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A STUDY ON THE USE OF THE SUGAR PALM TREE

(Borassus flabellifer) FOR DIFFERENT PURPOSES
IN CAMBODIA

Thesis · June 1996

DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.1240.5843

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SWEDISH UNIVERSITY
OF AGRICULTURE SCIENCES

A STUDY ON THE USE OF THE SUGAR PALM TREE (Borassus

flabellifer) FOR DIFFERENT PURPOSES IN CAMBODIA

Borin Khieu

Dissertation

Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences

Department of Animal Nutrition and Management M.Sc. Thesis

Institutionen för husdjurens Uppsala 1996

utfodring och vård
 DEDICATION

This thesis is affectionately dedicated to my beloved

parents, Khieu Yoeun and Tun Ponn, Khlok Peng Thol,
my wife and Khieu Mayouty, my son.

PREFACE
This thesis is based on the following papers which are referred to by their Roman numerals:

I. Borin, Khieu; Preston, T. R. and Lindberg, J. E., 1996. Juice production from sugar palm
tree (Borassus flabellifer) in Cambodia and performance of growing pigs fed sugar palm
juice (manuscript).

II. Borin, Khieu; Lindberg, J. E. and Preston, T. R., 1996. A study on Multipurpose Sugar
Palm tree (Borassus flabellifer. L) and its product as animal feeding in Cambodia
(manuscript).

CONTENTS

ABSTRACT.......................................................................................................... 1
 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................... 2

GENERAL DISCUSSION .................................................................................. 3

1. Distribution of the Sugar Palm tree (Borassus flabellifer L.) ....................... 3
1.1 General .............................................................................................. 3
1.2. Ecology ............................................................................................. 4

2. Different domestic uses of the Sugar Palm tree ............................................. 4

2.1. Juice (sap) ........................................................................................ 4
2.2. Leaves ............................................................................................... 4
2.3. Fruit ................................................................................................. 5
2.4. Trunk................................................................................................ 5
2.5. Brush fibre ...................................................................................... 5

3. Sugar palm juice production ........................................................................... 5

3.1. General ............................................................................................. 5
3.2. Effect of the skill of the tapper on juice production ....................... 6
3.3 Juice collection technique ................................................................ 6
3.4. Juice yield and Brix value (approximate sugar content) ................ 7
3.5. Rural experience of conserving sugar palm juice ........................ 7
3.6. Climbing technique .......................................................................... 8

4. Sugar palm syrup production ......................................................................... 8

4.1. General ............................................................................................. 8
4.2. Traditional sugar palm syrup production practices ........................ 8
4.3. Fuel consumption for sugar production ......................................... 8

5. Traditional and alternative animal feeding systems in rural areas ............ 9

5.1. General ............................................................................................. 9
5.2. Traditional pig feeding and management systems .......................... 9
5.3 Alternative pig feeding systems ..................................................... 10

6. Protein supplement ........................................................................................ 10

6.1. General ........................................................................................... 10
6.2. Conventional protein resources .................................................... 10
6.3. Alternative sources of protein........................................................ 11
6.4 Vitamin supplements ...................................................................... 12

CONCLUSION .................................................................................................. 12

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS............................................................................... 13

REFERENCES................................................................................................... 15
PAPER I
PAPER II
A STUDY ON THE USE OF THE SUGAR PALM TREE (Borassus flabellifer) FOR
DIFFERENT PURPOSES IN CAMBODIA
2

Borin Khieu
Department of Animal Health and Production (DAHP), Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry
and Fisheries (MAFF), Phnom Penh City, Kingdom of Cambodia.

ABSTRACT

This thesis is based on two studies carried out in two different districts of the Kandal and
Takeo provinces in Cambodia where a dense populations of the sugar palm (Borassus
flabellifer) are found. The aim of the studies was to understand the sugar palm tree and the
traditional pig production systems .The studies comprised quantification of sugar palm juice
production and the use of palm juice as an energy feed for pigs. A participatory study was
conducted in five villages to determine the profitability of sugar syrup production and of pig
production based on sugar palm juice. The further study consisted of a feeding trial in which
the growth performance of crossbred pigs fed diets consisting of palm juice and boiled
whole soya beans with a supplement of water was evaluated.

Sugar palm is considered as one of the high potential multipurpose trees in the tropics, and
produces valuable carbohydrates without any agronomic inputs. A total of 105 male and
female sugar palm trees were studied during a period of five months, the results
demonstrating that a palm tree produces seasonally an average of 5 kg of juice per day with
a Brix value (approximate sugar content) of 13.3%. Assuming that the canopy of a palm tree
is 50 m², a hectare of 200 trees will seasonally produce approximately 150,000 kg of juice
per year.

Sugar palm syrup production is one of the two main activities of most rural Cambodian
farmers after rice growing. The activity commences in December with the preparation of
materials for sugar syrup production. The most expensive component in the cost of sugar
syrup production is fire wood which is difficult to get today. It was clearly shown during the
present study that when fire wood was purchased from the market four of seven farmers lost
an average 27 Riels per day (1 $US =2,350 Riels).

