CHAPTER. Introduction Chapter Obje After studying this chapter, you should be able to ¥ get a historical overview of optical fibers and optical fiber communications; Give reasons for the use of optical fiber in preference to wire cable and suggest suitable applications for fiber-optics; v_ desoribe essential elements of optical fiber communications link; know advantages and disadvantages of optical fibers. Light wave at higher frequency range of electromagnetic spectrum (3 x 10!=3 x 10! Hz) is used for transmission of information through fibers as transmitting medium in optical fiber communications. It can offer a large bandwidth (more than 50 THz) for data transmission. The emergence of fiber optics as a dominant technology for long-distance broadband services is discussed in this chapter. The basic configuration of optical fiber communication system comprises of an information source, 4a voltage-to-current converter, an optical source, a channel coupler, an optical fiber channel, an optical repeater, an optoelectronic detector, an electronic receiver, and the output device. The need, advantages, disadvantages, and wide range of applications of optical fiber communication are covered so as to generate interest to know more about the subject in subsequent chapters 14 Historical Development Optical fiber communication has been developed over the last two centuries. The first optical communication system, known as the ‘optical telegraph’, was invented in the 1790s by French engineer Claude Chappe. In 1880, Alexander Graham Bell patented the photophone—an optical telephone device for transmission of speech using a beam of light. During the 1920s, an experiment was conducted by J. L. Baird of England and C, W, Hansell of the USA, for transmission of images for TV/Facsimile systems using arrays of uncoated fiber cables. In the 1950s, A. V. Heel and H. Hopkins protected a bare glass fiber by covering it with a transparent cladding having lower index of refraction. As a result, crosstalk between fibers was greatly reduced in addition to providing protection from contamination, This led to the development of the flexible fiberscope, which is, widely used in the medical field.2 _ Optical Fiber Communications ‘Note: in 1956, N. S. Kapany of England coined the term ‘fiber optics’. The initial applications of ‘optical fiber were not in communications atall, because the early fibers were too lossy. Bundles of fibers were used for medical imaging to view inaccessible parts of the human body. By 1960, attenuation of the order of 1 dB/m was achieved with glass-clad fibers. This was acceptable for medical imaging applications but not for voice/data transmissions. The invention of the lasers in the 1960s marked the beginning of a new era in modern optics, called Photonics. Maiman developed an experimental optical amplifier by using lasers in the electromagnetic spectrum. However, the reliability of long-distance laser links operating in the millimeter-wave region was limited mainly due to various atmospheric turbulences like clouds, rains, and fog. ‘Note:The invention ofthe laser greatly accelerated research efforts in fiber-optic communications. A laser can operate at higher frequency, offer relatively high output optical power, and carry an extremely wideband signal. Thus, itis ideally suitable for use in high-capacity optical fiber communications networks In 1970, Maurer, Keck, and Schultz developed single-mode fused silica fibers, with attenuation less than 2 dB/km at the operating wavelength of 633 nm, which paved the way for fiber-opties technology for long distance optical communication. In 1977, the development mainly focused on multi-mode fibers, with core diameters of 50 nm or 62.5 mm, and having a refractive index gradient between fiber core and cladding. Such fibers having attenuation of abcut 2 dB/km were used to transmit optical signals at 850 nm wavelength from GaAlAs laser diodes up to several kilometers without the use of signal regenerators, This was followed by the use of InGaAsP lasers at 1300 nm wavelength having fiber attenuation of 0.5 dB/km only, and reduced pulse dispersion as compared to that at 850 nm. In the early 1980s, the first long-distance transatlantic backbone networks were developed for telecommunication purpose using single-mode fiber as communication medium and optical sources at 1300 nm wavelength. This, technology is followed as one of the standards for optical fiber communication networks even today. ‘Note: Bell Laboratories successfully transmitted 1 billion bps through a fiber cable for 600 miles without the use of any regenerator. 144 Advances in Optical Fiber Communication One inherent challenge to provide higher data rate in optical fiber communication is managing the dispersion effect. There are various methods employed to enhance the data rate of the fiber system. One of them is the wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) method. However, for any optical fiber system increase in the bit rate will increase the dispersion effect on the system leading to pulse broadening, causing incorrect reception of data at the receiver. + Anew generation optical fiber system operating at 1550 nm wavelength region using single-mode fibers having fiber loss of about 0.2-0.3 dB/km finds widespread applications in high-capacity submarine systems. + Low-loss single-mode fibers enable larger repeater spacings. Moreover, submarine cables employing Erbium-doped fiber amplifiers can avoid the use of electro-optic regenerators and provide data rate capacity up to 5 Gbps.Introduction 3 + With the recent development of the Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) technology, multiple optical signals generated by different sources (each at 10 Gbps data rate) can be transmitted simultaneously up to physical distance of approximately 400 km. Facts to Know Optical fiber communication has only been practical since about 1970, when glass fiber was finally made \with low enough loss to be useful. The invention of the laser diode, at about the same time, helped to ‘make optical fiber communication practical. 1.1.2 Generation of Light Wave Systems Optical fiber communication systems or light wave systems were developed over several years in a series of generations, hased on its operating wavelength and improved performance 1. First Generation. In the 1970s, the earliest optical fiber communication systems were developed using infrared LED and GaAs semiconductor lasers as optical sources, a silica-based optical fiber as transmission medium and low-cost photodetectors at operating wavelength of near 850-nm region, These systems provided 50-100 Mbps data transmission rates with repeater spacings of the order of 10 km, But due to its relatively high attenuation (= 3 dB/km), it became less attractive subsequently. 