Research Methodology

By: Dr Priyanka Anand

Research
• Research is the systematic process of collecting and analyzing
information (data) in order to increase our understanding of the
phenomenon about which we are concerned or interested.
• Research is the process of finding solutions to a problem after a
thorough study and analysis of the situational factors
• Research provides the needed information that guides managers to
make informed decisions to successfully deal with problems
Objectives of Research

To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into

it – Exploratory or Formulative Research.
To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual,
situation or a group – Descriptive Research.
To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with
which it is associated with something else – Diagnostic Research.
To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables –
Hypothesis-Testing Research.
Characteristics of Research
❖ Research is directed towards the solution of a problem.
❖ Research is based upon observable experience or empirical evidence.
❖ Research demands accurate observation and description.
❖ Research involves gathering new data from primary sources or using
existing data for a new purpose.
❖ Research activities are characterized by carefully designed procedures.
❖ Research requires expertise i.e., skill necessary to carryout investigation,
search the related literature and to understand and analyze the data gathered.
❖ Research is objective and logical – applying every possible test to validate
the data collected and conclusions reached.
❖ Research involves the quest for answers to unsolved problems.
❖ Research is carefully recorded and reported.
CRITERIA OF A GOOD RESEARCH

• Purpose clearly defined.

Research process detailed.
Research design thoroughly planned.
High ethical standards applied.
Limitations frankly revealed.
Adequate analysis for decision maker’s needs.
Findings presented unambiguously.
Conclusions justified.
QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCH
• Systematic
• Logical
• Empirical
• Replicable
• Creative
• Use of multiple methods
NEED FOR RESEARCH
♪ EXPLORATION
♪ DESCRIBE
♪ DIAGNOSE
♪ HYPOTHESIS
♪ INDUCTIONS AND DEDUCTIONS
SCOPE / SIGNIFICANCE OF
RESEARCH
❑ Throws light on risks and uncertainty

❑ Identify alternative courses of action

❑ Helps in economic use of resources

❑ Solves investment problems

❑ Solves pricing problems

❑ Solves various operational and planning problems of business and

industry
❑ Provides the basis for all government policies in our economic system.

❑ Helps social scientists in studying social relationships and in seeking

answers to various social problems.

❑ For students, research means a careerism or a way to attain a high position in

the social structure.

❑ For professionals in research, it may mean a source of livelihood

❑ For philosophers and thinkers, research means the outlet for new ideas and
insights.

❑ For literary men and women, research means development of new styles and
creative work.

❑ For analysts and intellectuals, research means generalizations of new theories.

Unit of Analysis
•A unit of analysis is the entity that you wish to say
something about at the end of your study, and it is
considered the focus of your study. A unit of
observation is the item (or items) that you observe,
measure, or collect while trying to learn something
about your unit of analysis.
Example
• A study on electronic gadget addiction may interview undergraduate
students (our unit of observation) for the purpose of saying something
about undergraduate students (our unit of analysis) and their gadget
addiction. Perhaps, if we were investigating gadget addiction in
elementary school children (our unit of analysis), we might collect
observations from teachers and parents (our units of observation)
because younger children may not report their behavior accurately. In
this case and many others, units of analysis are not the same as units of
observation.
Units of Analysis include the following:

•Individuals
•Groups
•Organizations
 Unit of Unit of
Research question Data collection
analysis observation Statement of findings

New Media majors, men, and

students with high socioeconomic
Survey of
Which students are most likely to be status are all more likely than
Individuals students on Individuals
addicted to their electronic gadgets? other students to become
campus
addicted to their electronic
gadgets.
Clubs with a scholarly focus, such
as social work club and the math
Do certain types of social clubs have more Survey of club, have more gadget-addicted
gadget-addicted members than other sorts students on Individuals members than clubs with a social
Groups
of clubs? campus focus, such as the 100-bottles-of-
beer-on-the-wall club and the
knitting club.
Campuses without strong
computer science programs are
Content more likely than those with such
How do different colleges address the
Organization analysis of Documents programs to expel students who
problem of electronic gadget addiction?
s policies have been found to have
Measurement Scales
• Nominal
• Ordinal
• Interval
• Ratio
Nominal Scale

