Chapter Three

Research Design
Chapter outline 3.3. Research Strategies

3.1. Research Design: Meaning, Importance, 3.4. 

and Elements o 

3.2. Purposes of studies
3.1. Research Design: Meaning, Importance and Elements
After the researcher has formulated the research problem, he or she must develop the research
design as part of the research design stage.

Research design constitutes the blue print for the collection measurement and analysis of
data. Research design is the plan and structure of the investigation so conceived as to obtain
answers to research questions. The plan is the overall scheme or program of the research. It
includes an outline of what the investigator will do from writing hypotheses and their
operational implications to the final analysis of data.
Research design expresses both the structure of the problem and the plan of investigation
used to obtain empirical evidence on those relationship. These definitions differ in detail, but
together they give the essentials of research design.
o An activity and time based plan
o A plan always based on the research questions
o A guide for selecting sources, and types of information
o A for specifying the relationships among the study‟s variables
o A procedural outline for every research activity
In brief, research design must, at least, contain
o A clear statement of the research problem
o Procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information
o The population to be studied
o Sample design
o Methods to be used in processing and analyzing data
o Time and cost budgets
Need for research design
o It facilitates the smooth operation of various research activities
o It makes research as efficient as possible yielding maximum information with
minimum expenditure

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 o It helps the researcher to organize ideas in a form whereby it will be possible for
him/her to look for flaws and inadequacies
o Design can be given to others for their comments and critical evaluation. In the
absence of such a course of action, it will be difficult for the critics to provide a
comprehensive review of the proposed study
Elements of Research Design
Research design involves a series of rational decision-making choices and
issues. The various decision areas (elements) involved in research design
can be grouped into the following (sekeran, 2006; saunders et al, 2009;
cooper and S
   
 
   
 
   
 
  
 

 
 
The first five of the research design issues are discussed in great detail in
the following sections. A chapter is devoted for each of the last four design
issues- only a preview is made in the last sub section.
3.2. Purpose of the Research
The way in which you asked your research question would result in descriptive, descriptive
and explanatory, or explanatory answers. In thinking about your research question, you
inevitably have begun to think about the purpose of your research. The classification of
research purpose most often used in the research methods‟ literature is the threefold one of
exploratory, descriptive and explanatory. However, in the same way as your research
question can be both descriptive and explanatory, so your research project may have more
than one purpose.
1. Exploratory Study
oInitial research conducted to clarify and define the nature of a problem

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 oDoes not provide conclusive evidence
o Subsequent research expected
o Much exploratory research provides qualitative data
oExploratory research does not involve rigorous mathematical analysis.
oThe focus is on words, and observations: stories, visual portrayals, characterizations.
Categories of Exploratory Research
A researcher may choose from four general categories of exploratory research
methods-experience survey, secondary data analysis, case studies and
pilot studies.
Experience Surveys
o Ask knowledgeable/experienced individuals who have had personal experience in the
field.
– most are quite willing
– Quite informal; may not much more than conversation
– May be conducted by the line manager
– Not expected to be conclusive
o Not necessary to establish a representative probable sample.
Secondary Data Analysis
Data collected for a purpose other than the project at hand
o Economical
o Quick source for background information
o Extensive review of literature is conducted mainly in basic research.
o May be equally important in applied research.
o It is also a technique for descriptive and conclusive research.
Case Studies
o To Intensely investigate one or a few situations similar to the researcher‟s problem
situation.
o Investigate in depth and attention to detail.
o Careful study
o May require cooperation
o The results should be seen as tentative; making generalizations from a few cases can
be misleading/dangerous.
Pilot Studies
o A collective/generic term

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 o Any small scale exploratory study that uses sampling
o They do not apply rigorous standards of sampling and analysis.
o Generates primary data, usually for qualitative analysis
o The primary data usually are collected from employees, consumers, voters, or other
subjects of ultimate concern
Example
The following is an example where exploratory research would be
appropriate.
The manger of a multinational corporation is curious to know if the work ethical values of
employees working in its subsidiary in Pennathur city would be different from those of
Americans. There is very little information about Pennathur ( except that it is a small city in
Southern India), and since there is a considerable controversy about that work ethic values
mean to people in other cultures, the manager‟s curiosity can be satisfied only by an
exploratory study, interviewing the employees in organizations.
2. Descriptive research
The goal of descriptive research is to offer to the researcher a profile or to describe relevant
aspects of the phenomenon of interest from an individual, organizational, industry-oriented
perspective. The object of descriptive research is „to portray an accurate profile of persons,
events or situations‟ (Robson 2002:59).
Below are examples of situations warranting a descriptive research
Example 1: A bank manager wants to have a profile of the individual who have loan
payments outstanding for 6 months and more. It would include details of their average age,
earnings, nature of occupation, and the like. This might help him to elicit further information
or decide right away on the types of individuals who should be made ineligible for loans in
the future.
Example 2: A CEO may be interested in having a description of organizations in her industry
that follow the LIFO system. In this case, the report might include the age of the
organization, their locations, their production levels, assets, sales, inventory levels, suppliers,
and profits. Such information might allow comparison of the performance levels of specific
types of companies.
Example 3: A marketing manager might want to develop a pricing, sales, distribution, and
advertising strategy for her product. With this in mind, she might ask for the information
regarding the competitors, with respect to the following:

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 o The percentage of sales groups organized by product line, by accountants, and by
region
o The types of distribution channels used
o Percentage of competitors spending more dollars on promotion
o Percentage of those using the web to sell this product.
3. Explanatory Research
Studies that establish causal relationships between variables may be termed explanatory
research. The emphasis here is on studying a situation or a problem in order to explain the
relationships between variables.
Examples of such studies are given below
o Analysis of quantitative data on manufacturing scrap rates shows a relationship between
scrap rates and the age of the machine being operated. You could go ahead and subject
the data to statistical tests such as correlation in order to get a clearer view of the
relationship.
o You might collect qualitative data to explain the reasons why customers of your company
rarely pay their bills according to the prescribed payment terms.
o A marketing manager wants to know if the sales of the company will increase if he
doubles the advertising dollars. Here, the manager would like to know the nature of
relationship that can be established between advertising and sales
o The testing of a hypothesis such as “More men than women are whistleblower”
establishes the difference between two groups-men and women-in regard to whistle-
blowing behaviour.
3.3. Research Strategies
In this section we turn our attention to the research strategies you may employ. Each
strategy can be used for exploratory, descriptive and explanatory research (Yin 2003).
However, often allocating strategies to one approach or the other is unduly simplistic. In
addition, we must emphasise that no research strategy is inherently superior or inferior to any
other. Consequently, what is most important is not the label that is attached to a particular
strategy, but whether it will enable you to answer your particular research question(s) and
meet your objectives. Your choice of research strategy will be guided by your research
question(s) and objectives, the extent of existing knowledge, the amount of time and other
resources you have available, as well as your own philosophical underpinnings. Finally, it
must be remembered that these strategies should not be thought of as being mutually
exclusive. For example, it is quite possible to use the survey strategy as part of a case study.