2. Second Generation. In the early 1980s, optical fiber systems were developed to operate near 1300 nm wavelength region, with lower fiber loss (less than 1 dB/km, typically 0.5 dB/km). ‘The development of InGaAsP semiconductor lasers with simultaneous oscillation of several longitudinal modes and detectors alongwith single-mode fibers, exhibiting low dispersion, offered 1-2 Gbps transmission data rates with repeater spacings higher than that of 40-50 km. 3. Third Generation. In the 1990s, the silica fibers were developed at 1550 nm wavelength which offered theoretical minimum attenuation of approximately 0.2 dB/km. These optical fiber communication systems offered data speeds over 2.4 Gbps with repeater spacings of 100 km or more. Systems using InGaAsP lasers eperating in a single longitudinal mode and dispersion- shifted fibers could operate at 10 Gbps date rate. 4. Fourth Generation, With the advent of the wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) technique for increased data rate capability and of optical amplification methods for employing greater repeater spacings, a revolution began in the development of optical fiber communication in the spectral region extending from 1450-1620 nm. By the year 2001, the light wave WDM systems used in-line erbium-doped fiber amplifiers with 60-80 km spacing for compensation of fiber losses and operation at 10 Thps data rate, 5. Fifth Generation. Subsequent availability of dry fibers (single-mode dispersion-shifted), Raman amplification techniques, and optical solitons (very short optical pulses that counteract the dispersion effect due to fiber nonlinearity and thereby preserve their shape) enabled to extend the wavelength region from 13001650 nm for simultaneous working of thousands of WDM channels at the rate of 40-160 Gbps. Table 1.1 depicts the important aspects of five generations of light wave systems.4 Optical Fiber Communications Table 1.1 Five generations of light wave systems, Wavelength Fiber Losses | Repeater Generation Om) Fiber Type Bit Rate (dann ea 0.85 Multimode (graded core) 2-45 Mbps = 1 =10km (19708) on 13 Multimode (graded core) 45-90 Mbps 0.5-1.0 =40km (Early 808) a 1.55 Single mode 217Gbps—~0.3. = 60-70 km (Late 80s) a 1.45-1,62 | Single mode (dispersion- 2.4 Gbps =02 =80km (Early 90s) | (Typical 1.55) shifted) si 1.50-1.57 | Single mode (dispersion- >2.4Gbps -0.1-0.2 > 100 km (In 20005) | (Typical 1.55) | shifted soliton) + Fiber Amplifier From the above data, it is observed that from the I" generation to the 5" generation, there has been continuous improvement in the performance of optical fiber communication systems and networks. First generation optical fiber systems operated at relatively low bit rates and were essentially based (on multimode fibers. Since the commercial introduction of single-mode fiber systems in public telecommunication networks, there has been an ever growing improvement in the overall performance of the optical fiber systems in all segments of telecommunications with high transmission data rate capabilities. Facts to Know Today, in addition to short-distance 660 nm systems, 850m, 1310.nm, and 1550nm systems (for longest link lengths) are being extensively manufactured and deployed for telecommunication purposes. Longer is the operating wavelength, better is the system performance, but at a much higher cost. 1.1.3 Recent Developments in Fiber-Optics More recent developments in the field of fiber-optics can be summarized as helow: Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) links for enhanced capacity utilization Erbium-doped Optical Fiber Amplifiers (EDFAS) Dispersion compensating soliton-based optical fiber transmission techniques Dispersion compensating fibers Integrated optics which deals with the miniaturization and integration of various optical components such as electro-optic modulators, directional couplers, splitters, combiners, etc. Use of photonic switching architectures which use integrated optical switches Optical MEMs which provide data-rate iransparent switching services 8. The 1625-nm based fibers, comparable with that of 1550-nm fibers vrepe aoIntroduction 5 All these developments aim at achieving fiber attenuation as small as 0.16 dB/km (at 1550 nm), data transmission rates in excess of 2 Gbps, end repeater spacings of more than 200 km, and laser with lifetime of over a million hours, ‘Note: As a result of significant improvements in data transmission speed and repeater spacings in optical fiber systems, newer standards such as Dual Queue Distributed Bus (D008), Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI), Synchrcnous Optical Networks (SONET) and Synchronous Digital Hierarchy (SDH) have also emerged. Microwave photonics deals with optical generation, processing, distribution and photonic analog-to- digital conversion of microwave signals. Itis based on the principle that a high frequency microwave signal can be generated by beating two different optical waves from two free-running laser diodes at a photodetector. The resultant frequency of the microwave signal will be equal to the difference in frequency between the two input optical waves. Thus. itis possible to generate an electrical signal having a microwave frequency in THz range, and having a high phase noise. An opto-electronic oscillator is nowadays used to generate a low phase noise microwave signal, Microwave photonics finds applications in sensor networks, radar communications, instrumentation and electronic warfare systems. 1.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum The propagation of an optical signal (or even an electrical signal) through any transmitting medium takes place in the form of electromagnetic waves or signals, + In awireline medium, electromagnetic signals propagate along a metallic cable in the form of voltage (or current) waveforms, + Inawireless medium through free space, electromagnetic signals propagate in the form of radio waves, usually termed as electromagnetic waves. + In an optical fiber medium, the information signals propagate as electromagnetic light waves. Definition of electromagnetic wave: The analog combination of electrical voltage and magnetic field propagates through air or space, and is called an electromagnetic wave or simply an ‘em wave’. By nature, radio signal transmissions take place on one radio frequency or with a very narrow bandwidth. Electromagnetic signal is distributed throughout an almost infinite range of frequencies. The useful electromagnetic frequency spectrum extends from very low frequencies (a few Hz) to several billions of Hz.(10? Hz). Fig. 1.1 depicts the electromagnetic frequency spectrum with various frequency bands. Visible UV sowtiz 100KH2 1MH2 10MH2 10OMH2 1GHe 10GHe 100GH2 Light Light X-Rays Db “Tine “Tse eae T Infrared VF | LF Fig. 1.1 The electromagnetic frequency spectrum6 Optical Fiber Communications It is common to use the term wavelength rather than frequency when dealing with ultra-high frequency electromagnetic (em) waves such as light waves. 