Whenever two parts have relative motion, they constitute a bearing

by definition, regardless of their shape or configuration.

Usually, lubrication is needed in any bearing to reduce friction and

JOURNAL remove heat.

Bearings may roll or slide or do both simultaneously.

BEARINGS
MCL742 Design & Optimization
Department of Mechanical Engineering
IIT Delhi
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A plain bearing is formed by any two materials rubbing on one

course only necessary evils, contributing another, whether a sleeve around a shaft or a flat surface under a
nothing to the product or function of the slider.
machine; and any virtues they can have are The parts that they move against will usually be made of a "bearing"
only of a negative order. Their merits consist material such as bronze, babbitt, or a nonmetallic polymer.
Bearings in absorbing as little power as possible,
wearing out as slowly as possible, occupying A radial plain bearing may be split axially to assemble it to the shaft,
as little space as possible, and costing as little or may be a complete circle called a bushing.
A thrust bearing supports axial loads.
- A.G.M. Michell

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 When relative motion occurs between the
surfaces, it is usually desirable to minimize
friction and wear.
Any interposed substance that reduces
Lubricants friction and wear is a lubricant.
Lubricants are usually liquid but can be a
solid, such as graphite, TFE, or molybdenum Crankshaft journal and thrust bearings.
disulfide, or a gas, such as pressurized air. The crankshaft is supported by two main bearings
and attaches to the connecting rod by the
connecting rod bearing.
All three are journal (or sleeve) bearings. Integral
flanges on the main bearing inserts (commonly
called merely bearings) serve as thrust bearings,
which restrain axial motion of the shaft.

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Sliding bearings require direct sliding of the

load-carrying member on its support, as When the radial load on a bearing is always in one direction, as in rail
distinguished from rolling-element bearings, freight car axle bearings, which support the weight of the car, the
where balls or rollers are interposed bearing surface needs to extend only part way around the periphery
between the sliding surfaces. (usually 60° to 180°), thereby providing a partial bearing.
Sliding Sliding bearings (also called plain bearings) When assembly and disassembly operations do not require that a
are of two types:
Bearings (1) journal or sleeve bearings, which are
bearing be split, the bearing insert can be made as a one-piece
cylindrical shell that is pressed into a hole in the housing. This
cylindrical and support radial loads (those bearing insert is also known as a bushing.
perpendicular to the shaft axis); and
(2) thrust bearings, which are generally flat and,
in the case of a rotating shaft, support loads in
the direction of the shaft axis.

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Types of Lubrication

Hydrodynamic

Types of Hydrostatic
Elastohydrodynamic
Lubrication Boundary
Lubrication is commonly classified according to the degree with which Solid film
the lubricant separates the sliding surfaces.

Three basic cases:

Hydrodynamic lubrication
Mixed-film lubrication
Boundary lubrication

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Hydrodynamic lubrication

Complete surface separation can also be achieved by hydrostatic Hydrodynamic lubrication means that the load-carrying surfaces of
lubrication. the bearing are separated by a relatively thick film of lubricant, so as
A highly pressurized fluid such as air, oil, or water is introduced into to prevent metal-to-metal contact, and that the stability thus
the load-bearing area. Since the fluid is pressurized by external obtained can be explained by the laws of fluid mechanics.
means, full surface separation can be obtained whether or not there Hydrodynamic lubrication does not depend upon the introduction of
is relative motion between the surfaces. the lubricant under pressure, though that may occur; but it does
The principal advantage is extremely low friction at all times, require the existence of an adequate supply at all times.
including during starting and low-speed operation. The film pressure is created by the moving surface itself pulling the
Disadvantages are the cost, complication, and bulk of the external lubricant into a wedge-shaped zone at a velocity sufficiently high to
source of fluid pressurization. Hydrostatic lubrication is used only for create the pressure necessary to separate the surfaces against the
specialized applications. load on the bearing.
Hydrodynamic lubrication is also called full-film, or fluid, lubrication.

