary with any change in load.
---It can operate in lagging, unity and leading power factor by increasing the field
excitation. Thus making it useful for power factor improvement.---It has a relatively higher
efficiency above 90% as compared to the induction motor.---They are more cost-effective
at a lower speed than an induction motor.Disadvantages--Synchronous Motors are
inherently not self-starting and require other means to provide near synchronous starting
speed.---It stalls if the load exceeds beyond breakdown limit.---It requires an external DC
source for its rotor field excitation----Its speed cannot be varied unless the VFD variable
frequency drive is used to very its supply frequency.Application As synchronous motor
is capable of operating under either leading or lagging power factor, it can be used for
power factor improvement. A synchronous motor under no-load with leading power factor
is connected in power system where static capacitors cannot be used. It is used where
high power at low speed is required. Such as rolling mills, chippers, mixers, pumps,
pumps, compressor etc. Characteristic Features Of A Synchronous Motor
---Synchronous motor will run either at synchronous speed or will not run at all. ---The
only way to change its speed is to change its supply frequency. (As Ns = 120f / P)
---Synchronous motors are not self-starting. They need some external force to bring them
near to the synchronous speed. ----They can operate under any power factor, lagging as
well as leading. Hence, synchronous motors can be used for power factor improvement.
Starting Methods of Synchronous Motor The moment of inertia of rotor stops the
large-sized synchronous motors from self-starting. Because of this inertia of the rotor, it is
not possible for a rotor to get in sync with the stator’s magnetic-field at the very instance
power is applied. So some additional mechanism is required to help the rotor get
synchronized. Induction winding is included in the large motors which generate sufficient
torque required for acceleration. For very large motors, to accelerate the unloaded
machine, pony motor is used. Changing stator current frequency, electronically operated
motors can accelerate even from the zero speed. For very small motors, when the moment
of Inertia of the rotor and the mechanical load are desirably small, they can start without
any starting methods. Types of Synchronous Motor Depending upon the method of
magnetization of the rotor, there are two types of synchronous motors – Non-excited.
Direct current Excited
Induction motor
An induction motor (also known as an
asynchronous motor) is a commonly used AC
electric motor. In an induction motor, the electric
current in the rotor needed to produce torque is
obtained via electromagnetic induction from the
rotating magnetic field of the stator winding. The
rotor of an induction motor can be a squirrel cage
rotor or wound type rotor. Induction motors are
referred to as ‘asynchronous motors’ because they
operate at a speed less than their
synchronous speed.
Construction Stator: The stator is the stationary part of the induction motor and is
composed of a laminated core made of electrical steel sheets. It contains a set of evenly
spaced windings called the stator winding or stator coils. The stator winding is connected
to the power supply and produces a rotating magnetic field when energized.
Rotor: The rotor is the rotating part of the induction motor. It consists of a laminated core
made of electrical steel sheets and is either squirrel cage or wound type.Squirrel Cage
Rotor: In a squirrel cage rotor, the core has conductive bars made of copper or aluminum
placed parallel to the rotor shaft. These bars are shorted at both ends by conducting end
rings, forming a closed circuit. The squirrel cage rotor does not have any windings, and its
construction resembles a squirrel cage, hence the name. The rotor bars and end rings
provide low-resistance paths for current, allowing the rotor to interact with the rotating
magnetic field produced by the stator.Wound Rotor: In a wound rotor, the rotor windings
consist of multiple insulated coils of wire. The winding ends are brought out through slip
rings, which are connected to external resistors or other control devices. The wound rotor
allows for external control of the rotor circuit, offering improved performance characteristics
and speed control capabilities.Bearings: Induction motors typically have two sets of
bearings, one on each end of the motor shaft. These bearings support the motor shaft and
allow it to rotate smoothly. Common types of bearings used in induction motors include ball
bearings and sleeve bearings.Enclosure: The motor enclosure provides protection for the
internal components and ensures safe operation. The enclosure can be open, where the
motor is exposed, or it can be enclosed within a housing for added protection. Common
enclosure types include open drip-proof (ODP), totally enclosed fan-cooled (TEFC), and
explosion-proof enclosures.Cooling System: Induction motors generate heat during
