Vitamins

The term "vitamine" was coined from the words

vital + amine, since the earlier identified ones had
amino groups. Later work showed that most of
them did not contain amino groups, so the last
letter „e' was dropped in the modern term of
vitamin.

Biochemistry 1
Prof. Dr. Raid M. H. Al-Salih
Vitamins
may be defined as organic compounds
occurring in small quantities in different natural
foods and necessary for growth and maintenance
of good health in human beings and in
experimental animals. Vitamins are essential food
factors, which are required for the proper utilization
of the proximate principles of food like
carbohydrates, lipids and proteins.

Biochemistry 2
Prof. Dr. Raid M. H. Al-Salih
The vitamins are mainly classified into two:
1. Water soluble vitamins are named as B complex and C.
2. Fat soluble vitamins are A, D, E and K . The major differences
between these two groups of vitamins are:

Biochemistry 3
Prof. Dr. Raid M. H. Al-Salih
Water soluble vitamins

1. Thiamine (Vitamin B1)

2. Riboflavin (Vitamin B2) and FAD
3. Niacin, NAD+ and NADP+
4. Pyridoxine (Vitamin B6)
5. Pantothenic acid and Co-enzyme A
6. Biotin
7. Folic acid
8. Vitamin B12
9. Ascorbic acid (Vitamin C)

Biochemistry 4
Prof. Dr. Raid M. H. Al-Salih
THIAMINE (VITAMIN B1)

Structure

Thiamine

Active form

Thiamine pyrophosphate

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Prof. Dr. Raid M. H. Al-Salih
Sources:
Seeds, Nuts, Wheat, Leguminous plants (rich source) & lean
meat.

RDA: Minimum requirement 1.0mg for adults, infants and

children 0.4-1.3mg

Physiological Role: Co-enzyme of some enzymes such as

pyruvate dehydrogenase, Alpha ketoglutarate
dehydrogenase, and Transketolase

Deficiency:
Beriberi: The early symptoms are anorexia, dyspepsia,
heaviness and weakness. Subjects feel weak and get easily
exhausted.
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Prof. Dr. Raid M. H. Al-Salih
RIBOFLAVIN (VITAMIN B2)

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Prof. Dr. Raid M. H. Al-Salih
Source: Meats, Nuts, Legumes, Milk, fish, egg.

RDA: 1.5-2.5mg for adults, infants 0.6mg, children 1.0-1.8mg

Deficiency: Non fatal syndrome of inflammation of the corner of

mouth (angular stomatitis), painful glossitis of tongue (Purple)
and Scaly dermatitis.

Biochemistry 8
Prof. Dr. Raid M. H. Al-Salih
Physiological Role
A. FAD Accepts Hydrogen
B. FMN-dependent Enzymes (NADH dehydrogenase)
NAD+ -----→ FMN -----→ CoQ
C. FAD-dependent Enzymes
1. Succinate dehydrogenase
2. Xanthine oxidase.
3. Pyruvate dehydrogenase
4. Alpha ketoglutarate dehydrogenase

Biochemistry 9
Prof. Dr. Raid M. H. Al-Salih
Niacin

Source: Milk, Lean meat, Unrefined grains, cereals and from

Metabolism of Tryptophan.
RDA: Adults 17-21mg, infants 6mg.The requirement
increases with increased intake of calories, illness, severe
injury ,infection ,burns, high corn (maize) diet, pregnancy and
lactation.
Deficiency: Deficiency leads to Pellagra, a disease involving
GIT and CNS intense irritation and inflammation of the
mucous membranes of the mouth and other parts of the GIT,
leading to gastro- Biochemistry intestinal hemorrhage, Dermatitis,
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Dementia & Diarrehea.. Prof. Dr. Raid M. H. Al-Salih
Niacin deficiency

Co-enzyme Forms of Niacin

Biochemistry 11
Prof. Dr. Raid M. H. Al-Salih
NAD+ Dependent Enzymes such as:Lactate dehydrogenase,
Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase, Pyruvate
dehydrogenase, and Alpha ketoglutarate dehydrogenase

NADPH Dependent Reactions

Keto acyl ACP dehydrogenase, HMG CoA reductase, Folate
reductase, and Phenyl alanine hydroxylase

Biochemistry 12
Prof. Dr. Raid M. H. Al-Salih
VITAMIN B6 (Pyridoxine)
a family of 3 related pyridine derivatives;
pyridoxine (alcohol), pyridoxal (aldehyde) and
pyridoxamine.
Active form of pyridoxine is pyridoxal phosphate (PLP)

Functions of Pyridoxal Phosphate

1- Amino acid metabolism such as Transamination and
Decarboxylation.
2- Heme Synthesis.
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3- Glycogenolysis. Prof. Dr.Biochemistry
Raid M. H. Al-Salih
Sources: Wheat, corn, egg yolk, Liver and muscle meat

RDA: 1.4-2.2 mg for Adults, children 0.3-0.4 mg.Patients with

anti-tubercular treatment needs more Vitamin B6.