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The strategies that we consider subsequently in this section are:
o experiment o grounded theory
o survey o ethnography
o case study o Phenomenon logy
o action research o Archival research.

3.3.1 Experimental research Strategy

Definition

Experimentation is a research method that allows evaluation of causal relationship among

variables. The purpose of experimental research is to allow the researcher to control the
research situation so that causal relationships among variables may be evaluated.

Experiments differ from other research methods in terms of degree of control over the
research situation in a typical experiment.
One variable (the independent variable) is manipulated and its effect on another variable (the
dependant variable) is measured while all other variables that may confound such a r/ship are
eliminated or controlled. The experiments either creates an artificial situation deliberately
manipulate situation.
Examples
Dependant variable Independent variables

Training Vs. Performance

Training program, Training style and Lecturers
Productivity Vs. Change work situations
Basic Issues in Experimental Design
1. Manipulation of the independent variable (s)
2. Experimental treatments and groups
3. Selection and measurement of the dependant variable
4. Selection and assignment of test units
5. Control over extraneous variables

1. Manipulation of the independent variable (s)

Independent variables: The variable that can be manipulated to be whatsoever the
experiments wishes. Its value may be changed or altered independently of any other variable.

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2. Experimental treatments and groups
Experimental treatments: An alternative manipulation of the independent variable being
investigated
Experimental group: The group of subjects exposed to an experimental treatment
Control Group: A group of subjects who are exposed to the control condition in an
experiment-that is they are subjects not exposed to the experimental treatment. By holding
conditions constant in the control group, the researcher controls for potential sources of error
in the experiment.
3. Selection and measurement of the dependant variable
o The dependant variable is so named because its value is expected to be dependent on the
experimenter‟s manipulation of the independent variable.
o The dependant variable is the criterion or standard by w/h the results are judged. It is
assumed that changes in the dependant variable are a consequence of changes in the
independent variable.
Examples
o Introducing a new pink-grape fruit tea mix
Dependent variable- sales volume
o Evaluating d/nt forms of training programs
Dependant variable- turnover, absenteeism, morale
o A company to introduce a new product
Dependent variables- brand awareness, trial purchase, repeat purchase
4. Selection and assignment of test units
o Test units are the subjects or entities whose responses to the experimental treatment are
measured or observed. Individuals, organizational units, sales territories or other entities
may be the test units.
Randomization: - a procedure in which the assignment of subjects and treatments of
groups is based on chance.
Randomization assures the researcher

o The repetition of the experiment under the same conditions

o To assume that the groups are identical with respect to all variables except for the
experimental treatment.

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Random assignment of subjects to the various experimental groups is the most common
technique used to prevent test units from differing each other on key variables; it assumes
that all characteristics of these subjects have been similarly randomized.
Matching
If the experimenter believes that certain extraneous variables may affect the dependant
variable, he/she can make sure that the subjects in each group are matched on these CXS.
Matching: - Is a procedure for the assignment of subjects to groups, it ensures each group of
respondents is matched on the basis of pertinent CXS. Although matching assures that the
subjects in each group are similar on the matched characteristics, the researcher can never be
sure that subjects have been matched on all of the characteristics that could be important to
the experiment.

5. Control over extraneous variables

A number of extraneous variables may affect the dependant variables, these by distorting the
experiment. Because an experimenter does not want extraneous variables to affect the results
of an experiment, such variables must be controlled or eliminated.
Demand CXS
Refers to experimental design procedures that unintentionally give hints to subjects about the
experimenter‟s hypothesis

Experimenter bias- An effect on an experimenter‟s results caused by the experimenter‟s

presence, actions or comments
Guinea Pig effect: an effect on the results of the experiment caused by subjects changing their
normal behavior or attitudes in order to cooperate with an experimenter.
Control Mechanisms

Constancy of conditions: Procedure in which subjects in experimental groups are exposed to

situations identical except for different conditions of the independent variable.
Counter balancing: A technique to reduce error caused by order of presentation by varying
the order of experimental treatments for different groups.
Blinding: A technique used to control subjects‟ knowledge of whether or not they have given
a particular experimental treatment.
Double blind: A technique in which neither the subjects nor the experimenter knows which
are the experimental and w/h are the controlled conditions.
Random assignment- an attempt to control extraneous variables caused by chance.

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Issues of Experimental Validity
An experiment‟s quality is judged by two types of validity. These are known as internal and
external validity.
Internal Validity
Internal validity exists to the extent that an experimental variable is truly responsible for any
variance in the dependent variable. In other words, does the experimental manipulation truly
cause changes in the specific outcome of interest? If the observed results were influenced or
confounded by extraneous factors, the researcher will have problems making valid
conclusions about the relationship between the experimental treatment and the dependent
variable. Thus, a lab experiment enhances internal validity because it maximizes control of
outside forces.

Example
If we wish to know whether certain music causes increased productivity among workers, we
may set up a task in a room with different music piped in (our experimental manipulation),
but with the temperature, lighting, density, other sounds, and any other factors all controlled,
which would be difficult or impossible to control outside of a lab environment. If the only
thing that varies from subject to subject is the music, then we can safely say that any
differences in performance must be attributable to human reactions to the music.

Extraneous variables can jeopardize internal validity. The six major ones are history,
maturation, testing, instrumentation, selection, and mortality.
1. HISTORY
A history effect occurs when some change other than the experimental treatment occurs
during the course of an experiment that affects the dependent variable. A common history
effect occurs when competitors change their marketing strategies during a test marketing
experiment. History effects are particularly prevalent in repeated measures experiments that
take place over an extended time.

Example
If we wanted to assess how much a change in recipe improves individual subjects‟
consumption of a food product, we would first measure their consumption and then compare
it with consumption after the change. Since several weeks may pass between the first and
second measurement, there are many things that could occur that would also influence
subjects‟ diets.