1.2.1 Relationship between Frequency and Wavelength Definition of wavelength: The wavelength (A in meter) is defined as the length occupied by one cycle of an electromagnetic wave in space. It is directly proportional to the velocity of propagation of light in free space (c = 3 x 10* m/s) and inversely proportional to the frequency (fin Hz) of the em wave, Mathematically, a) Sip Example L1 Calculation of Wavelength Determine the wavelength for radio frequency of 100 MHz, cellular phone frequency of 1 GHz, and light wave frequency of 10'S Hz. Solution We know that wavelength, b= " For f= 100 MHz, Neto oa Ans, J 100 10° Hz 7 For f=1 GHz, ae & = 2X10 mis 0.3 mor 30cm Ans. J > 1x10" Hz For f= 10!5 He, a 6 = SEATS 3 107%, 0F 300m Ans. a Thus, as frequency of the signal increases, the wavelength decreases, Example 1.2 Calculation of Light Frequency Determine the light wave Frequency for the following wavelengths: (@) 935 nm (b) 828 nm © 800nm (@) 869 nm Solution: We know that the wavelength, % Or, the frequency, f = t (@) For given 4 = 935 nm, or 935 x 10° m _ 6, 3x108 mis 4 I= Speco am TEX 10" He Ans. (b) For given 2. = 828 nm, or 828 x 10 m = f= <5 53.62 x10" Hz Ans. 1 308% 107 mIntroduction (©) For given 4 = 800 nm, or 800 x 10° m ¢_ 310° mis mn £2 U0 mS 23.75 x10! Hz Ans. f° 300% 107 m (@) For given 4 = 869 nm or 869 x 10° m . f= f= SAW ms 5.4510" He Ans, 2 86910 m The velocity of electromagnetic waves differs in medium other than that in free space. Its value depends on the material and on the geometry of any waveguide structure such as optical fiber that ‘may be present. Thus, the wavelength of a light beam (A in meters) can be expressed as a a2) f celocity of light beam in a guided medium (m/s) requency of the light beam (Hz) It may be noted that the wavelengths of optical beams are of the order of 1 im near the visible spectrum region. This corresponds to very short period of oscillation (the reciprocal of its frequency). ‘Note: The frequency (or wavelength) of the optical signal is determined by the optical source. It does not change when the light beam (optical signal) travels from one type of material to another type of material. Instead, the velocity difference causes a corresponding change in wavelength so that the frequency remains the same. Example L3 Electromagnetic Spectrum Band and Applications Summarize various electromagnetic spectrum bands in tabular form and give typical applications for each band. Solution: ‘The electromagnetic spectrum is divided into several narrower frequency ranges. Table 1.2 presents, various spectrum bands along with their respective frequency range and typical application areas. Table 1.2 Electromagnetic spectrum bands Free-space Designation Frequency Range | Wavelength Typical Applications Range ELF (Extremely Low Frequency) | 30-300 Hz 10,000-1000 km | Power line communications VF (Voice Frequency) 300-3000Hz —1000-100km —_ Telephone system for analog subscriber lines VLE (Very Low Frequency) 3-30 kHz 100-10km | Long-range navigation; submarine communications LF (Low Frequency) 30-300 kHz 10-1 km Long-range navigation; submarine communication radio beacons Contd,8 Optical Fiber Communications Conta. Free-space Designation Frequency Range Wavelength Typical Applications Range MF (Medium Frequency) 300-3000 kHz | 1000-100m | AM broadcasting; Maritime radio; Direction finding radio HE (High Frequency) 3-30 MHz 100-10 m Long-distance aircraft and ship communication; Military communication; Amateur radio VHF (Very High Frequency) 30-300MHz— 10-1 m FM broadcasting; Two-way radio; VHF television; Aircraft navigational aids UHF (Ultra High Frequency) 300-3000MHz— 100-10.cm UH television; Celular ‘mobile telephone; Microwave links; Radar: Personal communications systems (PCS) SHF (Super High Frequency) 3-80 GHz 10-1 om Wireless local loop; Satelite communication; Radar Terrestrial miorowave links EHF (Extremely High Frequency) 30-300 GHz 10-1 mm Wireless local loop; specialized laboratory experiments Infrared Light 300 GH2-300THz 1mm-tnm Infrared LANs; Consumer electronic applications; ‘Astronomy Visible Light 400-750 THz 0.75-0.40nm _ Optical fiber communications ‘Note: Electromagnetic signals higher than 300 GHz are not called radio waves; these are called rays (for example, X-rays, Gamma rays, Cosmic rays, et) ‘Note: Radio waves are invisible, whereas light waves are visible, and heat waves too can be seen as well as felt. 1.2.2 Light Frequency Spectrum The light frequency spectrum can be divided into three general frequency bands: 1. Infrared. Infrared is the band of light frequencies which is quite high and cannot be seen by the human eye. Typical useful wavelengths range between 770 nm and 1600 nm. In the infrared spectrum, there are three regions (850 nm, 1300 nm, and 1550 nm) in which silica glass fibers are relatively efficient, Optical fiber systems generally operate in the infrared band. Visible. It is the band of light frequencies (typically 390-770 nm wavelength range) which is visible to the human eye. Silica glass fibers are not very good transmitters of light in the visibleIntroduction 9 spectrum, They attenuate the light waves to such an extent that only short optical transmission links are useful. Ultraviolet, itis the band of light frequencies which cannot be seen by the human eye. Typical wavelengths range between 10 nm and 390 nm. The fiber losses in the ultraviolet spectrum are even greater. This band is used in medical applicatio Facts to Know Light waves and radio waves obey identical optical laws and have similar characteristics but the light \waves occupy a much higher frequency range. All electromagnetic waves travel at a velocity of 3 x 10° ‘mis in free space and possess electric and magnetic fields associated with them Units of wavelengths with light frequencies + It is customary to express the wavelength in microns (1 micron = 10-® m, or lum), or in nanometers (I nm = 10° m) with light frequencies. + With optical spectrum, the unit angstrom is sometimes used to express the wavelength (1 angstrom = 10°! m, of 0.0001 micron). Example 4 Expressing Wavelength in Angstroms, Determine the wavelength in angstroms units for the light wave signal having frequency equal to 3.45 x 10" Hz, Solution: (mm/s) We know that wavelength, A(m) = fe know that wavelength, A(m) = Far cc _ 3x 108 mis Ff 3.45 x10" Hz 10 m jand [angstrom (A)= 45 x 104 Hz, 2 x 10! = 8695 A Ans. For given f Example 1.5 Converting Wavelength A to nm. Determine the light wave frequency corresponding to specified wavelength as 780 A. Solution: We know that the wavelength, (m) = “) or, the frequency, (Hz) elevs) F(a) °° * 2(m) First we have to convert the given wavelength in angstrom (A) in meters. We know that | A= 10"! m Therefore, 780 A = 780 x 10! m=7.8 x 108 m 3 x 10° (mis 5 Hence, f(H2) = 2210'S) = 3.95 51015 Hz Ans. 78x 10%(m)10 _ Optical Fiber Communications 1.2.3 Optical Bandwidth Definitio optical signal where the output optical power falls to 50% or 0.5 of its maximum value (corresponds, toa loss of 3 dB, usually called half- power point) In an optical fiber communication system, the power delivered by an optical source is directly proportional to the current supplied to it. Thus, the half: power point is equivalent to half-current point. In terms of currents, the optical bandwidth of an optical fiber system is the range of frequencies of transmitted optical signal where the output optical current falls to 50% or 0.5 of its maximum value. 