There were no significant differences between days in the yield of juice and Brix value
(approximate sugar content) (P=0.390 and P=0.534), respectively. However there was a
highly significant difference in the yield of juice and Brix value (approximate suagr content)
between families, months and sex of the palm tree (P<0.001) and a significant difference in
Brix value (approximate sugar content) between male and female trees (P=0.005).

Seventy two crossbred pigs comprising Yorkshire, Landrace and local pigs raised from
20-80 kg on 12 farms. The main energy source was palm juice fed restrictly. A daily amount
of 400g soya beans of protein source were and daily supplement of 0.5 kg of water spinach
and lime and salt were given. The average daily weight gain of the pigs of the twelve
farmers was 356 g (range 320-417 g) and there were no statistically significant differences
 3
in live weight gains between fams (P=0.735).

The demand for meat increases as the population grows, and the living standards improve.
Therefore, the new technique to feed pigs with sugar palm juice is an alternative and
interesting source of income for rural communities in Cambodia. In addition, it will create
work for the farmers and reduce the migration to the cities and simultaneously improves the
use of local resources increasing the sustainability of agriculture.

Keywords: Borassus flabellifer; Multipurpose; Pigs; Palm juice; Fire wood; Brix
value; Sugar palm; Soya beans, Sustainable production.
4

INTRODUCTION

Devendra (1993) reported that there was an average annual growth rate of 16.6% of the pig
population in Cambodia and that was the highest rate among the countries of South-East
Asia. The production of meat from non-ruminants (pigs and poultry) will increase faster
than that of meat from ruminants, which tends to increase the demand on energy and protein
to support the production. The most common feeds used for pigs in the country are rice bran
as a dietary basis and kitchen waste, banana stems and sweet potato leaves. There are also
other feed resources like water spinach, water hyacinth, cassava and small fish. The latter
are accessible in the regions near to the rivers, lagoons and lakes.

Fattening pigs is one of the sources of farm cash income for the rural farmers in Cambodia.
Generally, piglets are purchased after rice harvest. The reason for buying piglets at this time
is that farmers will have enough money and feed available from rice by-products. The
traditional feeding practices depend on the available feed resources in the region. The low
performance of pigs in the traditional production system is basically a result of the poor
quality, the availability of feed resources and the insufficient feed supplement. There are
also other important factors that affect the production system, such as management, breeds
and mortality caused by infectious diseases and parasites.

As Preston and Sansourcy (1987) and Preston and Leng (1988) have suggested, one way to
achieve sustainable animal production systems is to match them with the available local
resources. This approach requires studies on the animal production system as a whole,
including socio-cultural, economic and environmental aspects, instead of individual animal
productivity as a unique paradigm.

Cambodian farmers have demonstrated their capability of improving their living situation
partly by using new methods in agricultural production, so also to improve pig production.
An important part of this thinking is the strategy to increase animal production based on
local resources. The use of sugar palm juice as an energy feed for pigs could be an
interesting possibility for the small farm. The diversification of palm juice for growing and
fattening pigs will help to stabilize the environment and conserve the biodiversity by
decreasing fuel wood consumption for sugar production. However, in order to ensure the
technical and economic feasibility of pig production, it is necessary to either utilize
conventional feeds or develop new alternatives based on non-conventional feeds for pigs.

Studies on the use of sugar palm juice as an animal feed is scanty. However, a number of
researchers have shown that sugar cane juice or sweet feeds can be successfully used as
substitutes for cereals in pig diets (Fernandez, 1988; Mena, 1987 and 1988; Elliot and
Kloren 1987; Preston, 1991; Beech et al. 1991; Speedy et al. 1991; Phuc et al. 1994a and b,
etc). In order to evaluate sugar palm juice as pig feed, scientific data are needed. However,
in addition it is very important to evaluate the farmers’ opinion, and the economic feasibility
of using this feed resource.

This research project was focussed on the use of sugar palm juice as the main energy source
in diets for pigs. The main objectives were to determine the variation of yield and the Brix
value (estimated by the refractometric method determining the sugar content) from each
individual palm tree (male and female) at different times during the production period
 5
(Paper I) and to determine the growth performance of pigs fed diets based on restricted
quantities of juice from the sugar palm tree (Borassus flabellifer) supplemented with soya
beans as the major protein source plus supplements of water spinach and minerals (Paper I).
The aim was also to study the use of the multipurpose sugar palm tree (Borassus flabellifer.
L) and its products as animal feed and alternative uses in rural areas in Cambodia.(paper II).

GENERAL DISCUSSION

1. Distribution of the Sugar Palm tree (Borassus Flabellifer L.)

1.1 General

According to Kovoor (1983) the genus Borassus is made up of seven species, although
present day taxonomists recognize no more than four (Uhl and Dransfield 1987). Whatever
the true number of species, the genus Borassus is one of the most widely distributed palm
trees, found in a broad belt from western Africa to eastern Indonesia. It is a genus adapted
to tropical wet/dry climates. The three economically most important species are B.
aethiopum Mart. (occurring in Africa), B. flabellifer L. (found in coastal areas of India,
northern Sri Lanka, and mainland southeastern Asia) and B. sundaicus Becc. (restricted to
Indonesia). In each of these geographic areas Borassus palms are of significant value to the
local populations (Davis and Johnson 1987). There are other palm trees which provide also
valuable product for people in different countries in Asia, Africa and South America. (See
Annex 1).

