Hajee Mohammad Danesh

Science and Technology University, Dinajpur-5200 Course Code: EEE 409 Credit Hour: 3.00
Course Title: Optical Fiber Communication

Course Contents:
Introduction to optical communication. Guided and unguided optical
communication system, Light propagation through guided medium, Optical
Fibers: SMF and MMF, SI fibers and GI fibers. Fiber modes, mode theory for
light propagation through fibers, single mode condition and multimode
Course Code: EEE 409 condition. Transmission impairments: fiber loss, chromatic dispersion in a fiber,
polarization mode dispersion (PMD). Different types of fibers: DSF, DCF,
Course Title: Optical Fiber Communication
Dispersion compensation schemes. Fiber cabling process, Fiber joints/connectors
Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering and couplers, Optical transmitter: LED and laser, Operating principles,
Characteristics and driver circuits. Optical receivers: PN, PIN and APD
detectors, Noise at the receiver, SNR and BER calculation, Receiver sensitivity
Course Teacher
calculation. IM/DD and Coherent communication systems. Nonlinear effects in
Md. Sazedur Rahman
optical fibers. Optical amplifiers, Optical modulators, Multichannel optical
Lecturer
systems: Optical FDM, OTDM and WDM. Optical Access Network, Optical link
Dept. of Electrical and Electronic Engineering (EEE)
design and Free space optical communication.
Hajee Mohammad Danesh Science and Technology University (HSTU)

TEXT BOOKS:
Contents
1.Optical Fiber Communications – Gerd Keiser, Tata Mc Graw-Hill
International edition.
2. Optical Fiber Communications – John M. Senior, PHI.
 Introduction to OFC
REFERENCE BOOKS:  Brief history
1. Fiber Optic Communications – D.K. Mynbaev , S.C. Gupta and Lowell L.
Scheiner, Pearson Education.  Optical fiber communication system
2. Text Book on Optical Fibre Communication and its Applications –
S.C.Gupta, PHI.  Advantage and Limitation of OFC
3. Fiber Optic Communication Systems – Govind P. Agarwal , John Wiley.
4. Fiber Optic Communications – Joseph C. Palais, Pearson Education.
 Communication Communication System

Communication may be broadly defined as the transfer of

information from one point to another. When the
information is to be conveyed over any distance a
communication system is usually required. Sophisticated
techniques have been developed for this process using
electromagnetic carrier waves operating at radio
frequencies as well as microwave and millimeter wave
frequencies. However, ‘communication’ may also be
achieved using an electromagnetic carrier which is
selected from the optical range of frequencies.

Block Diagram of Communication System Background of Optical Communication

Brief history of Optical Communication Technology:
 Before 1792, fire beacons or smoke was used to send information
 In 1792, Claude Chappe was invented optical telegraphy
 He was succeeded to transmit information between Paris and Lille
 By 1830, the network was extended In Europe (Bit/s < 1)

Relay
Station

Optical telegraphy system and its inventor Claude Chappe

 Brief history of Optical Communication Technology
Brief history of Optical Communication Technology
 The first coaxial cable put into service in 1940 with 3 MHz system
capacity (300 voice channels or a single television channel)
 The advent of electrical telegraphy in the 1830 replaced the use of  The bandwidth was limited by frequency dependent cable losses(~10MHz)
optical telegraphy and began the era of electrical communication  This limitation was led to develop Micro-Wave communication (1~10GHz)
 The first Microwave system was operated at 4 GHz
 The bit rate of electrical telegraphy was increased to ~ 10 bit/s by  Most advanced coaxial cable put into service in 1975 (274 Mb/s, ~1Km)
using Morse Code (dots and dashes)  Microwave communications generally allow larger repeater spacing, but bit
rate is limited by the carrier frequency of such waves
 The invention of telephone in 1876 enables to transmit electrical
signals in analog form, which dominate comm. for a century or so.