• Nominal scales are used to classify objects, individuals, groups, or even

phenomena.
• These are mutually exclusive.
• These scales allow for labeling (or categorization)

Examples of nominal variables:

• Gender
• State of residence
• Country
• Ethnicity
Ordinal Scale
• These scales allow for labeling (or categorization) as in nominal scales, but they also allow for
ranking.
• Ordinal scale is used to rank the preferences or usage of various brands of a product by the
individuals and to ranks order individuals, objects, or events
• This type of scale can provide information about some item having more or less of an attribute than
others, but no information on the degree of this.
• Example:
• Rate these vacation destinations in terms of how much you would like to visit from one to five with
one your most preferred and five your least preferred.

• Bermuda-1
• Florida-2
• Hawaii-3
• Aspen-4
• London-5
Interval Scale
• These contains the information available in ordinal scales (ranking)
but with the added benefit of magnitude of ranking. Interval scales
have equal distances between the points of a scale. These scales can
contain a zero point, but they are subjective and are not meaningful (0°
C = 32° F).
• Temperature is an example of a interval scale
Ratio Scale
• A ratio variable, has all the properties of an interval variable, and also
has a clear definition of 0.0. When the variable equals 0.0, there is
none of that variable.
• Variables like height, weight, enzyme activity are ratio variables.
• It has all of the characteristics of the other three with the additional
benefit of an absolute, meaningful zero point. Examples include:
Weight ,Sales, volume, Income, Age
Types of Research
Exploratory Research
• Exploratory research is defined as a research used to investigate a
problem which is not clearly defined. It is conducted to have a better
understanding of the existing problem, but will not provide conclusive
results. For such a research, a researcher starts with a general idea and
uses this research as a medium to identify issues, that can be the focus
for future research. An important aspect here is that the researcher
should be willing to change his/her direction subject to the revelation
of new data or insight. Such a research is usually carried out when the
problem is at a preliminary stage
Example
• The owner of The Cupcake King has many, many ideas for improving the
bakery's sales but isn't sure which will work. They think increasing the
flavors of cupcakes the bakery sells will bring in more customers but know
they need more information. They intend to conduct ER to investigate
whether expanding their cupcake selection will lead to an increase in sales,
or if there is a better idea.
• The owner starts by examining prior research available on food business
improvement methods. They hope that this will give them an idea on the
types of questions and methods that were helpful to others. Next, they
develop a list of open-ended questions, or questions that let respondents
answer however they want.
Descriptive research
• Descriptive research is defined as a research method that describes the
characteristics of the population or phenomenon studied. This
methodology focuses more on the “what” of the research subject than
the “why” of the research subject.
• The descriptive research method primarily focuses on describing the
nature of a demographic segment, without focusing on “why” a
particular phenomenon occurs. In other words, it “describes” the
subject of the research, without covering “why” it happens.
Example
An apparel brand that wants to understand the fashion purchasing trends
among New York buyers will conduct a demographic survey of this
region, gather population data and then conduct descriptive research on
this demographic segment. The study will then uncover details on “what
is the purchasing pattern of New York buyers,” but not cover any
investigative information about “why” the patterns exits. Because for
the apparel brand trying to break into this market, understanding the
nature of their market is the study’s objective.
Explanatory Research
• Explanatory Research is conducted for a problem that was not well
researched before, demands priorities, generates operational
definitions and provides a better-researched model.
• Explanatory research is actually a type of research design that focuses
on explaining the aspects of your study. The researcher starts with a
general idea and uses research as a tool that could lead to the subjects
that would be dealt with in the incoming future.
Examples