2 The optical bandwidth of an optical fiber system is the range of frequencies of transmitted 1.2.4 Optical versus Electrical Bandwidth ‘We know that the electrical bandwidth of an electronic (all-electrical) communication system signifies the range of frequencies of transmitted electrical signal where the output power falls to 50% or 0.5 of its maximum value (half-power point), Butin an electrical system, the power delivered is directly proportional to the square of the root-mean-scuare (RMS) value of the current, Thus the half-power point on a power scale corresponds to 0.707 (not equivalent as in optical fiber system) on acurrent scale. From the above discussions, the relationship between optical bandwidth (Af),,, and electrical bandwidth (4f),, of an optical fiber communication system can be defined as Day = a V2 (AP). a3) ‘Therefore, the optical bandwidth of an optical fiber system is more than its electrical bandwidth. Facts to Know Optical wavelengths are so small that most devices used in a fiber system have dimensions of many ‘wavelengths. This is contrary tothe situation at radio frequencies, where device sizes can bea wavelength or even less. Section Practice Problems 1. Determine the wavelength in nanometers forthe light wave signal having frequency equal to 3.21 x 10" He, {Ans.: 935 nm) 2. Determine the wavelength in angstroms forthe ight wave signal having frequency equal to 3.62 x 10"* He (Ans.: 8287 A] 3. Determine the light wave frequency corresponding to the following specified wavelengths (a) 9350A [Ans.: 3.21 x 10% Hz} (b) 8690A [Ans.: 3.45 x 10 Hz} (o) 8280A ({Ans.: 3.62 x 10" Hz} 4, Acommonly used wavelength for optical communication is 1550 nm. (@) What type of light spectrum is this? (6) Caloulate the frequency corresponding to this wavelength, assuming free-space propagation, [Ans.: (a) Infrared; (0) 1.94 x 10" He]Introduction U1 1.3 Optical Power Basics Definition of optical power: It is described as the flow of light energy past a given point in the system in a specified time. In fact, the optical power measures the rate at which electromagnetic waves transfer light energy. It is expressed in joules per second, or watts. Typical optical power values generated by light sources, range from tens of microwatts to more than 100 milliwatts. Optical power is generally stated in deci- bels relative to a defined power level, such as | mW (4Bm) or 1 pW (ABH). ‘Note: d8m stands for an absolute power levelwith reference to fixed constant reference power level as 1 mW, and dBy stands for an absolute power level with reference to fived constant reference power level as 1 uW. PW) Mathematically, Bm = log = a4) ole 2a) aby = los Ty (5) Facts to Know ‘The design of an optical fiber communication lnk involves keeping a track of the optical power along the communication link from source to detector. The measurement of relative power levels in dBis convenient. Example 16 Expressing Optical Power Levels Express the optical power levels of 1 mW and 10 pW in dBm and dB units, Solution: (@) Expressing in dBm We know that dBm = 10log? 2) TmW For P= 1 mW, dBm = 10log "= 0 dBm Ans, y TmW 10 uw. = 10 pW, dBm = = . For P= 10 pW, dBm = 10log'P EY. = -20 dim Ans. (b) Expressing in dBp ~ toloe 2) We know that dB = 10log For P= I mW or 1000,W, dBy = 10log sae W = 30 aby Ans. For P= 10 pW, dp = 101og 28 = 10 apy Ans. TuW12__ Optical Fiber Communications It is important to take care while adding or subtracting different power levels and gains/losses (expressed in decibels) in a communication system. For example, the transmitted power level, P,(dBm), the system loss, L(dB), and received power level, P, (dBm), are related by P, (dBm) = P, (dBm) + L(dB) (1.6) It may be noted here that loss is always taken as negative value. 1.31 Transmission Efficiency In general, efficiency of transmission between any two points in a communication link is given as the ratio of power at second point to that at the first point. Let us say the power at one point in the system is P, watts, and at some other point farther away along the communication link is P, watts (P, where E;is the total energy emitted by optical source or incident on the detector, and E,, is the photon energy sven, = HE 6.626 x 10° (J x 5) x3 x 108 (m/s) 800 x 10°? (m) For given N,, = 10! photons, E, = N, x E, = 10° x 2.48 x 10" = 2.48 x 10°F 2.48 x 10? For given A= 800 nm, we have E, By definition, power is the rate of change of energy at which itis delivered. That is, Er Fm = ‘Therefore, the power incident on the detecior in I-sec, Py, = 2.48 x 10°W Ans. Facts to Know Light is often interpreted in different ways to explain different observations and experiments. It has been established that at some time light behaves as an electromagnetic wave, and at some other time it behaves as a particle. Section Practice Problems 1. Express the optical power levels of 0.1 mW and 1 pW in dBm and dBp units, {Ans.:-10 dBm, 40 dBp; -30 dBm, 0 oBy] 2. Convert -20 dBm and 10 dBy into equivalent pW values. Ans. 10,W, 104) 3. Prove that 0 dBm = 30 dBp. 4, Find the energy of a single photon in eVif the wavelength is specified as 0.8 ym. [Ans.: 1.55 eV] 5. Compute number of photons per second received at the input of a photodetector ifthe incident power is ‘1nW at wavelength 1.3 ym. [Ans.: 6.54 x 10? photons/sec}16 _ Optical Fiber Communications 6. The power incident on a photodetector is 100 nW. Find the number of photons per second ifthe operating wavelength is (@) 800.nm (0) 1550nm ‘Which wavelength requires more number of photons per second to produce 100 nWW of power? (Ans. (a) 4x 10" photons/s;(b) 78 x 10" photons/s; 1550 nm] 1.4 Need of Optical Fiber Communications The information-carrying capacity of any electronic communications system is directly proportional to the channel bandwidth. In an electronic communications system, the transmitter superimposes (modulates) low-frequency information signal on a radio frequency carrier signal. The modulated RF cartier signal is then transmitted through wireless or guided medium. The receiver retrieves the original information from the carrier signal. The carrier frequencies, in fact, restrict the information- carrying capacity as well as the rate of transfer of information. Increasing the carrier frequency, therefore, increases the transmission bandwidth which helps to eliminate these limitations. The optical frequency is typically 10" Hz, as compared to that of microwave frequency of 10? Hz. Thus, the optical carrier can offer 100,000 times more bandwidth. In addition, the optical region of the electromagnetic spectrum ranges from 50 nm (ultraviolet radiation) to about 100 yim; the visible portion lies in the 400-700-nm region. In optical fiber communication systems, the carrier frequencies, are selected from the optical region (particularly the infrared part, ranging between 1700-800 nm). Consequently, the only practical type of optical communications system is one that uses optical fibers as transmitting medium. For all practical purposes, optical fiber cables have an infinite bandwidth. In other words, they have the capacity to carry much more information than metallic cables or even the wireless communications, Facts to Know Transmission of ight waves for any useful distance through the earth's atmosphere is impractical because \water vapor, oxygen, and particles in the air absorb and attenuate the signals at light frequencies. Example 1.12 Information Carrying Capacity With the help of suitable data, show that the light freyuencies used in optical fiber communication systems, have much larger bandwidth utilization ratio. Solution: Definition of bandwidth utilization ratio: Bandwidth utilization of an analog communications system is the ratio of system bandwidth to its carrier frequency, and is often expressed in percentage. For instance, a VHF radio communications system operating at a carrier frequency of 100 MHz with 10-MHz bandwidth has a bandwidth utilization ratio of 10%. (i) For 10% bandwidth utilization ratio, a microwave radio communication system operating at a carrier frequency of 10 GHz would have I GHz of bandwidth available, ii)_Light frequencies used in optical fiber communications systems are between I x 10" Hz and 4 xIntroduction 17 10! Hz.