operation, and a cooling system is employed to dissipate this heat. The cooling system can
involve the use of cooling fans, heat sinks, or forced air circulation. In some cases, liquid
cooling systems may also be utilized.Terminal Box: The terminal box is located on the
motor's exterior and houses the electrical connections. It contains terminals for connecting
the motor windings to the power supply, as well as terminals for grounding and protective
devices. Working Principle The working of an induction motor is based on the
principle of electromagnetic induction. In an induction, there are two windings namely,
stator winding and rotor winding. The input AC supply is connected to the stator winding,
the current flowing in the stator winding produces a magnetic flux. This magnetic flux is
usually rotating, hence also called rotating magnetic field. The rotor winding of the
induction motor is a short-circuit winding.---The rotating magnetic flux from the stator cuts
the short-circuited conductors of the rotor winding. According to Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction, an EMF is induced in the rotor circuit which causes a current to
flow through it. When the current flows through the rotor winding, another magnetic flux
being produced in the machine.---Therefore, there are two magnetic fluxes inside the
induction motor, one is stator flux and the other is rotor flux. These two magnetic fluxes
interact with each other. Because of that, the rotor will experience a torque which makes
the rotor to rotate in the direction of the rotating magnetic field of the stator. In this way, an
induction motor runs. Advantages ----Induction motors have simple and rugged
construction.----Induction motors are relatively less expensive---Induction motors have
relatively high efficiency.---Induction motors can be designed to have characteristics to
meet the industrial requirements.----Induction motors need little maintenance.
Disadvantages ----The speed of induction motors cannot be changed easily because
they are essentially constant speed motors.---Induction motors draw a high inrush current
at starting.---Induction motors always operate at lagging power factor.---Single-phase
induction motors are not self-starting; hence we need provide some extra starting
mechanism.
Applications single-phase inductionPumps Compressors Small fans Mixers--Three
-phase induction---Lifts Cranes Hoists Large exhaust fans
Synchronous Speed Synchronous speed is the speed of rotation of the magnetic field
in a rotary machine and it depends upon the frequency and number poles of the machine.
An induction motor always runs at a speed less than synchronous speed because the
rotating magnetic field which is produced in the stator will generate flux in the rotor which
will make the rotor to rotate, but due to the lagging of flux current in the rotor with flux
current in the stator, the rotor will never reach to its rotating magnetic field speed. i.e. the
synchronous speed. An AC motor's synchronous speed, is the rotation rate of the stator's
magnetic field, which is expressed in revolutions per minute as 𝑁𝑠 = (120 𝑋 𝑓) / RPM Where
f is the motor supply's frequency in hertz and p is the number of magnetic poles. i.e., for a
six-pole three-phase motor with three pole-pairs set 120° apart, p equals 6 and n s equals
1,000 RPM and 1,200 RPM respectively for 50 Hz and 60 Hz supply systems.
Switched Reluctance Motor
An electric motor like SRM (switched reluctance
motor) runs through reluctance torque.
Different from the types of common brushed
DC motor, power can be transmitted to
windings within the stator instead of the
rotor. An alternate name of this motor is
VRM (Variable Reluctance Motor). For a
better operation of this motor, it uses a
switching inverter. The control characteristics
of this motor are the same as dc motors which
electronically commutated. These motors are
applicable where sizing, as well as horsepower (hp) to weight, is critical.
Construction In switched reluctance motor, the stator and rotor have projected pole
made up of soft iron and silicon stampings. Silicon stamping is used to reduce hysteresis
losses. ===Stator => Inward projection===Rotor => Outward projection.----The rotor does
not have winding and stator only carries main field winding. Each winding in the stator is
connected in series with the opposite poles to increase the MMF of the circuit. It is called
phase winding. Refer to fig 1.1 AA’, BB’ and CC’. Pole concern, the number of poles in the
stator will be around 6 to 8 numbers. But the rotor carries less number of poles with
respect to the stator. The rotor poles will be 4 to 8 numbers.===By increasing the number
of poles we can get a low angle of rotation from the motor. The rotor’s shaft is mounted
with a position sensor. The position sensor is used to determine the position of the rotor by
a control circuit===The control circuit always collects the information of the rotor position
and based on that the controller gives the input to the motor.