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Hydrostatic lubrication Boundary lubrication

Hydrostatic lubrication is obtained by introducing the lubricant, Insufficient surface area, a drop in the velocity of the moving surface, a
which is sometimes air or water, into the load-bearing area at a lessening in the quantity of lubricant delivered to a bearing, an increase in
pressure high enough to separate the surfaces with a relatively thick the bearing load, or an increase in lubricant temperature resulting in a
film of lubricant. decrease in viscosity any one of these may prevent the buildup of a film
thick enough for full-film lubrication.
Unlike hydrodynamic lubrication, this kind of lubrication does not When this happens, the highest asperities may be separated by lubricant
require motion of one surface relative to another. films only several molecular dimensions in thickness. This is called boundary
lubrication.
The change from hydrodynamic to boundary lubrication is not at all a sudden
or abrupt one. It is probable that a mixed hydrodynamic- and boundary-type
lubrication occurs first, and as the surfaces move closer together, the
boundary-type lubrication becomes predominant.
The viscosity of the lubricant is not of as much importance with boundary
lubrication as is the chemical composition.

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Elastohydrodynamic lubrication Solid-film lubricant

Elastohydrodynamic lubrication is the phenomenon that occurs when When bearings must be operated at extreme temperatures, a solid-
a lubricant is introduced between surfaces that are in rolling contact, film lubricant such as graphite or molybdenum disulfide must be
such as mating gears or rolling bearings. used because the ordinary mineral oils are not satisfactory.
The mathematical explanation requires the Hertzian theory of Much research is currently being carried out in an effort to find
contact stress and fluid mechanics. composite bearing materials with low wear rates as well as small
frictional coefficients.

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Basic Concepts of Hydrodynamic Lubrication Influence of three basic parameters on type of lubrication and resulting
coefficient of friction, f
Viscosity ( ). The higher the viscosity, the lower the rotating speed

beyond that necessary to establish full-film or hydrodynamic

lubrication produces more bearing friction by increasing the forces
needed to shear the oil film.

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Rotating speed (n), in revolutions per second.The higher the rotating

load. Once hydrodynamic lubrication is achieved, further increase in

rotating speed produces more bearing friction by increasing the time
rate at which work is done in shearing the oil film.

Coefficient of friction (and type of lubrication) versus

dimensionless variable n/P (Stribeck curve)

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 Bearing unit load (P), defined as load W divided by the bearing
projected area, which is journal diameter D times bearing length L.
The smaller the bearing unit load, the lower the rotating speed and
Viscosity
further reduction in
bearing load does not produce corresponding reductions in the
bearing friction drag force. Thus the bearing coefficient of friction, Shear stress in a fluid is proportional to the rate
which is the ratio of friction drag force to radial load W, increases. of change of velocity with respect to y

is absolute viscosity, also called dynamic

viscosity

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For most lubricating fluids, the rate of shear is constant, thus

Viscosity
Analogy between Fluids exhibiting this characteristic are called Newtonian fluids
shear modulus of
elasticity (of a solid) and
viscosity (of a fluid).

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Units of Viscosity

Units of absolute viscosity

ips units: reyn = lbf·s/in2
SI units: Pa·s = N·s/m2
cgs units: Poise =dyn·s/cm2
cgs units are discouraged, but common historically in lubrication
Viscosity in cgs is often expressed in centipoise (cP), designated by Z

consisting of a shaft journal and a bushing with

an axial-groove internal lubricant reservoir

Equation between bearing and journal, and hence, no

to support a load

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Equation

equation
Comparison of Absolute Viscosities of Various Fluids

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Important Dimensionless Parameters Thick Film Lubrication
Formation of a film
Some important dimensionless parameters used in lubrication
r/c radial clearance ratio
N/P
Sommerfeld number or bearing characteristic number