 The development of worldwide telephone networks led to many BL product 100

advances in the design of Electrical communication systems Mb/s-Km was
Bit rate- 108 achieved by
 Use of coaxial cable instead of wire pairs increased system capacity distance 1970 and limited
considerable product, BL due to carrier
1970 frequency

Brief history of Optical Communication Technology

Electromagnetic Spectrum
 During 1950 it was realized that BL product can be further increased
if optical waves were used as the carrier
 During 1950 there was no coherent optical source nor a suitable
transmission medium
 In 1960 first LASER was developed (coherent light source)
 After 1960 first idea was developed to use glass material as a
transmission medium
 In 1966 first optical fiber was made by Kao and Hockham but loss
was 1000 dB/km
 By reducing concentration of transition-metal ions and water ions
(Fe, Cu, Cr, Ni, Mn, Cobalt and HO)
 In 1970 Kapron et al. at Corning made a fiber with α < 20 dB/km in
the wavelength region near 1 m
 In the same time GaAs semiconductor lasers operating continuously
at room temperature at 1 m were developed
 Simultaneous availability of compact light source and low loss fiber
led to a worldwide effort for developing FO Comm. systems
106
 First-generation Fiber optic Systems Second-generation Fiber optic Systems

 Opportunity:
 Purpose: Eliminate repeaters used in inter-office trunk Development of low-attenuation fiber (removal of H2O and other
lines impurities), eliminate repeaters in long-distance lines
 Technology: 0.8 µm GaAs semiconductor lasers,  Technology:
Multimode silica fibers 1.3 µm semiconductor lasers, Muti-mode fiber, low-
 Repeater Spacing: 10 km attenuation silica fibers, bit rate: < 100 Mb/s due to dispersion
1.3 µm semiconductor lasers, Single-mode fiber, low-
 Limitations: Fiber attenuation 3 dB/km, Intermodal attenuation silica fibers, bit rate: 1.7 Gb/s
dispersion, bit rate 45 Mb/s  Limitation:
 Deployed since 1974 Fiber attenuation 0.5 dB/km, repeater spacing ≈ 50 km
 Deployed since 1978

Third-generation Fiber Optic Systems Fourth-generation Fiber optic Systems

 Opportunity:
 Opportunity: Development of erbium-doped fiber amplifiers and WDM technology
Long-distance Communication
Technology (deployment began in 1994):
 Technology: 1.55 µm single-mode, narrow-band semiconductor lasers, Single-mode,
1.55 µm single-mode semiconductor lasers, Single-mode low-attenuation dispersion-shifted silica fibers, Wavelength-division
fiber, low- attenuation silica fibers, bit rate: 2.5 Gb/s multiplexing, with bit rate 2.5 Gb/s over 21000 km and 5 Gb/s over
14300 km by 1996. Using WDM technology bit rate was possible to
increase 2.56 Tb/s by 2002
 Limitations:
Fiber attenuation 0.2 dB/km, repeater spacing ≈ 60~70
km, Fiber dispersion, electronic repeaters Nonlinear effects limit the following system parameters:
Signal launch power, Propagation distance without regeneration,
WDM channel separation, Maximum number of WDM channels per fiber
 Deployed since 1982
 Fifth-Generation !!!!!! BL product in several generations
of lightwave systems
 Opportunity:
Development of Raman amplifiers and WDM technology, dry fiber

Technology (deployment began in 1994):

Dry fiber with low loss over the wavelength region 1.3 to 1.65 µm lead to
lightwave systems having 1000 WDM channels, Each channel 40 Gb/s,
which can be extended to 160 Gb/s in future

Optical fiber communication system Advantages of OFC

Input Output
Optical Comm. Channel Optical
Transmitter (Optical fiber) Receiver Greater bandwidth
Low attenuation
Attenuation, Dispersion, Electrical immunity (no RFI, EMI)
crosstalk & noise Greater security
Flexibility
Falling cost
Long repeater spacing
Smaller size and weight than copper cables
 Disadvantages of OFC Disadvantages of OFC
 Stimulated Raman Scattering (SRS):
An interaction between light and vibrations of silica molecules, causes
 Disadvantages include the cost of interfacing attenuation of short wavelength channels in WDM system
 Stimulated Brillouin Scattering (SBS):
equipment necessary to convert electrical An interaction between light and sound waves in the fiber, causes frequency
conversion and reversal of propagation direction of light
signals to optical signals. (optical transmitters,  Four Wave Mixing (FWM):
receivers) Splicing fiber optic cable is also Two or more optical waves at different wavelengths mix to produce new
waves at other wavelengths
more difficult.  Self Phase Modulation (SPM):
 Expensive over short distance Change in signal phase due to change in intensity of the signal due to group
velocity dispersion
 Requires highly skilled installers  Cross Phase Modulation (XPM):
It is an interaction via the non-linear refractive index between the intensity of
 Adding additional nodes is difficult one light wave and optical phase of other light waves
 Some other limitations:
Dispersion, laser phase noise, relative intensity noise etc.