Block diagram
The DC input is connected to the driver/converter circuit and the output is connected to the
motor. The rotor sensor’s feedback wire is connected to the controller circuit and it
provides the position of the rotor with reference to the reference axis.Finally, the controller
collects all information and based on that, reference will be given to the stator. Also, the
controller monitors the motor current to
protect the motor from internal and
external faults. Working Principle
The working principle of the switched
reluctance motor is, it works on the principle of
variable reluctance that means, the rotor of this motor constantly
tries to align through the lowest reluctance lane. The
formation of the rotary magnetic field can be done using the
circuit of power electronics switching. In this, the magnetic
circuit’s reluctance can mainly depend on the air gap.
Therefore, by modifying the air gap among the rotor as well
as a stator, we can also modify the reluctance of this motor.Here, reluctance can be
defined as resistance toward the magnetic flux. For Electrical circuits, reluctance is the
combination of resistance as well as the magnetic circuit.
Advantages -----These motors are very simple & the rotors in this motor are extremely
strong ----These motors are applicable for high-speed applications. ---This motor doesn’t
use any additional ventilation system when the stator, as well as rotor slots, is projected.
So the airflow can be maintained among the slots. --- These are less expensive because of
the nonexistence of permanent magnets.---- Fault tolerance is high Disadvantages
----Switched reluctance motors have less torque capacity & normally these motors are
noisy.---While operating this motor at high speed, it creates a torque ripple.---High noise
level---It uses an external rotor position sensor Applications ---These types of motors
are used as an alternative for induction motors in different applications wherever the
operating conditions of this motor do not suit them.----In textile machinery like towel looms,
rapier looms, etc----Used in electric vehicles----Oilfield machinery like beam pumps,
vertical pumps, well testing machinery, etc. Switched Reluctance Motor
Characteristics---This kind of reluctance motor is a 1-phase or 3-phase---Speed
control of this motor is simple.---The triggering circuit can be changed to get high speed---It
operates with a DC supply once used with an inverter.--Once the firing angle of any
switching device can be changed then different speeds can be achieved.
BLDC Motor
A brushless DC motor (known as BLDC) is a permanent magnet synchronous electric
motor which is driven by direct current (DC) electricity and it accomplishes electronically
controlled commutation system (commutation is the process of producing rotational torque
in the motor by changing phase currents through it at appropriate times) instead of a
mechanically commutation system. BLDC motors are also referred as trapezoidal
permanent magnet motors.
Construction of BLDC Motor The main design difference between a brushed and
brushless motors is the replacement of mechanical commutator with an electric switch
circuit. Keeping that in mind, a BLDC Motor is a type of synchronous motor in the sense
that the magnetic field generated by the stator and the rotor
revolve at the same frequency. Brushless Motors
are available in three configurations: single phase,
two phase and three phase. Out of these, the three
phase BLDC is the most common one.
A BLDC Motor consists of two main parts: a stator and
a rotor. Stator The structure of the stator of a BLDC
Motor is similar to that of an induction motor. It is
made up of stacked steel laminations with axially
cut slots for winding. The winding in BLDC are
slightly different than that of the traditional induction motor. Generally, most BLDC motors
consists of three stator windings that are connected in star or „Y‟ fashion (without a neutral
point). Additionally, based on the coil interconnections, the stator windings are further
divided into Trapezoidal and Sinusoidal Motors. In a trapezoidal motor, both the drive
current and the back EMF are in the shape of a trapezoid (sinusoidal shape in case of
sinusoidal motors). Usually, 48 V (or less) rated motors are used in automotive and
robotics (hybrid cars and robotic arms) Rotor The rotor part of the BLDC Motor is made
up of permanent magnets (usually, rare earth alloy magnets like Neodymium (Nd),
Samarium Cobalt (SmCo) and alloy of Neodymium, Ferrite and Boron (NdFeB)). Based on
the application, the number of poles can vary between two and eight with North (N) and
South (S) poles placed alternately. Position Sensors (Hall Sensors) Since there are
no brushes in a BLDC Motor, the commutation is controlled electronically. In order to rotate
the motor, the windings of the stator must be energized in a sequence and the position of
the rotor (i.e. the North and South poles of the rotor) must be known to precisely energize
a particular set of stator windings. A Position Sensor, which is usually a Hall Sensor (that
works on the principle of Hall Effect) is generally used to detect the position of the rotor
and transform it into an electrical signal. Most BLDC Motors use three Hall Sensors that
are embedded into the stator to sense the rotor‟s position. The output of the Hall Sensor
will be either HIGH or LOW depending on whether the North or South pole of the rotor
passes near it. By combining the results from the three sensors, the exact sequence of
energizing can be determined.Working Principle BLDC motor works on the principle
similar to that of a Brushed DC motor. The Lorentz force law which states that whenever a
current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field it experiences a force. As a
consequence of reaction force, the magnet will experience an equal and opposite force. In
the BLDC motor, the current carrying conductor is stationary and the permanent magnet is
moving. When the stator coils get a supply from source, it becomes electromagnet and
starts producing the uniform field in the air gap. Though the source of supply is DC,
switching makes to generate an AC voltage waveform with trapezoidal shape. Due to the
force of interaction between electromagnet stator and permanent magnet rotor, the rotor
continues to rotate. With the switching of windings as High and Low signals, corresponding
winding energized as North and South poles. The permanent magnet rotor with North and
South poles align with stator poles which causes the motor to rotate.