(100,000-400,000 GHz). A banéwidth utilization ratio of 10% would have a bandwidth between 10,000-40,000 GHz. Obviously, the higher the carrier frequency, the more the bandwidth available and greater the information-carrying capacity. Optical frequencies, being of the order of 10" Hz, can handle information signals requiring very high transmission bandwidths. Since optical communication through atmosphere requires optical line-of-sight (LOS), the applications were limited to short distance communication such as across a highway or hilly terrain or satellite-based deep space applications. Subsequently, the use of fibers, as transmitting medium was considered a practical reality for long distance communication. The advantages of fiber optics can be linked to the wave nature of light which can offer a diverse range of communication possibilities such + Due to wide bandwidth, many signals can be incorporated onto a single optical fiber channel, without much interference among them. + The optical fiber systems can be made compact and efficient, mainly due to use of guided wave devices to control light transmitted via fibers. ‘+ Many design and maintenance problems are eliminated due to non-existence of electromagnetic interferences, ‘Note: Large information capacity, inherent immunity from electro-magnetic interference (EMI), security, increased repeater spacing, cost e‘fectiveness, and convenience of operation are some. of the factors that justity the need of optical fiber communication, 1.5 Light Wave System Components Fig, 1.2 illustrates a simplified block diagram of a light wave communication system, also known as optical fiber communication system. A brief description of each functional block is given below: 1. Information Source. The source information may be in the form of non-electrical, physical form such as voice orimage/video. An input transducer is a device that converts physical information into an electrical signal. The input signal can either be an analog or digital (computer data), 2. Voltage-to-current converter. It serves as an electrical interface between the information source circuit and the optical (light) source. The amount of light emitted by the light source is generally proportional to the amount of its drive current. Thus, the voltage-to-current converter is necessary to convert an input signal voltage to a current that is used to drive the light source. 3. Optical source. In an optical transmitter, the optical carrier signal generated by optical source ‘modulated by an analog or a digital signal. The optical source is either a light-emitting diode (LED) or an injection laser diode (ILD), which generates an electromagnetic wave in the infrared region of the optical spectrum. In essence, the light intensity is modulated by the input signal. ‘The optical sources are generally compact, lightweight, consume moderate amount of power, and are relatively easy to modulate.Optical Fiber Communications Source ‘Analog or digital interface I Transmitter —_——— Vottage-to- Optical coupler Optical current >| (source-to- converter ae fiber) Optical fiber cable Optical iver cable Sign regenerator pial comer : Corea iowa Loa] Spe vote Siac con — == Teer ‘rag o at vies Desaon Fig. 1.2 Light wave system components Optical couplers. The function of source-to-fiber coupler is to collect the light signals from the optical source and send it efficiently to the optical fiber cable. Similarly, the fiber-to-detector coupler is used at the other end of the fiber cable to direct the received light signals onto the photodetector. Optical fiber cable. Itis the guided transmission medium, which is either an ultrapure glass or a plastic cable. The optical fiber consists of a glass or plastic fiber core surrounded by a cladding and then encapsulated in a protective jacket. Techniques have been developed for the production of fibers with very low transmission losses (a few tenths of a dB/km at 1300 nm and 1550 nm optical wavelengths), Optical signal regenerators. As the optical signals (in the form of intensity-modulated light pulses) propagate along the lengths of the optical fiber cable from the source to destination, they get attenuated (due to absorption, scattering, etc.) as well as broadened (due to dispersion). As a result, the signals may become weak end indistinguishable after a certain distance. Optical regenerator (or optical amplifiers, such as erbium-doped fiber amplifiers) are used at appropriate distances from the transmitter along the length of the fiber cables which help to restore the strength and shape of transmitted signal Optical detector. The optical detector is generally a p-i-n (p-type-intrinsic-n-type) diode, an avalanche photodiode (APD), or a phototransistor which converts an input optical signal into an equivalent electrical signal, usually in the form of electric current. The resultant output current is normally proportional to the incident optical signal level and hence to the input information signal. The optical detectors are generally compact, consume low power, and have flat spectral response, and long operating life.Introduction 19 8. Current-to-voltage converter. Ittransforris variations in photodetector current to corresponding variations in voltage. It produces an output voltage which is proportional to the original source information, 9. Destination output. Finally, the received information is presented in a form similar to that of input information source and suitable for destination device such as loud speaker, computer, of other machines, ‘Note:The analog or digital interfaces at the irput of transmitter and output of receiver are electrical interfaces that match impedances and signal levels between the information source and destination to the input and output circuitry of the optical fiber communication system. 1.6 Optical Fibers as a Communication Channel An optical fiber is essentially a waveguide for light, usually in infrared spectrum, It consists of a core and a cladding that surrounds the core. Both are made of transparent material, either glass or plastic, but the main difference is in their index of refraction, The material used in cladding has lower refractive index than that used in the fiber core. This causes rays of light leaving the core to be refracted back into it which help the light beams to propagate automatically and continuously in the forward direction down the fiber. The actual fiber used in optical fiber communications is a very thin strand of material such as glass or plastic. This fiber has very little mechanical strength. So itis enclosed in a protective jacket that is usually made of plastic. cross-sectional view of the fiber. Fig. 1.3 illustrates a typical Fig. 1.3 Cross-sectional view of the optical fiber 1.6.1 Parts of Optical Fiber Cable ‘The fiber portion in an optical fiber cable is generally considered to include both the fiber core and its cladding. A special lacquer, silicone, or acrylate coating is generally applied to the outside of the cladding to seal and preserve the fiber’s strength, Fig. 1.4 shows different parts of the optical fiber cable The coating also helps protect the fiber from moisture, which reduces the possibility of the occurrence of a detrimental phenomenon called stress corrosion (sometimes called static fatigue) caused by high humidity. Moisture causes silicon dioxide crystals to interact, causing bonds to break down and spontaneous fractures to form overa prolonged period of time. The protective coating is, surrounded by a buffer jacket, which provides the cable additional protection against abrasion and shock, Materials commonly used for the bufferjacket include steel, fiberglass, plastic, flame-retardant20 Optical Fiber Communications polyvinyl chloride, Kevlar yarn, and paper. The buffer jacket is encapsulated in a strength member, which increases the tensile strength of the overall cable assembly. Finally, the entire cable assembly is contained in an outer polyurethane jacket, Polyurethane outlet jacket > Strength members ———————>, Butter jacket —————>, Protcive coating ———> Fier core and cadcing —> gf Fig. 1.4 Parts of optical fiber cable ‘Note: Often, two or more fiers are included in one cable for increased bandwidth and redundanoy in case one fiber breaks. It is also easier to build a full-duplex system using two fibers, one for transmission in each direction, than to send signals in both directions along the same fiber. 