Deficiency: usually is not common, but may result due to

intake of drugs like Isoniazid and contraceptives. Alcoholics
also suffer from such deficiency. Isoniazid binds to pyridoxine
and makes it unavailable as a vitamin, causing peripheral
neuropathy. oral contraceptives stimulate the synthesis of the
enzyme which require this vitamin, thus causing deficiency .

Biochemistry 14
Prof. Dr. Raid M. H. Al-Salih
PANTOTHENIC ACID (Vit B 5) Coenzyme A.

Structure
The Greek word “pantos” means everywhere. As the name
suggests, it is widely distributed in nature. Pantothenic acid
contains beta alanine and D-pantoic acid in amide linkage

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Prof. Dr. Raid M. H. Al-Salih
Structure of Co-enzyme A (CoA) derived from pantothenic acid

Biochemistry 16
Prof. Dr. Raid M. H. Al-Salih
Co-enzyme Activities of Pantothenic Acid
1- Transfer the sulfhydryl (-SH) group.
2- transfer acyl groups to other acceptors, for example:

Acetyl CoA + Choline → Acetyl choline + CoA

(enzyme is acetyl choline synthase)

Pyruvate+CoA+NAD+ → AcetylCoA+CO2+NADH
(Enzyme is pyruvate dehydrogenase).

3- Co-enzyme A is an important component of

fatty acid synthase complex

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Prof. Dr. Raid M. H. Al-Salih
Sources: Eggs, Liver, Animal tissue, Whole grain cereals, Yeast
and Legumes

RDA: 4-7mg/day

Deficiency: rare due to its wide distribution

The burning foot syndrome in prisoners which is associated with
reduced capacity for acetylation is ascribed to pantothenic acid
deficiency.

Biochemistry 18
Prof. Dr. Raid M. H. Al-Salih
BIOTIN (anti-egg white injury factor)

Source: Normally
synthesized by
intestinal bacteria.
Found in all foods
particularly: Liver,
egg, peanuts & milk
RDA: 100-200μg/day. Requirement increase in pregnancy and
lactation. Patients on oral antibiotics for a long period of time
require more of this vitamin.
Deficiency:
Rare, but Avidin, a glycoprotein in egg white binds tightly to
biotin and makes it unavailable for the necessary carboxylation
reactions. The symptoms in this case are: Dermatitis, Glossitis,
Muscle pain, depression, alopecia (Loss of
hair), Loss of appetite and Nausea.
Biochemistry 19
Prof. Dr. Raid M. H. Al-Salih
Co-enzyme Activity of Biotin
Biotin acts as co-enzyme for carboxylation reactions.
1. Acetyl CoA carboxylase
2. Propionyl CoA carboxylase
3. Pyruvate carboxylase

Biochemistry 20
Prof. Dr. Raid M. H. Al-Salih
FOLIC ACID
The active form of folic acid is Tetra hydro folate (THF)

Biochemistry 21
Prof. Dr. Raid M. H. Al-Salih
 Folic acid

THFA
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Prof. Dr. Raid M. H. Al-Salih
Source: The vitamin is abundant in leafy green vegetables
such as spinach, so is named folic acid, from the same root as
foliage, whole grain cereals and Liver.

RDA: 100μg/day (The RDA during Lactation & pregnancy are

500 - 800μ g/day)

Deficiency
1. Reduced DNA synthesis
2. Macrocytic Anemia
3. Homocysteinemia
4. Birth Defects
5. Cancer

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Prof. Dr. Raid M. H. Al-Salih
Vit B12 (Cobalamin).

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Prof. Dr. Raid M. H. Al-Salih
Source: Synthesized by Microorganisms (Vitamin B12 is not
present in vegetables. Liver is the richest source. Curd is a
good source, because lactobacillus can synthesize B12)

RDA: Normal daily requirement is 1-2 microgram/day. During

pregnancy and lactation, this is increased to 2 mg/day. Those
who take folic acid, should also take vitamin B12. Elderly
people are advised to take B12 supplementation.

Deficiency of both B12 and folic acid produce similar signs

and symptoms and Anemias.

Biochemistry 25
Prof. Dr. Raid M. H. Al-Salih
ASCORBIC ACID (VITAMIN C)

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Prof. Dr. Raid M. H. Al-Salih
 Biochemistry 27
Prof. Dr. Raid M. H. Al-Salih
Functions:
• Collagen biosynthesis
• Degradation of Tyrosine
• Absorption of Iron
• Steroidogenesis
• Adrenaline synthesis
• Bile acid formation
• Bone mineral metabolism
• Potent anti oxidant
WBC‟s are rich in vit C and plays an important role in Immunity.
Source: Citrus fruits, Potato, tomato & green vegetables
RDA: 60mg/day
A symptom of extreme vitamin C deficiency, called scurvy, is
the weakening of collagen fibers caused by the failure to
hydroxylate proline and lysine.