Application of OFC Types of Optical Communication

Fiber optic cables find many uses in a wide variety of industries and
applications. Some uses of fiber optic cables include:
• Medical: Used as light guides, imaging tools and also as lasers for surgeries  Guided Optical Communication
• Defense/Government: Used as hydrophones for seismic waves and  In guided channel communication, optical fiber is used to transmit the
SONAR , as wiring in aircraft, submarines and other vehicles and also for light signal from transmitter to receiver. In this, the transmission of
field networking modulated signal is through glass fibers. Single Mode fiber is used for
• Data Storage: Used for data transmission this transmission.
• Telecommunications: Fiber is laid and used for transmitting and receiving
purposes  Unguided Optical Communication
• Networking: Used to connect users and servers in a variety of network
 Unguided channel communication means, that the transmission of
settings and help increase the speed and accuracy of data transmission
modulated light signal through the atmosphere or vaccum to
• Industrial/Commercial: Used for imaging in hard to reach areas, as wiring
obtain optical communications. It can be termed as wireless optical
where EMI is an issue, as sensory devices to make temperature, pressure
communication (WOC).
and other measurements, and as wiring in automobiles and in industrial
settings.
• Broadcast/CATV: Broadcast/cable companies are using fiber optic cables
for wiring CATV, HDTV, internet, video ondemand and other applications.
 Optical Fiber Fiber optic waveguide
 An optical wave guide is a structure that "guides" a light
 An optical fiber (or fibre) is a glass or wave by constraining it to travel along a certain desired
path. If the transverse dimensions of the guide are
plastic fiber that carries light along its much larger than the wavelength of the guided light,
length. then we can explain how the optical waveguide works
using geometrical optics and total internal reflection.
 Light is kept in the "core" of the optical fiber
by total internal reflection.

Construction of an Optical Fiber Types of Optical Fiber

An optical fiber is a waveguide for light Consists of :

 According to the refractive index profile
Core: inner part where wave propagates  Step index fiber
Cladding: outer part used to keep wave in core  Graded index fiber
Buffer: protective coating  According to the mode of propagation
SiO2 doped
Jacket: outer protective shield Low n with GeO2  Single mode fiber (SM)
 Multimode fiber (MM)

High n
 Single Mode Fiber Multi Mode Fiber
Single-mode fibers – used to transmit one signal Multi-mode fibers – used to transmit many signals per
per fiber (used in telephone and cable TV). They
fiber (used in computer networks). They have larger
have small cores(9 microns in diameter) and
transmit infra-red light from laser. cores(62.5 microns in diameter) and transmit infra-red
Single-mode fiber’s smaller core (<10 light from LED.

micrometres) necessitates more expensive Multimode fiber has a larger core (≥ 50 micrometre),
allowing less precise, cheaper transmitters and receivers
components and interconnection methods, but
to connect to it as well as cheaper connectors.
allows much longer, higher-performance links.

Step index and Graded index fiber

Step index and Graded index fiber
Step index fiber is a fiber type of cylindrical
waveguide core with inner core has a uniform
refractive index of n1 and the core is surrounded by an
outer cladding with a uniform refractive index of n2..

The refractive index of the core in graded-index fibers

is not constant but decreases gradually from its
maximum value n1 at the core center to its minimum
value n2 at the core–cladding interface.
Step index and Graded index fiber

fiber optic multimode

step-index

fiber optic multimode

graded-index

fiber optic single mode

34

The General Principle

The classical understanding of fiber optics

comes from Snell’s Law!