Romera (1968) estimated a total population of 1.8 million palm trees in Cambodia, while at
present the estimated population is approximately 6 million trees (local press and Ministry
of Industry 1995). The most dense populations of Borassus flabellifer are found in the
provinces of Kandal, Kompong Speu, Takeo, Kampot and Kompong Chhnang (See Figure
1).

Figure 1. Showing the distribution of the sugar palm tree.

6

1.2. Ecology

In April 1983, five soil samples were taken in different sites at Kandoeun Commune in
Takeo province. The average pH of the samples was 5.5 (range 4.9- 5.8) which agrees with
Romera (1968) who reported a soil pH of 5.5 in the palm tree regions of Cambodia. The
average rainfall is approximately 1,200 mm per year and the humidity ranges from 55 to
75%. Tkatchenko (1948) noted that the sugar palm tree in Cambodia is quite drought
resistant and that it also suffers remarkably little from prolonged flooding.

2. Different domestic uses of the sugar palm tree

2.1. Juice (sap)

The main product of the palm tree is juice (teck thnot) for sugar syrup (skor thnot)
production. The Brix value (approximate sugar content) of juice is about 13% and it has
been increased to approximately 80% by evaporation (sugar syrup). The palm tree reaches
maturity in terms of juice production at an age of 15-20 years, depending on the fertility of
the soil (Borin, personal communication). Davis and Johnson (1987) discovered that the
first flowering takes place when the palm is 12-20 years of age and Morton (1988)
considered that the palm starts to bloom when about 20 years old. The male palms begin to
give inflorescences early in the dry season (November-December), while female trees gives
inflorescences approximately one to two months later. The female inflorescences can be
used for juice production for a longer period (about three to four months) than the male
inflorescences. The sugar palm juice is mostly protein free, but it is rich in some minerals
and vitamins (Paulas and Muthukrishnan 1983).

2.2. Leaves

Approximately 80-90% of rural houses in Cambodia are constructed with leaves and trunks
from palm trees. The leaves are mainly used for thatching and matting. According to farmers
in Bati and Punhear Leu Districts, 25-36 leaves are annually collected from a tree that is not
exposed for juice production, and similar figures (25-40 leaves) were reported by Morton
(1988). The leaf is separated from the petiole and sun-dried for 2-3 days. The hard part of the
branch is used to strengthen the thatch. However, a bamboo stick would be a better
alternative material to use for this purpose. The fresh thatch is soaked in water for 3 days and
redried for approximately 2 days. This procedure is used in order to prevent the leaves from
being attacked by insects. The thatches last for 3-5 years after this treatment, depending on
the form of thatching. Palm leaves were also used in the past, especially by monks, to write
upon with an iron stylus. Some leaves from the young tree can be made into fans for
domestic use. Hats or boxes are also made from the third and fourth of the top leaves.

2.3. Fruit
 7

Each palm may bear 8-15 bunches of fruits with a total of about 80 fruits per year. The
immature fruits are sold in the market for human consumption. The soft-shell at the top of
each fruit is chopped in slices to be used in soups with fish or meat and other vegetables
called in the Cambodian language "Kako and Praheu". The kernel is eaten fresh or prepared
as a sweet with some sticky rice which is commonly sold along the roadside. The rest of the
fruit after kernel extraction, and tender fruits that fall prematurely, are chopped for cattle
feeding. The mature fruit is soaked in water and then the wiry fibres sucked out. The yellow
pulp of the fruit is mixed with rice starch. The mixture is put in a banana leaf folder and later
steam cooked. The fresh pulp has been reported to be rich in vitamins A and C (Morton
1988).

2.4. Trunk

The palm trees are cut for timber when they are over 10 m high and are about 70-100 years
old. The whole trunk is used by sawing out the middle (soft part) of the trunk and the strong,
hard outer wood is used for house construction. This part of the trunk is more durable than
other kinds of wood when used in the shade and protected from rain. The whole trunk can
also be made into a small boat which is able to carry at least 3 persons for fishing or for
transportation on the lakes. The terminal bud (palm cabbage) is edible. Usually it is used in
a soup with fish or meat and vegetables.

2.5. Brush fibre

The most important fibre product comes from the bifurcated portion of the leaf base. The
leaf bases of the mature tree are beaten with a piece of wood until the outer covering and the
white soft material surrounding the fibre are removed. The fibre extracted from the base of
the leaf stalk has valuable qualities such as resistance to chemicals, termites, water etc.
(Jaganathan and Mohanadas 1983). The raw fibre with a black and brown colour called
Chhourk thnot has the best quality and is commonly made into brushes and ropes to tie
animals.