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 2. MATURATION
Maturation effects are effects that are a function of time and the naturally occurring events
that coincide with growth and experience. Experiments taking place over longer time spans
may see lower internal validity as subjects simply grow older or more experienced.
Example
Suppose an experiment were designed to test the impact of a new compensation program on
sales productivity. If this program were tested over a year‟s time, some of the salespeople
probably would mature as a result of more selling experience and gain increased knowledge
and skill. Their sales productivity might improve because of their knowledge and experience
rather than the compensation program.
3. TESTING
Testing effects are also called pretesting effects because the initial measurement or test alerts
or primes subjects in a way that affects their response to the experimental treatments. Testing
effects only occur in a before-and-after study. A before-and-after study is one requiring an
initial baseline measure be taken before an experimental treatment is administered. So,
before-and- after experiments is a special case of a repeated measures design.
Example
Students taking standardized achievement and intelligence tests for the second time usually
do better than those taking the tests for the first time. The effect of testing may increase
awareness of socially appropriate answers, increase attention to experimental conditions (that
is, the subject may watch more closely), or make the subject more conscious than usual of the
dimensions of a problem.
4. INSTRUMENTATION
A change in the wording of questions, a change in interviewers, or a change in other
procedures used to measure the dependent variable causes an instrumentation effect, which
may jeopardize internal validity. Sometimes instrumentation effects are difficult to control.

Example
If the same interviewers are used to ask questions for both before and after measurement,
some problems may arise. With practice, interviewers may acquire increased skill in
interviewing, or they may become bored and decide to reword the questionnaire in their own
terms. To avoid this problem, new interviewers could be hired. But this introduces another set
of issues as different individuals are also a source of extraneous variation.

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There are numerous other sources of instrument decay or variation. Again, instrumentation
effects are problematic with any type of repeated measures design.
5. SELECTION
The selection effect is a sample bias that results from differential selection of respondents for
the comparison groups, or sample selection error, discussed earlier. Researchers must make
sure the characteristics of the research subjects accurately reflect the population of relevance.
Furthermore, the key characteristics of the subjects must be distributed in such a way to
create equal groups. That is, the subjects in the experimental and control groups, or in
different experimental cells, must be equal across all variables of interest and those that could
affect the dependent measure.
6. MORTALITY
If an experiment is conducted over a period of a few weeks or more, some sample bias may
occur due to the mortality effect (sample attrition). Sample attrition occurs when some
subjects withdraw from the experiment before it is completed. Mortality effects may occur if
subjects drop from one experimental treatment group disproportionately than from other
groups.
Example
Consider a sales training experiment investigating the effects of close supervision of
salespeople (high pressure) versus low supervision (low pressure). The high-pressure
condition may misleadingly appear superior if those subjects who completed the experiment
did very well. If, however, the high-pressure condition caused more subjects to drop out than
the other conditions, this apparent superiority may be due to the fact that only very
determined and/or talented salespeople stuck with the program.
External Validity
External validity is the accuracy with which experimental results can be generalized beyond
the experimental subjects. External validity is increased when the subjects comprising the
sample truly represent the population of interest and when the results extend to other market
segments or groups of people. The higher the external validity, the more researchers and
managers can count on the fact that any results observed in an experiment will also be seen in
the “real world” (financial market, workplace, sales floor, and so on).
Trade-Offs Between Internal and External Validity
Naturalistic field experiments tend to have greater external validity than artificial laboratory
experiments. Researchers often must trade internal validity for external validity. A researcher
who wishes to test advertising effectiveness by manipulating treatments via a split-cable

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experiment has the assurance that the advertisement will be viewed in an externally valid
situation, the subjects‟ homes. However, the researcher has no assurance that some
interruption (for example, the telephone ringing, a child calling, or a pot boiling over on the
stove) will not have some influence that will reduce the internal validity of the experiment.
Laboratory experiments with many controlled factors usually are high in internal validity,
while field experiments generally have less internal validity but greater external validity.
Typically, it is best to establish internal validity first, and then focus on external validity.
Thus, results from lab experiments would be followed up with some type of field test.
Classification of experimental Design
Experimental designs fall into two groups: basic design and complex experimental design. If
only one variable is manipulated, the experiment has a basic experimental design. If the
experimenter wishes to investigate several levels of independent variable (e.g. four salary
levels) or to investigate the interaction effects of two or more independent variables, then the
experiment requires a complex experimental design.
Symbols to be used:
X= Exposure of a group to an experimental treatment
O= Observation or measurement of the dependant variable
R= Random assignment of test unit

A) Basic experimental designs

Pretest-post test control group design (Before-and-after with control group)

Experimental group: R O1 x O2
Control Group: R O3 O4
The subjects in the experimental group are tested before and after being exposed to the
treatment. The control group is tested twice, at the same times as the experimental, group but
these subjects are not exposed to the experimental treatment. The effect of the experimental
treatment is calculated as follows:
E= (O2-O1) – (O4-O3)
Example Brand awareness
Before advertisement after advertisement
Exper. O1= 0.20 O2= 0.35
Control O3= 0.20 O4=0.22
Treatment effect = (0.35-0.20)-(0.22-0.20)
= 0.13= 13%

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Post test only group design (After- only with control group)

In some situations pretests are impossible or selection error is not expected.

Experimental group: R x 01
Control group: R O2
The experimental effect is measured by the different b/n O2 and O1
E= (O2-O1)
Example: - the manufacturer of an athlete‟s foot remedy better than a competing brand.
Post
Experimental group: O1= 80%
Control group: O2= 70%
E= O1-O2= 10%

Solomon four group design

Combining the before-after with control group design and the after only with control group
design, the Solomon four group design provides a means for controlling the effects as well as
other sources of extraneous variation.

R
Experimental group 1 O1xO2

R
Control group 1 O3 O4

R
Experimental group 2 O5

R
Control group 2 O6

E= (O2-O1)- (O3-O4)+ (O6-O5)

B) Complex Experimental Design

A complex experimental design is a statistical design that allows for the isolation of the
effects of confounding extraneous variables or allows for manipulation of more than one
independent variable in the experiment.

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Completely randomized design (CRD)

It is an experimental design that uses a random process to assign experimental units to

treatments. Randomization of experimental units is the researcher‟s attempt to control all
extraneous variables while manipulating a single independent variable, treatment variable.