1.6.2 Optical Fiber Materials Most optical fibers are made of high-quality glass chosen for its very great transparency to reduce losses. Some low-cost multimode fibers designed for short-distance applications (such as optical links in consumer electronics and control-signal lines in automobiles) are made of acrylic plastic. The losses in these fibers are very much greater than in glass fiber, but this is of no importance when the distances involved are a few meters or less. ‘What is the basic material used for manufécturing of glass fibers? It is silicon dioxide. However, some types of optical fibers can be made of transparent plastic material. Both materials are readily available in plenty in nature. There are three essential types of optical fibers which are commonly used today. All these types of optical fibers are fabricated from either glass material, or plastic material, or even an appropriate combination of glass and plastic materials: I fibers with plastic core and cladding, known as plastic fibers, fibers with glass core and plastic cladding, known as plastic-clad silica (PCS) fibers. fibers with glass core and cladding, known as silica-clad silica (SCS) fibers. (@) Optical fibers with plastic core and cladding. Plastic fibers (fibers with plastic core and cladding) are more flexible and, consequently, more rugged than glass. Therefore, plastic cables are easier to install, can better withstand stress, are less expensive, and weigh approximately 60% less than glass. However, plastic fibers have higher attenuation characteristics and do not propagate light as efficiently as glass. Therefore, plastic fibers are limited to relatively short cable lengths, such as within a single building, (b) Optical fibers with glass core and plastic cladding (PCS fibers). Generally, fibers with glass cores have less attenuation than plastic fibers. Therefore, plastic-clad silica fibers with glass core are also less affected by external electromagnetic radiations, thereby exhibiting greater immunity to interference.Introduction 21 (©) Optical fibers with glass core and cladding (SCS fibers). This type of optical fibers offers the best propagation characteristics. But they are the least rugged, and are more susceptible to external electromagnetic radiations and may lead to inerease in signal attenuation. ‘Note: Photonic crystal fibers (PCFS), a new class of optical fibers, basically combine properties of classical fibers and 2D photonic crystals, They can guide light using photonic bandgap (PBG) ‘mechanism, in addition to total internal reflection. They have a hexagonal lattice structure which help to propagate light along the fiber in defects (ealized by removing central capillaries) ofits crystal structure, PCFs have relatively high index ol refraction, It is possible to design PCFs with zero or ow dispersion at visible wavelengths, or with flattened dispersion over a very large optical range. 1.6.3 Protective Material Generally, optical fiber cables have very low tensile (pulling) strength. For this reason, the fiber is, reinforced with strengthening material so that it can withstand mechanical stresses it may typically undergo when being pulled and jerked through underground and overhead ducts and hung on poles during installation. Materials commonly used to strengthen and protect fibers from abrasion and environmental stress are: + Steel + Fiberglass + Plastic + FR-PVC (flame-retardant polyvinyl chloride) + Kevlar yarn + Paper Fig. 1.5 shows a pictorial view of optical fiber cable illustrating its parts. Outer jacket DuPont Kevlar (for strength) Plastic coating (as butler) lading Glass or plastic fiber core Fig. 1.5 A pictorial view of optical fiber cable As it can be seen, the fiber part is at the center of the optical fiber cable. Basically, the fiber comprises of core and cladding which is responsible for propagation of light through it. The fiber is surrounded by plastic coating in order to provide sufficient cushion to the fiber, DuPont Kevlar (@ strong material similar to that used in bulletproof vests) strands to provide strength, and finally an outer jacket made of either Teflon or PVC material. The type of cable construction used depends, On the performance requirements of the system and both economic and environmental constraints.22. Optical Fiber Communications ‘Note: For a given application, the selection of an optical fiber depends on specific requirements of the system. In addition to technical specifications, one has to consider overall economics as \well as logistical aspects. 1.6.4 Connectors used with Optical Fiber In an optical fiber communication system, connectors are needed for using optical fibers. Special connectors are required to couple the light from source to fiber cable at the transmitter end, and fiber cable to detector atthe receiver end. In general, connectors used with optical fibers can be categorized in two different versions. These are: a fiber connector to provide flexible and detachable conn between the optical transmitter (or the optical receiver), and a fiber splice for providing permanent joint between two segments of optical fibers (usually 5-10 km long). Connectors are discussed in this section, whereas fiber splicing is covered in the next section, Depending on applications, three different types of connectors are used with optical fiber cables. These are: tions 1. Subscriber channel (SC) connector. SC connectors employ push-pull type of locking arrangement, Fig. 1.6 shows such type of connector used with optical fiber cables. SC connectors are mostly used in cable TV applications, Fig. 1.6 Subscriver channel (SC) connector 2. Straight-tip (ST) connector. ST connectors employ a bayonet type of locking arrangement and used for connecting optical fiber cables with various optical network devices. Itis more reliable than SC connector. Figure 17 shows such type of connector used with optical fiber cables. Fig. 1.7 Straight-tip (ST) connector 3. MT-RJ connector. It has a size similar to that of a standard RJ45 type connector used in telecommunications. Fig, 1.8 shows one such optical fiber cable which supports I Gbps data rate over 100 m distance.Introduction 23 Fig. 1.8 An optical fiber cable with connector It is worth mentioning here that any type of connector does have certain insertion loss. Typical insertion loss of connector may be on the order of about 0.3 dB. 1.6.5 Fiber Splicing As stated earlier, fiber splicing is a technique to join two pieces or segments of optical fibers on permanent