Interesting relation

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Stable Lubrication
To the right of AB, changes in conditions are self-correcting and results in stable Center of journal at O
lubrication Center of bearing at O'
To the left of AB, changes in conditions tend to get worse and results in unstable Eccentricity e
lubrication
Point C represents the approximate transition between metal-to-metal contact and
Minimum film thickness h0 occurs
thick film separation of the parts at line of centers
Common design constraint for point B, Film thickness anywhere is h
Eccentricity ratio

Partial bearing has < 360

Full bearing has = 360
Fitted bearing has equal radii of
bushing and journal

Nomenclature of a Journal Bearing

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 Reynolds Plane Slider Simplification
Reynolds realized fluid films were so thin in comparison with bearing radius
that curvature could be neglected
Replaced curved bearing with flat bearing
Called plane slider bearing

Hydrodynamic
Theory
Present theory
originated with
experimentation of
Beauchamp Tower in
early 1880s

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Derivation of Velocity Distribution

Pressure Distribution Curves of Tower

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Derivation of Velocity Distribution
Derivation of Reynolds Equation

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Velocity Distribution Reynolds Equation

Velocity distribution superposes parabolic distribution onto linear distribution
Classical Reynolds equation for one-dimensional flow, neglecting side leakage,
When pressure is maximum, dp/dx = 0 and u = (U/h) y

With side leakage included,

No general analytical solutions

One important approximate solution by Sommerfeld,

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Design Considerations
Trumpler, a well-known bearing designer, recommended a set of design criteria.
Variables either given or under control of designer Minimum film thickness to prevent accumulation of ground off surface particles

Maximum temperature to prevent vaporization of lighter lubricant components

Maximum starting load to limit wear at startup when there is metal-to-metal

Dependent variables, or performance factors contact

Minimum design factor on running load

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Significant Angular Speed The Relations of the Variables

Albert Raymondi and John Boyd used an iteration technique to solve
Angular speed N that is significant to hydrodynamic film bearing performance

Published 45 charts and 6 tables

This text includes charts from Part III of Raymondi and Boyd
Assumes infinitely long bearings, thus no side leakage
Assumes full bearing
Assumes oil film is ruptured when film pressure becomes zero

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 Viscosity Charts Viscosity-Temperature Chart in Metric Units

Viscosity is clearly a function of temperature

Raymondi and Boyd assumed constant viscosity through the loading zone
Not completely true since temperature rises as work is done on the lubricant
passing through the loading zone
Use average temperature to find a viscosity

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Viscosity-Temperature Chart in U.S. Customary Units Viscosity-Temperature Chart for Multi-viscosity Lubricants

Raimondi and Boyd.

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Curve Fits for Viscosity-Temperature Chart Notation of Raimondi and Boyd
Approximate curve fit Polar diagram of the film pressure
distribution showing notation used
by Raimondi and Boyd

Raimondi and Boyd.

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Important Dimensionless Parameters

r/c radial clearance ratio

N/P
Sommerfeld number or bearing characteristic number, S

Design Charts for Hydrodynamic

Bearings All the Raimondi and Boyd charts give plots of
dimensionless bearing parameters as functions of
the dimensionless bearing characteristic number,
or Sommerfeld variable, S.

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Minimum Film Thickness and Eccentricity Ratio Coefficient of Friction Variable

Raimondi and Boyd.

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Position of Minimum Film Thickness Flow Variable

Raimondi and Boyd.

Raimondi and Boyd.

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Flow Ratio of Side Flow to Total Flow Terminating Position of Film

Raimondi and Boyd.

Raimondi and Boyd.

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Maximum Film Pressure

Interpolation Equation

Raimondi and Boyd provide interpolation equation for l/d ratios

other than given in charts

where y is the desired variable within the interval and

, , , and are the variables corresponding to ratios of ,
1/2, and 1/4, respectively.
Raimondi and Boyd.

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 Finding Temperature Rise from Energy
Lubricant Temperature Rise
Considerations

Schematic of a journal bearing with an external sump with cooling;

lubricant makes one pass before returning to the sump.

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Lubricant Temperature Rise Using the sump as a control region, we can write an enthalpy balance.