3. Sugar palm juice production

3.1. General

The palm tree is one of the valuable plants in the tropics that is grown without agronomic
inputs. The tree is considered to be a very important multipurpose tree and it is also the
national symbol of Cambodia. The whole tree is used for many purposes, especially the
juice for sugar production, leaves for thatch, trunk for timber and fruit for human or animal
consumption. According to Paulas and Muthukrishnan (1983) the sugar palm juice has a
high nutritive value due to it high soluble carbohydrate content (98.4 %) of dry matter
content (Table 1).

Table 1.
Composition (% of dry matter) of sugar palm syrup
8
Crude protein 0.24
Fat (ether extract) 0.37
Mineral matter 0.50
Carbohydrate by difference 98.89
Carbohydrate (direct polarimetry) 98.40
Calcium 0.08
Phosphorus 0.064
Iron (Fe) 0.3
Nicotinic acid 0.04
Paulas and Muthukrishnan, 1983.

The sugar palm juice can be proceeded in 3 types of sugar in the small farm level, the liquid
sugar (sugar palm syrup), the solid palm sugar and the block sugar. The most common type
for the consumption in the countryside is sugar palm syrup which is about 80% of dry matter
content. The later procedure is refined sugar which is made at the small artisans. (Annex 2)

3.2. Effect of the skill of the tapper on juice production

The most important technique for tapping palms is the manipulation of the inflorescence.
Juice production from the inflorescences is stimulated by crushing of tissues of the
inflorescences. However, the cells of the crushed tissues should not be completely destroyed
in the process. The interval from the commencement of tapping to the dropping of the juice
depends on the experience of the tapper. The time interval of 5 to 8 days is used to crush and
massage the flowers (farmers in Bati District, Takeo province). The juice is then collected
twice daily in highly productive trees (morning and afternoon). It is usually possible to
continue tapping a single spathe till it is reduced to a stump of about 10-15 cm in length.
When the palm trees start giving many inflorescences at the same time, the tappers are not
able to collect juice from all. The inflorescences are therefore sliced and crushed for 5-8
days and then preserved (3 to 5 months) for juice collection some months later.

The daily production of palm juice will mainly depend on the skill of each tapper. When a
tapper is replaced for a short period, the sap flow often diminishes on the following day of
the replacement. Kovoor (1983) reported that the flow of juice results from the stimulus
produced by the manual operation of tapping, and thus depends on the physiological
response of the palm. There is enormous variability in daily yield per tree and tree-to-tree
juice production. Depending on the tree, weather and location, from one to seven
inflorescences may be tapped at a time. As shown in the present study (Paper I) juice flow
is reduced as the process continues (P<0.001) but the Brix value (approximate sugar
content) increases (P<0.001).

3.3 Juice collection technique

The inflorescences of the male and female palms are bound, beaten and then sliced for
approximately 5 to 8 consecutive days before juice can be collected. The tapping process is
repeated every 2-3 days during the production season. The inflorescences can also be
preserved for later use after being prepared according to the above mentioned procedure
(3.2). A pair of rounded wooden or bamboo mallets are used for female inflorescences and
flat wooden tongs are used for the male inflorescences (Annex 3 and 4). The small fruits
 9
around the female inflorescences should not be crushed during the preparation. The juice is
chanelled into a bamboo or plastic collector. The bamboo collector is called an Ampong and
has a diameter of 10-15 cm, a height of about 30-40 cm, and can contain 2-4 kg of juice. For
each tree an average of 4-6 collectors are used according to the number of inflorescences
coming up at the same time. The collection is done twice daily (morning and afternoon) in
order to limit the exposure of juice to contamination by yeast and other fermenting
micro-organisms. Farmers believe that pruning negatively affects the juice production.

3.4. Juice yield and Brix value (Approximate sugar content)

Pethiyagoda (1979) accordingly refers to a 'climacteric' of respiratory phenomena which

could be associated with juice flow in the palm. The interview with groups of farmers in
Punhear Leu District showed that there is a great variation of yield according to night time
temperature. Under the cool conditions (around 20-25ºC), the juice flow increases and the
juice can be kept for a long time without fermentation. Rain might also positively influence
on the yield of juice in the following days. Paulas (1983) and Tjitrosoepomo and
Pudjaorinto (1983) reported that low yielders may produce only about one litre of juice per
day, while at the other extreme, individual palms are known to give up to 20 litres per day,
while the average yield was 6-10 litres. In the present experiment an average yield of juice
of 5 kg per day per tree was found (Paper I). The drought that occurred in Cambodia in 1995
might have affected the juice yield during the experimental period. There were no
significant differences in the daily yield (P= 0.390), but there were highly significant
differences according to farm, month and sex of palm tree (P<0.001). This agrees with
Porteres (1964) and Lubeigt (1979) who reported that female palms are supposed to yield
more juice on tapping than males, either from the terminal bud as practised on the Ivory
Coast or from the inflorescence as practised in Burma. In the present study, the Brix value
(approximate sugar content) of female and male palms had a significant difference
(P=0.005), which were 13.4 and 13.2%, respectively (Paper I). In contrast, Sivalingam et
al, (1983) reported that the juice of male inflorescences was 13% richer in sugar than the
juice from female inflorescences. Normally female inflorescences are tapped for a longer
period than male inflorescences (about 3 to 4 months), although male trees start giving
inflorescences one to two months before female trees.