Advantages ---- Less overall maintenance due to absence of brushes----Reduced size
with far superior thermal characteristics---Higher speed range and lower electric noise
generation.----It has no mechanical commutator and associated problems---High efficiency
and high output power to size ratio due to the use of permanent magnet rotor ----Less
electromagnetic interference----Low noise due to absence of brushes Disadvantages
---These motors are costly---Electronic controller required control this motor is expensive
----Requires complex drive circuitry----Need of additional sensors Applications
--Computer hard drives and DVD/CD players ----Electric vehicles, hybrid vehicles, and
electric bicycles ---- Industrial robots, CNC machine tools, and simple belt driven systems
-----Washing machines, compressors and dryers ---- Fans, pumps and blowers.
switched reluctance motor Control techniques
Voltage impulse control The impulse control is the simplest controller for the SRM. It
is used, essentially, for high speed control and for systems that do not require high
performance of the drive. It is composed by a speed controller, a phase control method, a
block that generates the transistors signals, and an overcurrent protection.

Current control The voltage is kept constant in the last controller, expecting the current
to be constant as well. Due to back-EMF and different inductance values for different rotor
positions, this does not happen. So, in order to solve this limitation, a current controller is
necessary for each phase. Where the current is controlled in the inner loop and the speed
in the outer loop. There is also a decision block which dictates when each phase must be
conducting current or not according to the rotor position.

Torque control One of the main objectives in a speed controller is to have constant
torque with the lowest possible ripple. Measuring the instantaneous torque with a sensor
can be too expensive for most applications. The typical solution is to measure currents and
voltages in order to estimate the flux.

DC MOTORS
An electrical motor is a machine that mainly converts electrical energy into mechanical
energy. A DC motor is an electrical machine that converts mechanical energy into direct
current and vice-versa.
Working of DC Motor Consider a part of a multipolar DC motor as shown in the
figure. When the main supply is applied to the armature conductors and field magnets are
excited, the conductors experience a force that tends to rotate the armature. Armature
conductors under N-pole are assumed to carry current downwards and the S-poles carry
upwards. Now by applying Fleming’s Left-hand rule, the direction of the force on each
conductor can be found. This is shown by small arrow marks in the figure in each
conductor. The force ‘F’ experienced by each conductor
tends to rotate the armature in the anti-clockwise
direction. The continuous and unidirectional torque
is developed by a commutator which reverses the
current in each conductor as it passes from one pole to
another. The operation of D.C. The motor is based on the
working principle that when a current-carrying conductor
is located in a magnetic field, it undergoes a mechanical
force, guided by Fleming’s left-hand rule and whose magnitude
is given by: F = BIL newtons. B = Flux density in cub/m²
I = Current through the conductor in amperes. L = Length of the conductor in meters.
Constructional and Parts of DC Motor
1) Yoke or Frame: It is a stationary part called a
starter. The functions of Yoke are: It supports the
field poles and field winding. Provides a
magnetic path to the main field flux.