Descriptive research can tell that 20% of the students are failed in the
exam. Explanatory research can tell that what is the reason behind this failure.
Descriptive research answers that a computer system with more RAM has more
speed. Explanatory research answers the question that why a computer system with
more RAM has more speed as compared to a computer system with less RAM.
Cross-Sectional
• A cross-sectional study is a type of research design in which
you collect data from many different individuals at a single point
in time. In cross-sectional research, you observe variables
without influencing them.
Longitudinal studies
• Longitudinal studies collect data repeatedly from the same
subjects over time, often focusing on a smaller group of
individuals that are connected by a common trait.
• Cross-sectional vs longitudinal example .
• To study the impact that a low-carb diet has on diabetes:
• You first conduct a cross-sectional study with a sample of diabetes
patients to see if there are differences in health outcomes like weight
or blood sugar in those who follow a low-carb diet. You discover that
the diet correlates with weight loss in younger patients, but not older
ones.
• You then decide to design a longitudinal study to further examine this
link in younger patients. Without first conducting the cross-sectional
study, you would not have known to focus on younger patients in
particular FOR A LONGER PERIOD OF TIME.
Experimental Research
• Experimental research is a scientific approach to research, where one
or more independent variables are manipulated and applied to one or
more dependent variables to measure their effect on the latter. The
effect of the independent variables on the dependent variables is
usually observed and recorded over some time, to aid researchers in
drawing a reasonable conclusion regarding the relationship between
these 2 variable types.
Example
• Imagine taking 2 samples of the same plant and exposing one of them
to sunlight, while the other is kept away from sunlight. Let the plant
exposed to sunlight be called sample A, while the latter is called
sample B.
• If after the duration of the research, we find out that sample A grows
and sample B dies, even though they are both regularly wetted and
given the same treatment. Therefore, we can conclude that sunlight
will aid growth in all similar plants.
VARIABLE
• VARIABLE is a measurable characteristic that varies. It may change
from group to group, person to person, or even within one person over
time.
• something that varies. Age, sex, export, income and expenses,
family size, country of birth, capital expenditure, class grades,
blood pressure readings, preoperative anxiety levels, eye color,
and vehicle type
Qualitative variables
• are those that express a qualitative attribute such as hair color,
religion, race, gender, social status, method of payment, and so
on. The values of a qualitative variable do not imply a
meaningful numerical ordering.
Quantitative variables

• also called numeric variables, are those variables that are

measured in terms of numbers. A simple example of a
quantitative variable is a person’s age, weight,height.
 Discrete

• A discrete variable, restricted to certain values, usually (but not necessarily)

consists of whole numbers, such as the family size, number of defective
items in a box. They are often the results of enumeration or counting.
Examples are
• The number of accidents in the twelve months.
• The number of mobile cards sold in a store within seven days.
• The number of patients admitted to a hospital over a specified period.
• The number of new branches of a bank opened annually during 2001-
2007.
• The number of weekly visits made by health personnel in the last 12
months.
Continuous Variables
• A continuous variable is one that may take on an infinite number of
intermediate values along a specified interval. Examples are:
• The sugar level in the human body;
• Blood pressure reading;
• Temperature;
• Height or weight of the human body;
• Rate of bank interest;
• Internal rate of return (IRR),
• Earning ratio (ER)
• Current ratio (CR)
Independent Variable.
• The variable that is used to describe or measure the factor that
is assumed to cause or at least to influence the problem or
outcome is called an independent variable.
Dependent Variable

• The variable that is used to describe or measure the problem or

outcome under study is called a dependent variable.
• In a causal relationship, the cause is the independent variable,
and the effect is the dependent variable. If we hypothesize that
smoking causes lung cancer, ‘smoking’ is the independent
variable and cancer the dependent variable.
Moderator Variable