3.5. Rural experience of conserving sugar palm juice

The fresh juice without fermented agents starts to deteriorate naturally within a few hours
after sunrise, especially in hot weather. When the juice is collected for sugar production,
fresh juice for human consumption and animal feeding, fermentation should be avoided as
far as possible.
10

The normal procedure is that the collectors are fumigated with the smoke of palm leaves or
are cleaned with boiling water before every collection time in order to kill the microflora. In
order to achieve this in the juice a piece of the bark from Shorea cochinchinensis is put into
the collector. The bark is left in the collector during juice collection (about 15 hours). There
are also other anti-fermenting agents such as lime (calcium hydroxide) that is available in
local markets, but farmers do not use it. They think that lime has a negative effect on the
quality of sugar and the fresh juice for drinking. Tkatchenko (1948) found out during his
systematic study in Cambodia that commercial formalin at 5 ml/l of juice or 7 to 10 g of
lime/l of juice conserves the juice quite satisfactorily for more than a day against
fermentation. Larrahondo and Preston (1989) in their experiments found that sodium
metasilicate (Na2SiO3) at 5-7g/l of cane juice was effective for up to 96 hours.

The natural fermented palm juice (Teck thnot chhu) is also a common alcoholic beverage in
the countryside, and vinegar is also made from fermented juice. Davis and Johnson (1987)
reported that when the juice is allowed to ferment through the action of air-borne
microorganisms, an alcohol content of 5 to 6% may be reached. The upper limit of alcohol
is set not by the quantity of sugar available in the juice, which always is in exccess. However,
the natural fermenting organisms are killed at an alcohol concentration of 5-6% leaving a lot
of fermentable substrate. Rogers et al. (1982) mentioned that the most efficient yeasts are
therefore mutants of Zygomonas mobilis (strain ATCC 29191) with increased tolerance to
extracellular ethanol.

3.6. Climbing technique

Cambodian tappers use long bamboos poles with the stumpy remnants of leaf bases at the
nodes which serve as rudimentary steps for climbing. These are rivetted permanently to the
base of the trunk (Annex 5). When palm trees are close to each other, one to two long
bamboo stairs are used to keep the investments down and to save time for climbing. Most
tappers collect juice only once daily (in the morning), because according to their experience
during the day time the temperature is too high for the palm to produce quantities of juice.
Tappers are capable of tapping more than 20 palm trees twice a day when one assistant is
available at the base of the trunk.

4. Sugar palm syrup production

4.1. General

In sugar production technology a simple direct refractometric measurement of the

percentage of total solids in juice is possible and isexpressed as degrees Brix value
(approximate sugar content). Total sugars represent about 95% of this value (Gooding
1982).

One palm tree produces an average of 5 kg of juice daily, containing 13.3 % of Brix value
(approximate sugar content) which makes approximately 90 kg of solid sugar per tree per
season. Assuming that the canopy of a tree occupies 50 m², one hectare with 200 palm trees
will produce 150,000 kg of juice per year which is equivalent to 18 tonnes of solid sugar per
 11
hectare.

The most important component for sugar syrup production is fuel. Today fire wood has
become the main constraint in this production system. Farmers are not allowed by the local
government (Kandoeung Commune, Bati District, Takeo Province) to cut trees in the forest
any more, as the area is now preserved as a National Park. The yield of rice in this area used
to be 3-5 tonnes per hectare per year, but from 1979 after the disappearance of the forest, the
yield of rice drastically dropped down to about 1.5 tonnes per hectare per year. This means
that not only yields of rice but also other agricultural activities have negatively changed
after deforestation. The forests have been destroyed to produce fire wood for boiling palm
juice and also for other domestic uses.

4.2. Traditional sugar palm syrup production practices

Usually people in the rural areas start preparing their tools for palm syrup production early
in the dry season, such as bamboo to make rudimentary steps, containers, bamboo ropes,
clay stoves, pans of 50-60 kg capacity, stores of fire wood, sharpe knives and especially
bark to prevent fermentation of the juice (bark of Shorea cochinchinensis). Husbands and
young men are the climbers and tappers while the women do the rest of work, such as
collecting fire wood, cleaning and preparing collectors, boiling juice, mechanical
crystallization and sometimes selling sugar palm at the market (Annex 6). Families without
the man power to climb the tree rent out a palm tree for 5 kg of sugar per palm per season,
that is equivalent to 3,000 Riels.