• Step index fibers: by total internal reflection

• GRIN (Graded Refractive Index) fibers: by layered
changes in refractive index

35
 Total Internal Reflection Step Index Fiber
Escapes core
(freedom!)
According to Snell’s Law t = 900
n1 > n2 Escapes from core
Cladding n2
n1 sin i  n2 sin t
low index, n2 Exit rays
Core n1 
i
Stuck in core
high index, c i
n1 sin  c  n2 n1 i
i i
Incident rays
n c
sin  c  2 n2
n1 c = Critical Angle, sin  c 
n1
i  c for total internal reflection

Graded Index Fiber

n2
n varies
Gradually Propagation of Light Through
n1
Optical Fiber
n2 40
 Critical angle, θc Acceptance angle
Lost by
radiation
A
 The minimum angle of incidence at which  max
a light ray ay strike the interface of two 

media and result in an angle of refraction B

Acceptance
cone   c for total
of 90° or greater. internal reflection

 max is the maximum acceptance angle to the axis of the fiber

at which light may enter into the fiber in order to propagate 42

Numerical aperture (NA) Numerical aperture (NA)

• Used to describe the light-gathering or light- The NA defines a cone of acceptance for light that will be
collecting ability of an optical fiber. guided by the fiber

B n2
• In optics, the numerical aperture (NA) of an Air n0 
A 2 n1
optical system is a dimensionless number 1 C
that characterizes the range of angles over =90-2
> c
which the system can accept or emit light
At the air core interface no sin 1  n1 sin  2

From the triangle ABC   2
2
 Numerical aperture (NA)

no sin 1  n1 cos
1

Using trigonometric relationship no sin 1  n1 (1  sin  )2 2

For total internal reflection, 1 = a, and   c

Mode Theory for Light Propagation
 n2 2 
12 Through Optical Fiber
n n
2 2 no sin  a  n1 1  2  n2
 1 22  n1  900
2n1
n n 
no sin  a  n1  n2
2

2 12 1
n1
 1 2
n1

NA  no sin  a  n1  n2
2

2 12
n1 sin 1  n2 sin  2
n2
Exmp. 2.1 and 2.2 NA  n1 (2)1 2 sin  c 
n1

Fiber Modes Fiber Modes

A set of guided electromagnetic waves is called the modes of an optical fiber.
The mode theory uses electromagnetic wave Maxwell's equations describe electromagnetic waves or modes as having two
components. The two components are the electric field, E(x, y, z), and the magnetic
behaviors to describe the propagation of light along a field, H(x, y, z). The electric field, E, and the magnetic field, H, are at right angles to
fiber. A set of guided electromagnetic waves is called each other. Modes traveling in an optical fiber are said to be transverse. The
the modes of the fiber. The mode theory is used to transverse modes, shown in figure 2-17, propagate along the axis of the fiber.

describe the properties of light that ray theory is

unable to explain. An optical mode refers to a specific
solution of the wave equation that satisfies the
appropriate boundary conditions and has the property
that its spatial distribution does not change with
propagation. The fiber modes can be classified as
guided modes, leaky modes, and radiation modes
 Fiber Modes Maxwell’s Equation
Like all electromagnetic phenomena, propagation of optical
The mode field patterns shown in figure 2-17 are said to be transverse electric
fields in fibers is governed by Maxwell’s equations. For a
(TE). In TE modes, the electric field is perpendicular to the direction of non-conducting medium without free charges, these
propagation. The magnetic field is in the direction of propagation. Another type equations take the form (in SI units)
of transverse mode is the transverse magnetic (TM) mode. TM modes are ∂B
opposite to TE modes. In TM modes, the magnetic field is perpendicular to the Faraday’s law : ∇×E = − ∂t (1)
direction of propagation. The electric field is in the direction of propagation. ∂D
Figure 2-17 shows only TE modes. he TE mode field patterns shown in figure 2- Ampere’s law: ∇×H = (2)
∂t
17 indicate the order of each mode. The order of each mode is indicated by the Gauss’s law for static electric field / Coulomb’s law :∇·D = 0 (3)
number of field maxima within the core of the fiber. For example, TE0 has one
field maxima. The electric field is a maximum at the center of the waveguide and Gauss’s law for static magnetic field: ∇·B = 0 (4)
decays toward the corecladding boundary. TE0 is considered the fundamental
mode or the lowest order standing wave. As the number of field maxima Where, electric field E, magnetic field H, electric flux
increases, the order of the mode is higher.
density D, magnetic flux density B and ∇ is a vector
operator.