Example
Consider a financial institution that wants to increase their response to credit card offers. An
experiment is constructed to examine the effects of various incentives on the percentage of
potential customers that apply for a credit card with the institution. Thus, the experimental
variable is the incentive. This can be manipulated over three treatment levels:
1. No incentive to the control group
2. No interest for the first 90 days with an approved application
3. A free MP3 player with an approved application
The financial institution rents a mailing list of 15,000 prospects. This sample frame is divided
into three groups of 5,000 each (n1 + n2 + n3 = 15,000). A random number process could be
used to assign subjects to one of the three groups. Suppose each of the 15,000 subjects is
assigned a number ranging from 1 to 15,000. If a random number is selected between 1 and
15,000 (i.e., 1,201), that person can be assigned to the first group, with every third person
afterward and before also assigned to the first group (1,204, 1,207, 1,210 . . . all the way back
to 1,198). The process can be repeated with the remaining 10,000 subjects by selecting a
random number between 1 and 10,000 and then selecting every other subject. At this point,
only 5,000 subjects remain and will comprise the third group. All 15,000 subjects are now
assigned to one of three groups. Each group corresponds to one of the three levels of
incentive. A variable representing which group a subject belongs to becomes the independent
variable. The dependent variable is measured for each of the three treatment groups and the
number of respondents to the offer is determined. The analysis would compare differences
across the number of respondents for each of the three treatment levels.

Randomized block design (RBD)

It is an extension of the CRD. A form of randomization is utilized to control for most

extraneous variable. In RBD, the researcher has identified a single extraneous variable that
might affect test units response to the treatment. The researcher will attempt to isolate the
effects of this single variable by blocking its effects.

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 Example: Suppose that a manufacturer of Mexican food is considering two packaging
alternatives. Marketers suspect that geographic region might confound the experiment. They
have identified three regions where attitudes toward Mexican food may differ (the Southwest,
the Midwest, and the Atlantic Coast). In a randomized-block design, each block must receive
every treatment level. Assigning treatments to each block is a random process. In this
example the two treatments will be randomly assigned to different cities within each region.
Percentage who purchase the product
Treatment Mountain North East South West Mean for
treatments
Package A 14% (Phoenix) 12%(St. Louis) 7%(Boston) 11%

Package B 16 %(Albuquerque) 15%(Peoria) 10% (New York) 13.6%

Mean for cites 19 % 13.5% 8.5 %

Factorial design

This design is used in experiment where the effect of varying more than one factor is to be
determined.

Main effect: - the influence on the dependent variable by each independent variable

Interaction effect: - the influence on a dependant variable by combinations of two or more

independent variables.

Example
Suppose a researcher is comparing two magazine ads. The researcher is investigating the
believability of ads on a scale from 0 to 100 and wishes to consider the sex of the reader as a
blocking factor. The experiment has two independent variables: sex and ads.
This 2 × 2 factorial experiment permits the experimenter to test three hypotheses. Two
hypotheses examine the main effects:
o Advertisement A is more believable than ad B.
o Men believe advertisements more than women.
However, the primary research question may deal with the interaction hypothesis:
o Advertisement A is more believable than ad B among women, but ad B is more
believable than ad A among men.

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 Ad A Ad B
Men 60 70 65

Women 80 50 65
70 60

Main effect of Ads

Analyses

A high score indicates a more believable ad. The table shows that the mean believability score
for both sexes is 65. This suggests that there is no main sex effect. Men and women evaluate
believability of the advertisements equally. The main effect for ads indicates that ad A is more
believable than ad B (70 versus 60), supporting the first hypothesis. However, if we inspect the
data and look within the levels of the factors, we find that men find ad B more believable and
women find ad A more believable. This is an interaction effect because the believability score
of the advertising factor differs at different values of the other independent variable, sex. Thus,
the interaction hypothesis is supported

Latin square Design

The Latin square design attempts to control or block out the effect of two or more
confounding extraneous factors. This design is so named because of the layout of the table
that represents the design. A Latin square is a balanced, two classification scheme.

Example: A taste test might be confounded by the order of tasting and individual preference.

Order of usage

1 2 3

Subject 1 A B C

2 B C A

3 C A B

The capital letters A, B & C identify the three treatments

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3.3.2 Survey Research Strategy
Survey studies ask large numbers of people questions about their behaviours, attitudes, and
opinions. Some surveys merely describe what people say they think and do. Other survey
studies attempt to find relationships between the characteristics of the respondents and their
reported behaviours and opinions. For example, a survey could examine whether there is a
relationship between gender and people‟s attitudes about some social issue. When surveys are
conducted to determine relationships, as for this second purpose, they are referred to as
correlation studies.

- Survey is defined as a method of gathering primary data based on communication,

either verbal or written means, with a representative sample of individual.
- Survey investigations attempt to describe what is happening or to learn the reasons for
a particular business activity. Most survey research is therefore descriptive research.

The principal advantage of survey studies is that they provide information on large groups of
people, with very little effort, and in a cost effective manner. Surveys allow researchers to
assess a wider variety of behaviours and other phenomena than can be studied in a typical
naturalistic observation study.
Errors in survey research
The two major sources of survey error are random sampling error and systematic error.

Random sampling error

Most surveys try to portray a representative cross section of a particular target population.
Even with technically proper random probability samples, statistical errors will occur because
of chance variation in the elements selected for the sample. Unless the sample size is
increased, these statistical problems are unavoidable.

Systematic error /non sampling errors

Results from some imperfect aspect of the research design or from a mistake in the execution
of the research .Includes all sources of errors other than introduced by the random sampling
procedure
The many sources of error that in some way systematically influence answers can be
classified under two general categories: respondent error and administrative error.

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A. Respondent Error
Surveys are based on asking people for answers. If respondents cooperate and give truthful
answers, a survey will likely accomplish its goal. Two problems that arise if these two
conditions are not met are non response error and response bias.

a) Non-response error: The statistical difference between a survey that includes only
those who responded and a perfect survey that would also include those who failed to
respond.

To utilize results a researcher must be sure that those who did respond to the questionnaire
were representative of those who did not.

This problem is especially acute in mail and internet surveys but is also exists in
telephone and face-to-face interviews.

Non respondents: People who are not contacted or who refuse to cooperate
No contact: A potential respondent who is not at home or who is otherwise in accessible on
the first and second attempts to contact
Refusals: Occurs when people are unwilling to participate in the research

b) Response Bias: A response bias occurs when respondents tend to answer in a certain
direction, i.e., when they consciously or unconsciously misrepresent the truth.