4.3. Fuel consumption for sugar production

In the traditional routine of sugar production, fuel consumption has not been included in the
cost of production. Farmers could in theory obtain fire wood in the common forest or around
their households, but at present, as fire wood is scarce, palm trees are cut to boil juice for
sugar. Some farmers who do not produce sugar sell a palm tree for 5,000 to 10,000 Riels.
The whole trunk of a palm tree lasts for about 15 days making approximately 150 kg of
sugar (Ang Snoul District, Punhear Loeu District, Kandal province, 1993 and 1995,
respectively). During the present study (Paper II) seven farmers were chosen to determine
the fuel consumption for sugar palm production. It was found out that 4.6 kg of fire wood
was needed to produce 1 kg of sugar from 6.1 kg of palm juice, which means a total of 460
kg of fire wood per tree per season. Dolbert (1991) estimated that 3-4 kg of fire wood was
needed to produce 1 kg of sugar. The consumption of fire wood for sugar production can
vary as it depends on the quality of the fire wood, type of stove (Annex 7) and sugar contents
of the juice. Dolbert (1991) reported that modification of stoves has been introduced in
which rice hulls was used as fuel for boiling juice. However, in a hectare of rice, the yield
of rice hull is about 240 kg) which covers only 4.5% of the total fuel consumption for
condensing the juice of 20 trees.
12

5. Traditional and alternative animal feeding systems in rural areas

5.1. General

Livestock and poultry actively contribute to the livelihood of the small farms in the rural
areas in Cambodia. Cattle are raised as source of draught power for rice production and
manure as fertilizer, as source of meat for consumption at ceremonies and/or sale when they
are not capable of working (too old or sick). The main source of feed for cattle is rice straw,
while in the rainy season cattle grazed along the roadsides and dykes. Chickens are
commonly raised as scavengers and are supplemented with only a little paddy rice in the
morning. They are kept for home consumption and sale. However pigs are mainly raised as
a source of seasonal income for the family. Most animals in the rural areas in Cambodia are
kept as scavengers, it could be the cheap ways of management, but it is also a risky system
as diseases can spread out from one animal to the others.

5.2. Traditional pig feeding and management systems

Pigs in the rural areas are commonly raised by allowing them to run free (scavengers)
especially in the dry season. Pigs are fed with kitchen waste, sometimes supplemented with
banana stems or sweet potato leaves and rice bran. The composition of the diet will depend
on the money available to buy feeds and the availability of by-products from the farmers’
own paddy rice mill. Generally, pigs grow slowly due to the use of feed supplements with
a very low content of crude protein and high fiber content. Solarte et al. (1994) found that
the growth rate of pigs under the traditional management system was only 60 g/day, while
when supplemented of 200 g of crude protein daily, the weight gain increased and ranged
from 243 g to 445 g/day. The performance of pigs in the rainy season seems to be somewhat
better than in the dry season, as the pigs are able to find supplementary feeds to eat, like
earth-worms or green leaves which improves the protein supply. Normally, however the
pigs are tied during this period because it coincides with the rice cultivation time. When pigs
are set free, they are usually affected by parasites and diseases.

Piglets in the rural areas are sold with an average live weight of 4 to 6 kg at an age of about
40 to 50 days. A high mortality rate is observed at this stage. Cunha (1977) recommended
that piglets should be supplemented with a diet containing 22% CP of a good quality. In
contrast, piglets in the rural areas of Cambodia are offered the same quality of diet as given
to adult pigs or even worse.
 13

5.3 Alternative pig feeding systems

The sustainability of pig feeding systems in Cambodia as well as in other developing

countries is aimed at making the best use of local feed resources. Feed accounts for about
60 to 80% of the total costs in pig production, which means that the efficient use of locally
available feeds plays a major role in a profitable and sustainable pig production.

The unavailability of high quality feeds and the lack of money to import certain ingredients
such as vitamin/mineral premixes which are commonly produced in the developed countries,
make it very expensive to adhere to the standard nutritional recommendations. However,
feeding pigs with expensive rations will not mean profitable production for the small
farmers. Instead the cost of feed per kilogram of meat produced should be considered.

Sugar palm juice can be a good source of cheap energy in diets supplemented with high fibre
vegetable protein and water plants, as reported by Mena (1988). Sugar palm juice is similar
to cane juice in chemical composition and is characterised by being free from fibre and
having a low lipid content (ether extract 0.4%). Preston and Murgueitio (1992) mentioned
that leaves and water plants are the complementary sources of tropical biomass, providing
protein to balance the carbohydrate in sugar cane and fruit crop by-products. The
advantages of these natural resources are that they require minimum inputs, are long time
members of the tropical flora, and help to protect the environment.

6. Protein supplement

6.1. General

The principal objective of modern pig production is to maximize the daily lean gain. It is
important that the maximum rate of body protein deposition is achieved with as little
wastage of the ingested protein as possible. It is therefore advisable to provide feed to pigs
with the necessary amount of protein containing a well balanced profile of essential amino
acids. However, it should be pointed out that local breeds of pigs reared in the tropics have
a much lower potential of lean tissue deposition than modern hybrids, so their requirements
for protein will be much lower than the recommended in the text books. It is known that if
any one amino acid is lacking in the proper amount, this will limit the utilization of the other
amino acids in the diet. The reasons for avoiding an excessive intake of protein are that this
results in an inefficient use of protein that is expensive and that the excretion of nitrogen
contributes to environmental pollution. Holness (1993) confirmed that surplus of protein or
excess of amino acids to the requirement of pig, cannot be utilised by pig, they are
deaminated in the liver. The nitrogen is excreted in the urine and the remaining deaminated
fraction is used as an energy source. Therefore, it is not recommendable to provide this
expensive nutrient in a higher quantity than needed or what corresponds to the energy
supply chosen.