Provides protection to armature from
mechanical injury. 2) Field Poles: The main
functions of poles are : Provides support to the
field winding. Provide slow reactance path to the
main field flux. Distributes the main field flux
uniformly all around the periphery of the
armature. 3) Field Windings: They
produce a magnetic field when D.C. is
passed through them. 4) Brushes: They receive D.C. from the main and supply it to the
armature winding through a commutator. 5) End Shields: The main functions are:
Supports the bearings in which armature rotate. Covers the armature and protects it.
6) Armature Core: It houses the windings in the slot and provides a low reactance path to
the main field flux and the armature flux. 7) Armature Windings: It produces armature flux
when current is passed through them. This flux reacts with the main field flux and produces
rotation or torque. 8) Commutator: It collects D.C. from brushes, converts it into A.C., and
supplies it to the armature windings. 9) Shaft: The main functions are : It provides support
to the armature, windings and commutator. It helps the armature to rotate.
Speed Control of DC Series Motors
The speed of a DC series motor can be changed by using any one of the following two
methods − --- Field Control Method -----Armature Resistance Control Method
Field Control Method The field control method is based on the fact that by varying the
field flux in the series motor, its speed can be changed, as, N∝1/φ The change in the flux
can be achieved by in the following ways
Field Diverter In this method, a variable resistance
called field diverter is connected in parallel with the
series field winding. The field diverter shunts
some portion of the line current from the series
field winding, hence weakening the field
and increasing the speed of the motor.
The lowest speed that can be obtained
using this method is corresponding to the zero
current through the diverter which is the normal
speed of the motor. Therefore, the field diverter method only provides speed above the
normal speed. The series field diverter method is mainly used in traction work.
Armature Diverter In this method,
a variable resistance called
armature diverter is connected in
parallel with armature, which
shunts some portion of
the line current from the
armature winding and hence
reducing the armature current.
For a given load, if armature current
(Ia) is decreased, the flux must increase to maintain the load torque (τa ∝ ϕIa) constant.
Since the speed (N ∝ 1/ϕ), so the motor speed must decrease. By using armature diverter
method, any speed below the normal speed can be obtained.
Tapped Field Control In this method, to
decrease the flux, the number of turns in the
series field winding is reduced and hence
the speed is increased. A switch (S) is used
to short any part of the series field winding
as shown in the figure. With the full turn of the
field winding, the motor runs at normal speed
and by reducing the number of turns in the series
field winding, speeds above the normal speed can be obtained.
Armature Resistance Control Method
In the armature resistance control method, a
variable resistance is connected in series
with the supply to complete the motor
circuit. This series resistance reduces the
voltage available across the armature and
 thus the speed is decreased. By changing the value of variable resistance, any speed
below the normal speed can be obtained. This method has poor speed regulation, but this
has no significance since the series motors are used in varying speed applications. The
armature resistance control method is the most common method employed to control the
speed of DC series motors.
What are the difference between ac and dc motor?
----An AC motor can be defined as an electric motor that is driven by an alternating current
(AC). ----AC motors are mainly of two types – synchronous AC motors and induction
motors. ----In AC motors, the armature is stationary while the magnetic field rotates. ----In
AC motors, three input terminals (RYB) are present. ----AC motors can run on both
single-phase and three-phase supplies.----- A three-phase AC motor is self-starting, but a
single-phase AC motor requires a starting mechanism.----- The speed of an AC motor can
be changed by varying the frequency.----- AC motors show a slow response to the change
in load. -----Since AC motors do not have brushes and commutators, they are very rigged
and have a high life expectancy. ----Due to induction current loss and motor slip, the
efficiency of the AC motor is less.
-----A DC motor is also a rotatory electric motor that converts Direct current (DC energy)
into mechanical energy. ----DC motors are also mainly of two types – DC motors with
brushes and DC motors without brushes.---- DC motors can run only on single-phase
supply.----- In DC motors, the armature rotates while the magnetic field remains stationary.
-----In DC motors, two input terminals (positive and negative) are present. -----In the case
of DC motors, speed can be controlled by changing the armature winding current.---- DC
motors show a quick response to the change in load. ------The brushes and commutators in
DC motors limit the speed and reduce the life expectancy of the motor. -----The efficiency
of the DC motor is high as there is no slip and induction current loss.