There are five specific categories of response bias

Acquiescence bias: A category of response bias in w/c individuals have a tendency to agree
with all questions or to indicate of positive connotation to a new idea. They are “yea sayers”.
It is particularly prominent in research on new products, new programs or ideas previously
unfamiliar to the respondents. Disagree with all questions or to indicate a negative
connotation to a new idea.
Extremity Bias a tendency to use extremes when responding to question others; others avoid
extreme positions and tend to respond neutrally.
Interviewer Bias: Bias in the responses of subjects due to the influence of the interviewer
Dressing, age, gender, tone of voice, facial expressions
Auspices Bias: Bias in responses subjects caused by their being influenced by the
organization conducting the study

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Social desirability Bias: Bias in the responses of subjects caused by their desire, either
conscious or unconscious to gain prestige or to appear in a different role. Example
Recreation
- Visiting tourist sites and attractions
- Education is overstated
- Charity contributions
- “respectable” answers given in order to gain prestige
- Attempt to create a favorable impression or “save face”
B. Administrative Errors
Result of improper administration or execution of the research task
Such errors can be caused by carelessness, confusion, neglect, omission or some other
blunder. Four types of administrative errors are data processing error, sample selection error,
interviewer error and interviewer cheating.

Data Processing error: A category of administrative error that occurs because of in correct
data entry, incorrect computer programming and other errors during data analysis. data
processing errors can be minimized by establishing careful procedure for verifying each step
in the data processing stage.
Sample selection error: It is a systematic error that because of an error in either the sample
design or execution of the sampling procedure results in an unrepresentative sample.
Interviewer error Interviewer error is introduced when interviewers record answers and
check the wrong response. Interviewers are not able to write fast enough to record answers
verbalism. Interviewers misreport answers
Interviewer cheating: Occurs when an interviewer falsifies entire questionnaire or fills in
the answers to certain questions.
Classifying survey research Methods
Surveys may be classified according to the method of communication, the degree of structure
and amount of disguise in a questionnaire and the time frame in w/c the data are collected.
Classification by the method of communication

- Questionnaire
o Self administered questionnaire
o Mail questionnaire
o Electronic questionnaire
- Interview

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 o Personal interview
o Telephone interview
o Interview schedule
o In-depth interview
o Focused group discussions
Structured and Disguised questions
In designing a questionnaire (or an interview schedule), the researcher must decide how much
structure or standardization is needed.
A structured question- limits the number of responses available
Unstructured questions- do not restrict the answers the respond is allowed. Example:- what
do you think are the two most important problems facing your organization?
Disguised questions: are indirect type of question that assumes that the purpose of the study
must be hidden from the respondents.
Undisguised question -Direct question

Questionnaires can be categorized by their degree of structure and degree of disguise.

Disguise Un disguise
Structure Structured disguise Structure un disguised
Unstructured Unstructured disguise Structured un disguised
Limitations of this classification

- Degree of structure and degree of disguise vary; they are not clear cut strategies
- Most surveys are by brids , asking both structured and unstructured questions

Recognition of the degree of structure and disguise to meet survey objectives will help in the
selection of the appropriate communication medium for conducting the survey.
3.3.3. Case Research Strategy
Definition and Importance
Case studies simply refer to the documented history of a particular person, group,
organization, or event. Typically, a case study may describe the events of a specific company
as it faces an important decision or situation, such as introducing a new product or dealing
with some management crisis. Textbook cases typify this kind of case study. Clinical
interviews of managers, employees, or customers can represent a case study.

Robson (2002:178) defines case study as „a strategy for doing research which involves an
empirical investigation of a particular contemporary phenomenon within its real life context
using multiple sources of evidence‟. Yin (2003) also highlights the importance of context,
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adding that, within a case study, the boundaries between the phenomenon being studied and
the context within which it is being studied are not clearly evident. This is the complete
opposite of the experimental strategy we outlined earlier, where the research is undertaken
within a highly controlled context. It also differs from the survey strategy where, although the
research is undertaken in context, the ability to explore and understand this context is limited
by the number of variables for which data can be collected.

The case study strategy will be of particular interest to you if you wish to gain a rich
understanding of the context of the research and the processes being enacted (Morris and
Wood 1991). The case study strategy also has considerable ability to generate answers to the
question „why?‟ as well as the „what?‟ and „how?‟ questions, although „what?‟ and „how?‟
questions tend to be more the concern of the survey strategy. For this reason the case study
strategy is most often used in explanatory and exploratory research. The data collection
techniques employed may be various and are likely to be used in combination.
They may include, for example, interviews, observation, and documentary analysis and (as if
to emphasise the dangers of constructing neat boxes in which to categorise approaches,
Strategies and techniques) questionnaires. Consequently, if you are using a case study
strategy you are likely to need to use and triangulate multiple sources of data.
Triangulation refers to the use of different data collection techniques within one study in
order to ensure that the data are telling you what you think they are telling you. For example,
qualitative data collected using semi-structured group interviews may be a valuable way of
triangulating quantitative data collected by other means such as a questionnaire.
According to Kazdin (1982), the major characteristics of case studies are the following:
o They involve the intensive study of an individual, family, group, institution, or other
level that can be conceived of as a single unit.
o The information is highly detailed, comprehensive, and typically reported in narrative
form as opposed to the quantified scores on a dependent measure.
o They attempt to convey the nuances of the case, including specific contexts,
extraneous influences, and special idiosyncratic details.
o The information they examine may be retrospective or archival.
Types of case studies
Yin (2003) distinguishes between four case study strategies based upon two discrete
dimensions:
o single case v. multiple case;
o Holistic case v. embedded case.