basis. Fiber splices are generally needed when the available optical fiber cable is not Jong enough for the intended application. This is due to the fact that usually one continuous length of optical fiber cable extends up to about 5 km only. So, in order to meet the requirement of 10 km length of optical fiber in a fiber-optic link, two different fiber lengths each having 5 km length is, spliced together. There are two techniques of fiber splicing: + Mechanical splicing + Fusion splicing For an easy and quick process of fiber splicing, the mechanical splicing technique is normally used for joining two segments of optical fibers permanently. The first step in mechanical fiber splicing process is that the outer protective jacket of two optical fiber cable is stripped back, cleaned and then a precision cleave orcut (ic, the cut on the fibershould be exactly at 90° to the fiber axis) is performed. In the second step, these ends of the fibers which are required to be spliced are placed together into a sleeve with accurate alignment. This helps to maximize the level of light transmission. Next, the two fiber segments are clamped in the right place. It is followed by the usage of a refractive-index ‘matching gel which enhances the transmission of light across the fiber splicing. The major benefit of mechanical fiber splicing is that it takes very less time (e.g., may be about just 5 minutes) to make. Of course, itis accompanied with about 10% loss of the level of light. However, this loss is still less than that encountered while using a fiber connector for joining two segments of fiber cables. ‘The other type of fiber splice is known as the fusion splicing. In this technique, the two ends of the optical fibers are fused or melted together by using specialized equipment. For example, an electric are may be used to weld two optical fiber cables together to perform fusion splicing. First, as in the ‘mechanical splicing technique, the outer protective jacket from the ends of two optical fiber cables24 Optical Fiber Communications need to be spliced is stripped back and cleaned, Then a precision cleave or cut (ie, the cut on the fiber should be exactly at 90° to the fiber axis) is performed with a precision cleaver tool. Next, the two optical fibers are properly placed into an appropriate holder in the optical fiber splicer. This enables, automatic alignment with the help of a magnifying viewer glass for inspection. If needed, small electrical sparks may be employed for cleaning the area to be spliced of any dust. It is followed by applying a much intensive electric spark so that the temperature of the glass used for manufacturing the optical fiber is increased above its specified melting point. At this temperature, the two ends of optical fibers are fused together. Of course, extra care needs to be taken so that the molten form of fiber core and cladding are not mixed together so as to incur minimum light loss when propagated through two segments of optical fibers. Nowadays all the tools and equipment used for performing fusion splicing are operated under the computer controlled environment. This helps to achieve precise alignment of the optical fibers, thereby exhibiting very low levels of loss, as low as 0.1 dB. However, the process of fusion splicing is quite expensive. 1.7 Advantages of Optical Fiber Cables Optical communications through glass or plastic fibers offer several advantages over conventional metallic transmission media for both telecommunication and computer networking applications. ‘Typical advantages of using optical fiber cables are briefly described below: (® Larger bandwidth and greater information capacity. Due to inherently available wider ‘bandwidths at light frequencies, optical fibers have greater information-carrying capacity than that can be obtained with metallic cables as transmission medium. Typically, bandwidths up to several thousand GHz are available with optical fibers. Gi) Lower transmission loss. Typical signal loss in modern sophisticated optical fibers is as small as a few-tenths-of-a-dB loss per km. AS a result, optical amplifiers and regenerators can be spaced considerably farther apart as that can be offered by metallic transmission lines. iii) Security. Due to inherent property of optical fiber cable for propagation of light through it, it is almost impossible to tap the data flowing into an optical fiber cable without the knowledge of the user. Thus, we can say that optical fiber cables provide much higher data integrity and security than metallic cables. Moreover, itis not possible to detect the presence of optical fiber cables installed under the ground with metal detectors provided steel is not used alongwith fiber cables for reinforcement. (iv) Immunity to static noise. Static noise usually occurs due to electromagnetic interference (EMD). It is mainly caused by various sources of man-made noise that include lightning, fluorescent lights, electric motors, relays, and other electrical appliances. Since fiber cables are nonconductors of electrical current, they do not radiate electromagnetic energy as well. () Immunity to crosstalk. Optical fibers are made of glass and plastic materials which fibers are known to be nonconductors of electricity. Therefore, they are immune to crosstalk, (vi) Immunity to environmental variations. Optical fiber cables tend to be more resistant to environmental and climatic conditions (including weather variations) than metallic cables. Optical fiber cables can also operate over a wider temperature range.Introduction 25 (vii) Reliability. Optical fiber cables are more reliable than metallic cables and last longer because they exhibit higher tolerance to changes in environmental conditions and are immune to corrosive materials including liquids and gases, (iii) Easier to install and maintain. Optical fiber cables, in general, are quite easier to install as ‘well as to maintain than metallic cables. Optical fibers are compact and much more lightweight than metallic cables. Consequently, they are more flexible, require less storage space, cheaper to transport, and easier to work with. Facts to Know ‘Modern optical fiber communication systems zan transmit thousands of Gbps data over hundreds of kilometers distance between source and destination. This allows millions of individual voice/data channels to be multiplexed together and propagated usirg one common optical fiber cable. 