6.2. Conventional protein resources

Soya beans are used throughout the world as a protein supplement, and are grown locally in
14
the red soil of the north-eastern part of Cambodia in the provinces of Kampong Cham,
Kandal and part of Kampong Chnang. The harvest time is between October-November
when the price is reasonable for animal feeding. Soya beans however are mostly earmarked
for export. Soya beans are the richest source of protein of all the common seeds used for
animal feed, but contain trypsin inhibitors, which block the activity of the digestive enzyme
trypsin (Göhl, 1994). To destroy the trypsin inhibitors, whole soya beans should be heated
thoroughly before feeding to monogastric animals. Industrially, toasting is the standard
method for neutralizing these compounds. Toasting can also be done at farm level but it is
not always reliable. Too high or prolonged heating will make the essential amino acids less
available. It is better to boil the beans for 30 minutes after soaking in water the previous 24
hours (Preston, 1995). Although this method consumes fuel, at least it avoids the need to
grind the beans, as the soaking and boiling soften them to the point where they are easily
digested.

The price of soya beans fluctuates in the different seasons of the year because of the regional
market demands. In January 1995 the price was $US 265 per tonne of soya beans and a few
months later was $US 520 per tonne. Cunha (1977) recommended the use of whole soya
beans in swine feeding if the economic considerations warrant this.

Another source of cheap protein is small fishes which are caught between December-March
from the Mekong river. The price of fresh small fish is about 100-150 Riels per kg during
the above mentioned period, which will reduce the cost of pig diets if they replace soya
beans.

The fish can be preserved by different methods, but the cheapest and most common method
for Cambodian conditions is sun-drying. The small fishes which can not be sold for human
consumption are sun-dried and ground to a fish meal for livestock feeding. Göhl (1994)
reported that fish meal has become a standard ingredient in monogastric rations to make up
for deficiencies of essential amino acids and the maximum recommended inclusion in pig
diets is 10%. Small fish should be a good protein supplement for pigs in the rural areas of
Cambodia. McDonald et al. (1992) reported that fishmeal has high contents of lysine,
methionine and tryptophan. In addition, fish meal has a high mineral content, about 210 g/kg,
which is of value nutritionally since this is made up of a high proportion of calcium (80
g/kg) and phosphorus (35 g/kg). Fish meal is also a good source of vitamins of the B
complex. The price is about 100-150 Riels per kg, which is equivalent to $US 40 to 60 per
tonne fresh fish. Ensiling is another alternative way to preserve fish. This could be a
profitable way to preserve fish, as sugar palm juice is available at the farm in this period and
could provide a carbohydrate source to facilitate the ensiling process. Ensiling is a simple
and inexpensive way of utilizing waste from fish which are difficult to preserve by
sun-drying.

6.3. Alternative sources of protein

A cheap alternative source of protein could be green leaves and water plants. The water
plants and leaves (table 2), such as sweet potato leaves (Ipomoea batata), water spinach
(Ipomoea aquatica) and water hyacinth (Eichhornia cressipes) are used by small scale pig
producers in Cambodia. However there are other resources that are available in the rural
areas such as cassava leaves (Manihot esculenta), duckweed (Lemna spp) and azolla (Azolla
 15
filiculoides).

Cassava is grown along the Mekong river and is harvested before the water in the river rises.
After harvesting the tubers, cattle are allowed to eat the leaves. Cassava leaves are a good
source of vegetable protein, and it is possible to obtain more than 6 tonnes of CP from
cassava leaves per hectare per year with the proper agronomic practices directed toward
foliage harvesting (Göhl, 1994). Phuc et al. (1995) reported that nitrogen balance in growing
pigs fed a cassava root meal diet was unaffected when cassava leaf meal replaced up to 35%
of the protein from soybean meal.

Duckweed grows wild in the ponds and canals close to farmer households during the rainy
season. In Cambodia duckweed is mainly used as duck feed. Elliott et al (1987), Preston et
al. (1992) and Bacerra (1991) argued that water plants represent a highly productive source
of protein-rich biomass which appears to make an ideal complement for fibre free basal diets
such as molasses and sugar cane juice in pig and poultry diets. When effectively managed
duckweed yields 10-30 tonnes DM per ha per year, and contains up to 43 % CP, 5% fat and
highly digestible dry matter which can be used as a protein source for pigs with only slightly
less efficiency than soya bean meal (Leng et al. 1995).

Another complementary source of tropical biomass, providing protein to balance the

carbohydrate in sugar cane and food crop by-products, are trees (Preston and Murgueitio
1992). Foliage from legume trees and water plants are a cheap and excellent source of
protein for animal feeding . However, studies reported up to now have been focused on a
few species, especially the legumes due to their diversity in the tropics and sub-tropics and
nitrogen fixation capacity. Solarte et al. (1994) found out that there are other potential
candidates in the tropical flora which have a high protein content (17- 23% CP in DM) such
as Urera baccifera (L) Gaud, Ipomea batata L., Eupatorium acuminatum etc. Not all the
non-conventional feeds support high daily weight gains, but they often give high economic
profitability.