The thermal energy loss at steady state is equal to the rate the journal does
work on the film

A lubricant sump (internal or external to the bearing housing)

supplies lubricant at sump temperature to the bearing
annulus at temperature .
The lubricant passes once around the bushing and is delivered at
a higher lubricant temperature to the sump.
Some of the lubricant leaks out of the bearing at a mixing-cup
temperature of and is returned to the sump.
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 Steady-State Conditions in Self-Contained
Bearings
Previous analysis assumes lubricant carries away all enthalpy increase
Bearings in which warm lubricant stays within bearing housing are
For common petroleum lubricants, called self-contained bearings
Heat is dissipated from the housing to the surroundings

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Combined Temperature Rise Chart

Heat Dissipated From Bearing Housing

Heat given up by bearing housing

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Overall Coefficient of Heat Transfer Housing Temperature

Overall coefficient of radiation and convection depends on material, Bearing heat loss to surroundings
surface coating, geometry, roughness, temperature difference
between housing and surroundings, and air velocity
Some representative values

Housing surface temperature

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Difference in Housing and Ambient

Heat Generation Rate
Temperatures
The difference between housing and ambient temperatures is given
by

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Clearance Clearance
In designing a journal bearing for thick-film lubrication, the
engineer must select the grade of oil to be used, together with
suitable values for P, N, r, c, and l.

A poor selection of these or inadequate control of them during

manufacture or in use may result in a film that is too thin, so
that the oil flow is insufficient, causing the bearing to overheat
and, eventually, fail.

Furthermore, the radial clearance c is difficult to hold accurate

during manufacture, and it may increase because of wear.

What is the effect of an entire range of radial clearances,

expected in manufacture, and what will happen to the bearing
performance if c increases because of wear?

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Clearance Temperature Limits

A plot of some performance

characteristics of a bearing for
radial clearances of 0.0005 to
0.003 in. The bearing outlet
temperature is designated T2.
New bearings should be
designed for the shaded zone,
because wear will move the
operating point to the right.

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 Derivation of Velocity Equation with Pressure-Fed Groove

Pressure-Fed Bearings

Temperature rise can be reduced with increased lubricant flow

Pressure-fed bearings increase the lubricant flow with an external
pump
Common practice is to use circumferential groove at center of
bearing
Effectively creates two half-bearings

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Derivation of Velocity Equation with Pressure-Fed Groove

Flow of Lubricant From Central Groove

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Distribution of Velocity Derivation of Side Flow with Force-fed Groove

Side Flow Notation

Characteristic Pressure

The characteristic pressure in each of the two bearings that

constitute the pressure-fed bearing assembly is

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Typical Plumbing with Pressure-fed Groove Derivation of Temperature Rise with Pressure-Fed Groove

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Derivation of Temperature Rise with Pressure-Fed Groove

Typical Range of Unit Loads for Sleeve
Bearings

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Some Characteristics of Bearing Alloys Typical Groove Patterns

Courtesy of the Cleveland Graphite Bronze Company,

Division of Clevite Corporation.

Bearing Types

Thrust Bearings

Courtesy of Westinghouse Electric Corporation.

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 Pressure Distribution in a Thrust Bearing
SUGGESTED TEXTS AND REFERENCE
MATERIALS:
1. , Mechanical Engineering Design, Eighth
Edition, McGrawHill, 2008.
2. Norton R.L., Machine Design: An integrated approach, 3rd Edition,
Pearson Prentice Hall, 2006.
3. Robert C. Juvinall, Kurt M. Marshek, Fundamentals of Machine
Component Design, Fifth Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 2012.
4. G. Pahl, W. Beitz, J. Feldhusen and K.-H. Grote, Engineering Design:
Courtesy of Copper Research Corporation. A Systematic Approach, Springer-Verlag London Limited 2007.

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Flanged Sleeve Bearing

Flanged sleeve bearing can take both radial and thrust loads
Not hydrodynamically lubricated since clearance space is not wedge-
shaped

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