1.8 Disadvantages of Optical Fiber Cables The difficulty to make connections to optical fiber cable is one of the major disadvantages of optical fiber cables versus metallic cables. Due to its small size and compactness, an optical fiber cable tends, to be extremely susceptible to getting cut or bruised, thereby causing permanent damage during ‘manufacturing or installation activities. Although the installation costs for optical fiber cables are drastically coming down by more than 60% a year, the installation cost of optical fiber cables is still relatively high. Special optical test equipment such as optical test probes and optical time domain reflectometer (OTDR) are required to be used for measurement of specified parameters as well as fault diagnostic purpose at most of the fiber endpoints. Certain disadvantages of using optical fiber cables are listed below. (Lower tensile strength. Glass fiber is quite fragile as compared to copper wire, making it cumbersome to transport. As such optical fiber cables have considerably lower tensile strength than that exhibited by RF coaxial cables, which can be improved by Kevlar coating and a protective PVC jacket. Gi) Susceptible to bending losses. Bending the optical fiber cable causes irregularities in the cable dimensions. Since electromagnetic waves propagate through it by total internal reflection, slight bending of cable results in a loss of signal power. (iii) Prone to manufacturing defects. Excessive loss of optical signal power is experienced even with the minor manufacturing defect of the optical fiber cable, As a result, this may cause imperfect total internal reflection mechanism. (iv) Interfacing with electronic devices. Optical fiber cables must be connected to standard electronic devices for communication purposes, which make the interfacing expensive, (\) Difficulty in locating faults, Because of no electrical continuity, it is extremely difficult to locate physical or technical faults in optical fiber cables and maintain its proper functioning throughout the operating period. (vi) Need of specialized tools. Special tools are needed to splice and repair optical fiber cables. In addition, special measuring test equipment is needed for making regular measurements by trained professionals.26 Optical Fiber Communications (vii) Reaction by chemicals. The glass fiber is easily affected by number of chemicals such as hydrogen gas. This is really a serious concern while deploying optical fiber cables in underwater applications ‘Note: Occasionally, it is needed to use electrical power to remotely located optical equipments, such as regenerators. This cannot be accomplished with the optical cables. So additional copper cables must be included alongwith optical fer cables. 1.9 Applications Optical Fiber Systems include processing of information before itis delivered to the communication channel and after it reaches the receiver, exactly the same way as Electronic Communications Systems. This allows incorporation of fibers into systems originally conceived for electrical signal transmission with only moderate modifications. For example, compatibility of optical fiber cables with existing structure of the telephone system. Similarly, optical fiber cables are used to transmit television signal, voice as well as data, The intensity of light wave is modulated that undergoes number of total internal reflections to reach destination where it is demodulated and the message is recovered 1. Optical fiber cable has wide bandwidth and is widely used in backbone networks because it capable of transferring data at a rate of 1600 Gbps. Moreover, it provides a cost-effective solution as transmission medium. A hybrid CATV network is creating by using a combination of RF coaxial cable and optical fiber cable by some cable TV companies. RF coaxial cable is used to connect the end user directly. On the other hand, optical fiber cable is used as the backbone configuration. This type of arrangement offers an economical solution because the end user usually requires narrow bandwidth as compared to relatively very high bandwidth of an optical fiber cable. 3. The small size and large information-carrying capacity of optical fibers make them viable alternatives to traditional twisted-pair copper cables as trunk lines in modern telecommunication networks. 4. Optical fiber cables are also used in several types of local area networks (LANs). Examples of such LANS include 100Base- and 1000Base- Fast Ethernets. 5. Usually optical fiber cables have lower attenuation than that in a coaxial cable. This leads to greater repeater spacing in an optical fiber communication links. This is the rea underwater optical fiber links are designed to span the oceans. More advanced lower-loss fibers and optical amplifiers to reduce (or eliminate) the need for repeaters. 6. Because of the relative ease of transporting and laying the fibers due to low-weight as compared to coaxial cables, optical fiber cables have distinct edge for their use in submerged cable applications, 7. Due to availability of very large bandwidth, “fibered city” such as Hi-OVIS (Highly Interactive Optical Visual Information System) can provide reliable connectivity to home computers and video equipment provide live TV programs, recorded audio/video programs, etc by using optical fiber cables. 8. Optical fiber links are compatible with electrified railway tracks because they do not suffer from electromagnetic interference. stems useIntroduction 27 9. Optical fiber video transmission successfully competes with coaxial cable for surveillance and remote monitoring systems due to its EMI rejection and low susceptibility to lightning damage. Examples of such applications include surveillance of power-generating stations, parking areas, critical control points along railroad pathways, and the perimeter of military installations 10. Fiber sensors have been used to measure temperature, pressure, linear and rotary positions, and liquid levels; for examples, the Optic Gyroscopes and Fiber Hydrophones. Facts to Know Optical fibers are safer to operate, Due to the non-conducting behaviour of glass and plastic fibers, no electrical voltages or currents can be associated with them. They can also be used around various types of gasses as well as volatile liquids without any risk of fires or explosions. Besides telecommunications, fiber-optics enabled cable TV and local area networks are becoming, very popular. A great deal of research has taken place in the area of synchronous optical networks (SONET) which synchronize optical and electrical interfaces, and fiber distributed data interface (FDDD). With the availability of ultra-narrow line-width single-mode lasers as optical source, coherent optical transmission and transmission of optical solitons through low-loss optical fibers (less than 0.01 dB/km) have now become a reality. Points to Remember * Fiber optics is a branch of optics that deals with the study of propagation of light (rays or beam) through optical fibers (transparent dielectric waveguides made up of glass or plastic), * Optical fibers can be considered as light waveguides or photon conductors which can be constructed from transparent dielectrics such as plastic and glass materials. * Optical fiber cables comprises of an inner core made of glass or plastic which is completely surrounded by cladding, and then properly encased in a jacket. * Data signals are carried by optical fiber cables in the form of light using the principles of total internal reflection. * Optical fiber has many advantages over copper cable for communications, including larger bandwidth, Greater distance between repeaters, lower weight and smaller size, immunity from electrical interference, and even lower cost * Optical fiber communication is gaining widespread popularity due to its inherent advantages such as low attenuation of transmitted signals, resistance to noise, and high-bandwidth information-carrying capabilities. "= Nowadays optical fiber cable is widely deployed in Fast Ethernet networks, cable TV networks, and telecommunication backbone networks, Important Equations The wavelength, 2 = $; where c represents the velocity of light in free space (3 x 10° mvs) and f denotes the frequency in Hz The energy of the photon, E, = hf; where h represents the Planck's constant (= 6.626 x 10% joules-sec) and f denotes the frequency of light (photon) emitted in Hz