Table 2.
Chemical composition of unconventional protein supplement
- - - - As % of dry matter - - - -
DM CP CF Ca P Ref.
Sweet potato leaves 8.7 21.9 15.0 1.8 0.2 1
Whole water spinach 9.6 27.1 16.4 1.1 0.5 2
Water hyacinth 7.8 12.8 24.6 2.1 0.4 1
Cassava leaves (8 months) 16.1 24.1 26.0 1.0 0.5 1
Duckweed 4.7 38.6 18.7 0.7 0.6 3
Azolla 5.6 26.7 8.4 0.4 0.5 4
1.Göhl (1994), 2. Naren et al. (1994), 3. Men et al. (1995), 4. Becerra et al. (1995).

6.4 Vitamin supplements

16

Vitamins are required by animals in very small amounts compared with other nutrients.
Nevertheless a continuous deficiency in the diet will result in a disordered metabolism and
eventually disease (McDonald et al. 1992). Pigs in the rural areas in Cambodia are supplied
with water spinach (Ipomoea aquatica) and sweet potato leaves (Ipomoea batatas) as
sources of vitamins.

Göhl (1994) mentioned that the principal nutritive value of sweet potato vines is as a source
of vitamins and protein. Naren et al. (1994) reported that water spinach has been found to
contain high levels of protein and vitamins A (carotene), B1, B2 and C and minerals. Both
water spinach and sweet potato vines have the important advantage of providing a vitamin
supplement in the rural areas where premixes are not available and may be very expensive.

CONCLUSION

The yield of juice and brix varied considerably tree by tree, according to the sex of the tree
and between individual farmers. Some trees produced up to 20-25 kg of juice per tree per
day, but the other trees produce an average of 4-6 kg within a similar micro-climate.
Therefore further studies on this topic are needed.

The scarcity and high price of fire wood at the present time greatly influences the cost of the
sugar production from sugar palm juice. This critical situation will make sugar production
from sugar palm juice unprofitable. However, it continues to be a valuable product for
people who still have access to free fire wood.

Improving pig production in the rural areas appears to be an logical strategy as the demand
for meat will be higher while the population and incomes grow. Therefore the sugar palm
juice could be an alternative energy source for growing and finishing pigs, as the tree has
been shown to have high potential to produce large amount of soluble carbohydrates. The
diversification of juice for pig feeding will provide a good profit and improve the living
conditions of the farmers. In addition palm juice fed to pigs rather than being used for sugar
production will also prevent the deforestation and preventing the immigration to the city.

The protein supplement is the most expensive component in most animal diets, especially
pigs and poultry. In order to improve the profitability of pig production other cheap
alternative source of protein, such as leaves and water plants should be utilized. In pig
production system suggested here it is recommended to keep pigs in pens to prevent
infection with parasites and other risks. In addition it will be easy to collect the manure from
pigs to feed biodigesters which provide gas for cooking and leads to a cleaner and healthier
kitchen environment.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The studies were carried out during 1995 in the Districts of Bati and Punhear Leu, in Takeo
and Kandal provinces, respectively in Cambodia, as a requirement of the Master of Science
degree in “ Integrated Livestock-Based Systems for the Sustainable Use of Renewable
Natural Resources”, administered by the Department of Animal Nutrition and Management,
 17
Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences. These studies were made possible through the
financial support of the Swedish Agency for Research Cooperation with Developing
countries (SAREC) and from the Ecumenical Scholarships Programme in Germany
(DIAKONISCHES WERK).

I also would like to express deep gratitude to Professor Hans Wiktorsson, Dr Brian Ogle,
Dr Peter Uden, Dr Inger Ledin, Dr John Öhrvik, Frands Dolberg, Britta Ogle, Dr Andrew
Speedy , Dr Anil Gupta, and other professors and lecturers for their great support and
scientific guidance during the course. Thank also due to Mr Börje Ericson for his great
assistance in analysing samples. I am also indebted to Dr Rene Sansoucy, Dr Kayouli
Chedly, Chistophe Dalibard and Nina Cederpren who provided me with a lot of literature
about the palm tree.

I would like to express my deep thanks and appreciation to Norbert Klein and Janet Ashby
for their great help and assistance that gave me a opportunity to start this study.

I wish also to thank the Department of Animal Health and Production of the Ministry of
Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries in the Kingdom of Cambodia for granting me permission
to pursue this study and use some of its facilities to accomplish my research work.

My study was made possible through my supervisors, PhD. DSc. T. R. Preston and Dr.
Professor J. E. Lindberg who freely offered their time and patience for useful guidance,
discussion and encouragement at all times. They provided me with an environment which
made this period the most enjoyable learning experience, and I am greatly indebted to them.

Thanks are also due to the farmers in the above mentioned villages and the team of the
Lutheran World Service Integrated Rural Development Program in Takeo/Kandal,
especially to Mr Oscar Paez Casto, Mr. Lor Bunnath and Mr Kim Saran (Dept. of
Agronomy) for their great assistance.
18

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