• variable that affects the strength of the relationship between a

dependent and independent variable In correlation, a moderator is a
third variable that affects the correlation of two variables.
• Moderators can be:
• Categorical variables such as ethnicity, race, gender, sexual
orientation, health status, or stimulus type,
• Quantitative variables such as age, weight, height, income, or
visual stimulus size.
Moderator Variable Example
• For instance, imagine researchers are evaluating the effects of a new
cholesterol drug. The researchers vary the participants in minutes of
daily exercise (predictor/independent variable) and measure their
cholesterol levels after 30 days (criterion/dependent variable). They
find that at low drug doses, there is a small association between
exercise and cholesterol levels, but at high drug doses, there is a huge
association between exercise and cholesterol levels. Drug dosage
moderates the association between exercise and cholesterol levels.
Extraneous variables
• Extraneous variables are not necessarily part of the study. They
exert a confounding effect on the dependent-independent
relationship and thus need to be eliminated or controlled for.
• example: you want to know if online learning increases student
understanding of statistics. One group uses an online
knowledge base to study, the other group uses a traditional text.
Extraneous variables could include prior knowledge of statistics;
you would have to make sure that group A roughly matched
group B with prior knowledge before starting the study. Other
extraneous variables could include amount of support in the
home, socio-economic income, or temperature of the testing
room.
Mediating variable
• A mediating variable explains the relation between the independent (predictor)
and the dependent (criterion) variable. It explains how or why there is a relation
between two variables.
• A mediator can be a potential mechanism by which an independent variable can
produce changes on a dependent variable.
• For instance, imagine that you find a positive association between note-taking and
performance on an exam. This association may be explained by number of
hours studying, which would be the mediating variable.
EXAMPLE OF MEDIATOR/MODERATOR VARIABLE
• Mediator variable is the middle variable / "middleman" between an
independent variable (IV) and a dependent variable (DV).  Objective of the
mediator variable is to explain the relationship between IV & DV e.g. IV is
not directly influencing DV but rather IV is indirectly influencing DV through
mediator variable.  Pictorially, Independent variable --> Mediator variable -->
Dependent variable. For example, salary (IV) is positively influencing
education (mediator variable) and then education is positively influencing
health-screening expenses (DV).  When the effect of education is removed,
the relationship between salary and health-screening disappears.
• Moderator variable is a third party variable that modify the relationship
between an independent variable (IV) and a dependent variable (DV). 
Objective of the moderator variable is to measure the strength of the
relationship between the IV & DV.  Pictorially, moderator variable's arrow
line is pointing to the mid point of the arrow-lined relationship between
independent variable --> dependent variable.  For example, if age is a
moderator variable between salary (IV) and health-screening expenses
(DV), then relationship between salary & health-screening can be stronger
for older men and less strong for younger men.
Intervening variable 
• An intervening variable is a hypothetical variable used to explain
causal links between other variables. Intervening variables cannot
be observed in an experiment (that’s why they are hypothetical).
• For example, there is an association between being poor and
having a shorter life span. Just because someone is poor doesn’t
mean that will lead to an early death, so other hypothetical
variables are used to explain the phenomenon. These intervening
variables could include: lack of access to healthcare or poor
nutrition.
Concept
• The first step in the measurement process is to define the
concepts we are studying. Researchers generate concepts by
generalizing from particular facts.
• Concepts are based on our experiences. Concepts can be
based on real phenomena and are a generalized idea of
something of meaning.
• characteristics associated with objects, events, or people
• Examples of concepts include common demographic measures:
Income, Age, Education Level, Number of Siblings.
 • We can measure concepts through direct and indirect
observations:
1. Direct Observation: We can measure someone's weight or
height. And, we can record the color of their hair or eyes.
2. Indirect Observation: We can use a questionnaire in which
respondents provide answers to our questions about gender,
income, age, attitudes, and behaviors.
Constructs
• Constructs are measured with multiple variables. Constructs
exist at a higher level of abstraction than concepts.
• construct is an abstract concept that is specifically chosen (or
“created”) to explain a given phenomenon.
• Justice, Beauty, Happiness, and Health are all constructs.
• Constructs are considered latent variable because they cannot
be directly observable or measured. Typical constructs in
marketing research include Brand Loyalty, Purchase Intent, and
Customer Satisfaction. Constructs are the basis of working
hypotheses.
Example
• Brand loyalty is a construct that marketing researchers study
often. Brand loyalty can be measured using a variety of
measures:
1. Number of items purchased in the past
2. Monetary value of past purchases
3. Frequency of past purchase occasions
4. The likelihood of future purchases
5. The likelihood of recommending the brand to a friend or family
member
6. The likelihood of switching to a competitive brand
Attribute
Attribute is a characteristic of an object (person, thing,
etc. Attributes are closely related to variables.
A variable is a logical set of attributes.
• Examples
• Age is an attribute that can be operationalized in many ways. It
can be dichotomized so that only two values – "old" and "young"
– are allowed for further data processing.
• “social class” attribute can be operationalized in similar ways as
age, including "lower", "middle" and "upper class" and each
class could be differentiated between upper and lower