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Prof. Dr. Raid M. H. Al-Salih
VITAMIN A (RETINOL, RETINAL, RETINOIC ACID)
McCollum, Simmonds and Kennedy isolated vitamin A in
1913. Richard Kuhn (Nobel prize, 1938) identified
carotenes. Paul Karrer in 1931 elucidated the structure of
vitamin A1 (Nobel prize, 1937).

Vitamin A is fat soluble. The active form is present only in

animal tissues. The pro-vitamin, beta-carotene is present in
plant tissues.

Biochemistry 29
Prof. Dr. Raid M. H. Al-Salih
 Biochemistry 30
Prof. Dr. Raid M. H. Al-Salih
Source: A rich source is Liver, but leafy vegetables and some
fruits provide the largest amount of β-carotene. Liver, egg yolk,
butter and milk are good sources of β-carotene.

Functions
β-carotene has an antioxidant role and prevents the
development of diseases in which the action of free radicals is
implicated . It plays a protective role against Cancer and
cardiovascular disease. As the normal proliferation of epithelial
cell growth and differentiation depends on retinoids.

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Prof. Dr. Raid M. H. Al-Salih
Rhodopsin mechanism

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Prof. Dr. Raid M. H. Al-Salih
(RDA)
for
i. Children = 400-600 microg/day.
ii. Men = 750-1000 microg/day
iii. Women = 750 microg/day
iv. Pregnancy = 1000 microg/day
One international unit = 0.3 mg of retinol. One retinol
equivalent = 1 microgram of retinol or 6 microgram of
beta carotene.

Excessive intake can lead to toxicity since the vitamin

is stored

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Prof. Dr. Raid M. H. Al-Salih
 Vit A deficiency
Low plasma [Vitamin A]has been shown to be
associated with:
• increased risk of developing cancer.
• Failure of bone formation (Thick, solid bones).
• Abnormal Keratin forms in the mucosal cells, cause
keratomalecia in the eye.
dryness and roughness of skin

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Prof. Dr. Raid M. H. Al-Salih
 VITAMIN D (CHOLECALCIFEROL)

Requirement of Vitamin D
i. Children = 10 microgram (400 IU)/day
ii. Adults = 5 microgram (200 IU)/day
iii. Pregnancy, lactation = 10 microgram/day
iv. Above the age of 60 = 600 IU per day.
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Prof. Dr. Raid M. H. Al-Salih
Deficiency of Vitamin D
The deficiency diseases are rickets in children and
osteomalacia in adults. Hence vitamin D is known as
antirachitic vitamin.
Sources of Vitamin D
Exposure to sunlight produces
cholecalciferol. Moreover fish liver oil,
fish and egg yolk are good sources of
the vitamin. Milk contains moderate
quantity of the vitamin.
Doses above 1500 units per day for very long
periods may cause toxicity. Symptoms include
weakness, polyuria, intense thirst, difficulty in
speaking, hypertension and weight loss.
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Prof. Dr. Raid M. H. Al-Salih
VITAMIN E tocopherols
Sources of Vitamin E
Vegetable oils are
rich sources of vitamin
E; e.g. wheat germ oil,
sunflower oil, cotton
seed oil.

Recommended Daily Allowance

Males 10 mg per day Females 8 mg/day
Pregnancy 10 mg/day Lactation 12 mg/day.
15 mg of vitamin E is equivalent to 33 international units.
The requirement increases with higher intake of PUFA.
Pharmacological dose is 200-400 IU per day.
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Prof. Dr. Raid M. H. Al-Salih
 Role of Vitamin E
Most powerful natural antioxidant
protects RBC from hemolysis
boosts immune response.
reduces the risk of atherosclerosis by reducing oxidation of LDL

Deficiency
Human deficiency has not been reported. But in volunteers,
vitamin E deficiency has been shown to produce increased
fragility of RBCs, muscular weakness and creatinuria.

At doses above 1000 IU per day, it may cause tendency to

hemorrhage, as it is a mild anticoagulant.

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Prof. Dr. Raid M. H. Al-Salih
Vit. K

Biochemistry 39
Prof. Dr. Raid M. H. Al-Salih
Daily Requirement of Vitamin K
Recommended daily allowance is 50-100 mg/day.
This is usually available in a normal diet.

Sources of Vitamin K
Green leafy vegetables
Even if the diet does not contain the vitamin, intestinal bacterial
synthesis will meet the daily requirements, as long as
absorption is normal.

Hypervitaminosis K
Hemolysis, hyperbilirubinemia, kernicterus and brain damage
are the manifestations of toxicity. Administration of large
quantities of menadione may result in toxicity. This should be
kept in mind in treating premature babies.
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Prof. Dr. Raid M. H. Al-Salih
Role of Vitamin K
Vitamin K is necessary for coagulation

Deficiency
i. Hemorrhagic disease of the newborn.
ii. Prolongation of prothrombin time and delayed clotting time
are characteristic of vitamin K deficiency.

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Prof. Dr. Raid M. H. Al-Salih