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1. A single case is often used where it represents a critical case or, alternatively, an extreme
or unique case. Conversely, a single case may be selected because it is typical or because
it provides you with an opportunity to observe and analyse a phenomenon that few have
considered before. Inevitably, an important aspect of using a single case is defining the
actual case. Where you choose to use a single case study, you will need to have a strong
justification for this choice.
2. A case study strategy can also incorporate multiple cases, that is, more than one case. The
rationale for using multiple cases focuses upon the need to establish whether the findings
of the first case occur in other cases and, as a consequence, the need to generalise from
these findings. For this reason Yin (2003) argues that multiple case studies may be
preferable to a single case study and that.
3. Holistic case study: you may well have chosen to use an organisation by which you have
been employed or are currently employed as your case. If your research is concerned only
with the organisation as a whole then you are treating the organisation as a holistic case
study.
4. Embedded case: when you are researching and are concerned with a single organisation
as a whole, if you wish to examine also a number of logical sub-units within the
organisation, perhaps departments or work groups, then your case will inevitably involve
more than one unit of analysis. Whatever way you select these units, this would be called
an embedded case study
You may be suspicious of using a case study strategy because of the „unscientific‟ feel it
has. We would argue that a case study strategy can be a very worthwhile way of
exploring existing theory. In addition, a well-constructed case study strategy can enable
you to challenge an existing theory and also provide a source of new research questions.

A primary advantage of the case study is that an entire organization or entity can be
investigated in depth with meticulous attention to detail. This highly focused attention
enables the researcher to carefully study the order of events as they occur or to concentrate on
identifying the relationships among functions, individuals, or entities. Conducting a case
study often requires the cooperation of the party whose history is being studied. This freedom
to search for whatever data an investigator deems important makes the success of any case
study highly dependent on the alertness, creativity, intelligence, and motivation of the
individual performing the case analysis.

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3.3.4 Action research Strategy

Lewin first used the term action research in 1946. It has been interpreted subsequently by
management researchers in a variety of ways, but there are four common themes within the
literature.
1. The first focuses upon and emphasises the purpose of the research: research in action
rather than research about action (Coghlan and Brannick 2005) so that, for example, the
research is concerned with the resolution of organisational issues such as the implications of
change together with those who experience the issues directly.
2. The second relates to the involvement of practitioners in the research and, in particular, a
collaborative democratic partnership between practitioners and researchers, be they
academics, other practitioners or internal or external consultants. Eden and Huxham
(1996:75) argue that the findings of action research result from „involvement with members
of an organization over a matter which is of genuine concern to them‟. Therefore, the
researcher is part of the organisation within which the research and the change process are
taking place (Coghlan and Brannick 2005) rather than more typical research or consultancy
where, for example, employees are subjects or objects of study.
3. The third theme emphasises the iterative nature of the process of diagnosing, planning,
taking action and evaluating. The action research spiral commences within a specific
context and with a clear purpose. This is likely to be expressed as an objective (Robson
2002). Diagnosis sometimes referred to as fact finding and analysis, is undertaken to enable
action planning and a decision about the actions to be taken. These are then taken and the
actions evaluated (cycle 1). Subsequent cycles involve further diagnosis, taking into account
previous evaluations, planning further actions, taking these actions and evaluating.
4. The final theme suggests that action research should have implications beyond the
immediate project; in other words, it must be clear that the results could inform other
contexts.
3.3.5. Grounded Theory
Grounded theory represents an inductive investigation in which the researcher poses
questions about information provided by respondents or taken from historical records. The
researcher asks the questions to him or herself and repeatedly questions the responses to
derive deeper explanations. Grounded theory is particularly applicable in highly dynamic
situations involving rapid and significant change. Two key questions asked by the grounded
theory researcher are “What is happening here?” and “How is it different?” The

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distinguishing characteristic of grounded theory is that it does not begin with a theory but
instead extracts one from whatever emerges from an area of inquiry.

A grounded theory strategy is particularly helpful for research to predict and explain
behaviour, the emphasis being upon developing and building theory. As much of business
and management is about people‟s behaviours, for example consumers‟ or employees‟, a
grounded theory strategy can be used to explore a wide range of business and management
issues.
Example: Consider a company that approaches a researcher to study whether or not its sales
force is as effective as it has been over the past five years. The researcher uses grounded
theory to discover a potential explanation. A theory is inductively developed based on text
analysis of dozens of sales meetings that had been recorded over the previous five years. By
questioning the events discussed in the sales interviews and analyzing differences in the
situations that may have led to the discussion, the researcher is able to develop a theory. The
theory suggests that with an increasing reliance on e-mail and other technological devices for
communication, the salespeople do not communicate with each other informally as much as
they did five years previously. As a result, the salespeople had failed to bond into a close-knit
“community.”

Misconceptions of grounded theory (suddy, 2006)

1. Grounded theory is not an excuse to ignore the literature, or defer reading existing theory
until the data are collected and analysed.
2. Grounded theory is not presentation of raw data. It is essential that the data collected are
considered at a conceptual level in order to draw conclusions which contain theoretical
insights.
3. Grounded theory is not theory testing, content analysis, or word counts.
4. Grounded theory is not simply routine application of formulaic procedures to data. It is
not a mechanical involving techniques and procedures such as prescribed amounts of
interviews, computer software packages to analyse data or elaborate data sorting into
categories.
5. Grounded theory is not perfect. By its nature it is „messy‟. It requires researchers to
develop a tacit knowledge of, or feel for, their data.
6. Finally, he cautions against assuming that grounded theory is easy. He argues that „the
seamless craft of a well-executed grounded theory study, however, is the product of

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 considerable experience, hard work, creativity and, occasionally, a healthy dose of good
luck
3.3.6. Ethnography Research Strategy
Ethnography represents ways of studying cultures through methods that involve becoming
highly active within that culture. The purpose is to describe and explain the social world the
research subjects inhabit in the way in which they would describe and explain it. This is
obviously a research strategy that is very time consuming and takes place over an extended
time period as the researcher needs to immerse her or himself in the social world being
researched as completely as possible.

In adopting an ethnographic strategy, you will be researching the phenomenon within the
context in which it occurs and, in addition, not using data collection techniques that
oversimplify the complexities of everyday life. Given this, it is not surprising that most
ethnographic strategies involve extended participant observation

Ethnographic study can be particularly useful when a certain culture is comprised of

individuals who cannot or will not verbalize their thoughts and feelings. For instance,
ethnography has advantages for discovering insights among children since it does not rely
largely on their answers to questions. Instead, the researcher can simply become part of the
environment, allow the children to do what they do naturally, and record their behaviour.
3.3.7 Phenomenology Research Strategy
Phenomenology represents a philosophical approach to studying human experiences based
on the idea that human experience itself is inherently subjective and determined by the
context in which people live. The phenomenological researcher focuses on how a person‟s
behaviour is shaped by the relationship he or she has with the physical environment, objects,
people, and situations. Phenomenological inquiry seeks to describe, reflect upon, and
interpret experiences.

Researchers with a phenomenological orientation rely largely on conversational interview

tools. When conversational interviews are face to face, they are recorded either with video or
audiotape and then interpreted by the researcher. The phenomenological interviewer is
careful to avoid asking direct questions when at all possible. Instead, the research respondent
is asked to tell a story about some experience. In addition, the researcher must do everything
possible to make sure a respondent is comfortable telling his or her story. One way to
accomplish this is to become a member of the group. Another way may be to avoid having

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the person use his or her real name. This might be particularly necessary in studying
potentially sensitive topics such as smoking, drug usage, shoplifting, or employee theft.

3.3.8 Archival research

The final strategy we wish to consider, archival research, makes use of administrative
records and documents as the principal source of data. Although the term archival has
historical connotations, it can refer to recent as well as historical documents.

An archival research strategy allows research questions which focus upon the past and
changes over time to be answered, be they exploratory, descriptive or explanatory.
However, your ability to answer such questions will inevitably be constrained by the nature
of the administrative records and documents.
3.4. Type of Investigation
A manager (a researcher) should determine whether a causal or a correlation study is needed
to find an answer to the issue at hand. While determining this, you are also determining the
extent of your interference in the study and the study setting. As usual, whether a study is a
causal or a correlation one depends on the type of research questions asked and how the
problem is defined.
1. Casual Research
o necessary to establish a definite cause-and-effect relationship
o Researcher is keen on delineating one or more factors that are undoubtedly causing
the problem. In other words, the intention of the researcher conducting a casual
study is to be able to state that variable X causes variable Y. So, when variable X is
removed or altered in some way, problem Y is solved.
o The researcher tries to manipulate certain variables so as to study the effects such
manipulations on the dependant variable of interest. In other words, the researcher
deliberately changes certain variables in the setting and interferes with the events as
they normally occur.
o They can be carried out in two studies settings- in the natural environment where
work proceeds normally (non contrived) and or in artificial environment (contrived).
Most rigorous causal studies, however, are done in artificial, contrived settings.
o Studies conducted to establish cause-and-effect relationship using the same natural
environment in which employees normally function are called field experiments.
Here, the researcher interferes with the natural occurrence events in as much as the
independent variable is manipulated.

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 o Experiments done to establish cause- and-effect relationships beyond the possibility
the least doubt require the creation of an artificial, contrived environment in which all
the extraneous factors are strictly controlled. Similar subjects are chosen carefully to
respond to certain manipulated stimuli. These studies are referred to as lab
experiments.
Example 1
A bank manager wants to determine the cause-and-effect relationship between interest rate
and inducements it offers to clients to save and deposit money in the bank. She selects four
branches within a 60-mile radius for the experiment. For 1 week only, she advertises the
annual rate for a new certificate of deposits received during the week in the following
manner: the interest rate would be 9% in one branch, 8% in another, and 10% in the third. In
the fourth branch, the interest rate remains unchanged at 5%. Within the week, she would be
able determine the effects, if any, of interest rates on deposit mobilization.
Points about this research design
o This is a field experiment with non contrived setting- all activities occur in the normal
and natural work environment.
o The researcher has interfered in only manipulating (altering) the interest rates.
o More likely, all four branches chosen would be more or less compatible in size,
number of depositors, and the like, so that the interest-savings relationships are not
influenced by some third factor. But it is possible that some other factors might affect
the findings.
Example 2
The bank manager now wants to establish the causal connection between interest rates and
savings, beyond doubt. For this purpose, she recruits 40 students who are all business majors
in their final years of study and are more or less of the same age. She splits them into four
groups and gives each one of them chips that counts for $ 1000, which they are told they
might utilize to buy their needs or save for the future, or both. She offers them by way of
incentive; interest on what they save but manipulates the rates by offering a 6% interest rate
on savings for group 1, 8% for group 2, 9% for group 3and keeps the interest at the low rate
of 1% for group 4.
Points about this research design
o An artificial laboratory environment is created. Thus, a contrived setting is chosen.

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 o The researcher interference has been maximal, in as much as the setting is different,
the independent variable is manipulated, and most external factors such as age and
experience have been controlled.
o If the banker finds that the savings by the four groups increase progressively, keeping
in step with the increasing rates of interest, she would be establish a cause-and-effect
relationship b/n interest and the disposition to save.
2. Correlation Research
o A researcher wants to delineate the important variables associated with the problem.
o A correlation study is conducted in the natural environment of organization (non
contrived setting) with minimal researcher interference.
o Correlation studies conducted in organizations are called field studies.
Example
The bank manger wants to analyze the relationship b/n interest rates and bank deposit
patterns of clients. She tries to correlate the two by looking at deposits into different kinds of
accounts as interest rates changed.
Points on this research design
o This a correlation field study
o Research is done in a non contrived setting with no interference with the normal work
routine
3.5. Time Horizon
An important question to be asked in planning your research is „Do I want my research to be
a “snapshot” taken at a particular time or do I want it to be more akin to a diary or a series of
snapshots and be a representation of events over a given period?‟ (As always, of course, the
answer should be „It depends on the research question.‟) The „snapshot‟ time horizon is what
we call here cross-sectional while the „diary‟ perspective we call longitudinal.

We should emphasise here that these time horizons to research design are independent of
which research strategy you are pursuing or your choice of method. So, for example, you may
be studying the change in manufacturing processes in one company over a period of a year.
This would be a longitudinal case study.

1. Cross-sectional studies
o the study of a particular phenomenon (or phenomena) at a particular time
o most research projects undertaken for academic courses
o Cross-sectional studies often employ the survey strategy

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 o Most field studies are cross sectional studies in nature
Example 1: data were collected from stock brockers between April and June of last
year to study their concerns in a turbulent stock market. Data with respect to this
particular research had not been collected before, nor will they be collected again
from them for this research.
Example 2: a drug company desirous of investing in research for a new obesity
(reduction) pill conducted a survey among obese people to see how many of them
would be interested in trying the new bill.
The purpose of both of the studies in the two examples was to collect data that would
be pertinent to find the answer to a research question. Data collection at one point in
time was sufficient. Both were cross-sectional designs.

2. Longitudinal studies
o In longitudinal studies the basic question is „Has there been any change over a
period of time?‟
o the „diary‟ perspective
o Take more and time effort and cost more than cross-sectional studies.
o Help to identify cause-and-effect relationships
o Experimental designs are invariably longitudinal studies since data are collected
both before and after the manipulation.
o Field studies can be also longitudinal. For example, a study of the comparison data
pertaining to the reactions of managers in a company toward working women now
and 10 years later will be a longitudinal study.
o Necessary if a manager wants to keep track of certain factors over a period of
time, to detect possible casual connections.
Example 1: UPS experienced a shut down for 15 days during the teamsters‟ walkout
and their clients shifted their business to other carriers such as FedEx and the U.S.
postal service. After a number of the strike, UPS tried to woo their customer back
through several strategies and collected data month after month to see what progress
they were making in this regard.

Here, data were collected every month to assess whether UPS had regained the
business volume. Since data were collected at various points in time to answer the
same research question (have we gained lost background?), the study is a longitudinal
one.

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 Example 2: A marketing manager is interested in tracing the pattern of sales of a
particular product in four different regions of the country on a quarterly basis for the
next 2 years. Since data are collected several times to answer the same issues (tracing
pattern of sales), the study falls under the longitudinal category.
3.6. Research Methods Choice
QUALITATIVE VERSUS QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH
Criteria cc Qualitative Research Quantitative Research
CC
Purpose To understand & interpret social To test hypotheses, look at
interactions. cause & effect, & make
predictions.
Group Studied Smaller & not randomly selected. Larger & randomly selected.
Variables Study of the whole, not variables. Specific variables studied
Type of Data Collected Words, images, or objects. Numbers and statistics.
Form of Data Collected Qualitative data such as open- ended Quantitative data based on
responses, interviews, participant precise measurements using
observations, field notes, & reflections. structured & validated data-
collection instruments.
Type of Data Analysis Identify patterns, features, themes. Identify statistical
relationships.
Objectivity and Subjectivity is expected. Objectivity is critical.
Subjectivity
Role of Researcher Researcher & their biases may be known to Researcher & their biases
participants in the study, & participant are not known to participants
characteristics may be known to the in the study, & participant
researcher. characteristics are
deliberately hidden from the
researcher (double blind
studies).
Results Particular or specialized findings that is less Generalizable findings that
generalizable. can be applied to other
populations.
Scientific Method Exploratory or bottom–up: the researcher Confirmatory or top-down:
generates a new hypothesis and theory from the researcher tests the
the data collected. hypothesis and theory with
the data.
View of Human Dynamic, situational, social, & personal. Regular & predictable.
Behavior
Most Common Explore, discover, & construct. Describe, explain, & predict.
Research Objectives
Focus Wide-angle lens; examines the breadth & Narrow-angle lens; tests
depth of phenomena. specific hypotheses.
Nature of Observation Study behaviour in a natural environment. Study behaviour under
controlled conditions; isolate
causal effects.
Nature of Reality Multiple realities; subjective. Single reality; objective.
Final Report Narrative report with contextual description Statistical report with
& direct quotations from research correlations, comparisons of
participants. means, & statistical
significance of findings.

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a) Quantitative is predominantly used as a synonym for any data collection technique (such
as a questionnaire) or data analysis procedure (such as graphs or statistics) that generates
or uses numerical data.
b) Qualitative is used predominantly as a synonym for any data collection technique (such
as an interview) or data analysis procedure (such as categorising data) that generates or
use non-numerical data. Qualitative therefore can refer to data other than words, such as
pictures and video clips.
In choosing your research methods you will use a single data collection technique and
corresponding analysis procedures (mono method) or use more than one data collection
technique and analysis procedures to answer your research question (multiple methods).
1. Mono Method
If you choose to use a mono method you will combine either a single quantitative data
collection technique, such as questionnaires, with quantitative data analysis procedures; or a
single qualitative data collection technique, such as in-depth interviews, with qualitative data
analysis procedures.
2. Multiple Methods
If you choose to combine data collection techniques and procedures using some form of
multiple methods design, there are four different possibilities.
a) The term multi-method refers to those combinations where more than one data collection
technique is used with associated analysis techniques, but this is restricted within either a
quantitative or qualitative world view. Thus you might choose to collect quantitative data
using, for example, both questionnaires and structured observation analysing these data
using statistical (quantitative) procedures, a multi-method quantitative study.
Alternatively, you might choose to collect qualitative data using, for example, in-depth
interviews and diary accounts and analyse these data using non-numerical (qualitative)
procedures, a multi-method qualitative. Therefore, if you adopted multi-methods you
would not mix quantitative and qualitative techniques and procedures.
b) Mixed methods approach is the general term for when both quantitative and qualitative
data collection techniques and analysis procedures are used in a research design. It is
subdivided into two types. Mixed method research uses quantitative and qualitative data
collection techniques and analysis procedures either at the same time (parallel) or one
after the other (sequential) but does not combine them. This means that, although mixed
method research uses both quantitative and qualitative world views at the research
methods stage, quantitative data are analysed quantitatively and qualitative data are

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 analysed qualitatively. In addition, often either quantitative or qualitative techniques or
procedures predominate. In contrast, mixed-model research combines quantitative and
qualitative data collection techniques and analysis procedures as well as combining
quantitative and qualitative approaches at other phases of the research such as research
question generation. This means that you may take quantitative data and qualitise it,
which is, convert it into narrative that can be analysed qualitatively. Alternatively, you
may quantitise your qualitative data, converting it into to numerical codes so that it can
be analysed statistically
Reasons for using mixed-methods designs
Reasons Explanation

Use of two or more independent sources of data or data collection methods

Triangulation to corroborate research findings within a study.

Use of one data collection method or research strategy to aid

Facilitation research using another data collection method or research
strategy within a study (e.g. qualitative/quantitative providing
hypotheses, aiding measurement, quantitative/qualitative
participant or case selection)

Use of two or more research strategies in order that different

Complementarity aspects of an investigation can be dovetailed (e.g. qualitative
plus quantitative questionnaire to fill in gaps quantitative plus
qualitative questionnaire for issues, interview for meaning)
Use of independent source of data to contextualise main study
Generality or use quantitative analysis to provide sense of relative
importance (e.g. qualitative plus quantitative to set case in
broader context; qualitative × quantitative analysis is to provide
sense of relative importance)

Aid interpretation Use of qualitative data to help explain relationships between

quantitative variables (e.g quantitative/qualitative)

Study different aspects Quantitative to look at macro aspects and qualitative to look at
micro aspects

Solving a puzzle Use of an alternative data collection method when the initial
method reveals unexplainable results or insufficient data

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