Maxwell’s Equation
Maxwell’s Equation
The flux densities are related to the field vectors by the Then using the divergence conditions of Eqs (4) and (5)
constitutive relations with the vector identity:
D = 𝜀 E (5) 𝛻 × (𝛻 × 𝑌) = 𝛻(𝛻 ⋅ 𝑌) − 𝛻 2 (𝑌)
B = µ H (6) we obtain the nondispersive wave equations:
Where, ε is the dielectric permittivity and μ is the 𝜕2 𝑬
magnetic permeability of the medium. 𝛻 2 𝑬 = με (9)
𝜕𝑡 2
2
𝜕 𝑯
Substituting for D and B and taking the curl of Eqs (1) 𝛻 2 𝑯 = με 2 (10)
𝜕𝑡
and (2) gives: 2
𝜕2 𝑬
where 𝛻 is the Laplacian operator.
∇ × (∇ × E) = − με (7)
𝜕𝑡 2
𝜕2 𝑯 1
∇ × (∇ × H) = − με (8) And velocity of light is, c = 1
𝜕𝑡 2 με 2
 Solution of Maxwell’s Equation Solution of Maxwell’s Equation
If planar waveguides, described by rectangular Cartesian Basic solution of wave equation is,
coordinates (x, y, z), or circular fibers, described by cylindrical 𝜓 = 𝜓0 e𝑗 𝜔𝑡 − 𝒌 ⋅ 𝒓
polar coordinates (r, φ, z), are considered, then the where ω is the angular frequency of the field, t is the time, k is the
Laplacian operator takes the form: propagation vector which gives the direction of propagation and the
𝜕2 𝜓 𝜕2 𝜓 𝜕2 𝜓 rate of change of phase with distance while the components of r
𝛻2𝜓 = 𝜕𝑥 2
+ 𝜕𝑦 2
+ 𝜕𝑡 2
(11)
specify the coordinate point at which the field is observed. When λ
or: is the optical wavelength in a vacuum, the magnitude of the
𝜕2 𝜓 1 𝜕𝜓 1 𝜕2 𝜓 𝜕2 𝜓
𝛻2𝜓 = + + + (12) propagation vector or the vacuum phase propagation constant k,
𝜕𝑟 2 𝑟 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 2 𝜕∅2 𝜕𝑧 2
2𝜋
respectively. 𝑘 = 𝜆
𝜓 is a field (E or H) k is also referred to as the free space wave number.
It is necessary to consider both these forms for a complete treatment
of optical propagation in the fiber, although many of the properties
of interest may be dealt with using Cartesian coordinates.

Solution of Maxwell’s Equation Normalized Frequency

Assignment:
Derive the equation of normalized frequency, V and normalized Normalized Frequency, V:
1
propagation constant, b for a cylindrical fiber. Also, show the LP 2𝜋 2𝜋
modes of order l = 0, 1 against normalized frequency (V) for a
𝑉 = 𝑎 𝑁𝐴 = 𝑎𝑛1 2∆ 2
𝜆 𝜆
circular optical waveguide for step index fiber.
Normalized propagation constant, b:
Ref: article 2.4.1, figure 2.15, 2.17. 𝛽 2
Ref. Book: Optical Fiber Communications – John M. Senior, PHI, −𝑛22
𝑘
b=
3rd Edition 2𝑛12 ∆
 Condition for step index fiber Condition for graded index fiber

Index profile for graded index fiber:

Index profile for step index fiber: 𝑟
n(r) = n1 r<a (core) n1 √(1− 2∆ ( 𝑎)𝛼 ) r<a (core)
n(r) =
n2 r≥a (cladding) n1 √(1− 2∆) = 𝑛2 r ≥ a (cladding)
The total number of guided modes or mode volume 𝑀𝑠 for The total number of guided modes or mode volume 𝑀𝑠 for a graded
a step index fiber: index fiber:
𝛼 𝑉2
𝑉2 𝑀𝑔 = ( )
𝑀𝑠 = 𝛼+2 2
2 For a parabolic refractive index profile core fiber (𝛼 = 2),
𝑉2
𝑀𝑔 = 4
Parabolic refractive index profile 𝛼 = 2
Trigonometric refractive index profile 𝛼 = 1
Step index refractive index profile 𝛼 = ∞

Condition for single mode step index fiber Mathematical analysis

Single-mode propagation of the LP01 mode in step index

fibers is possible over the range:
0 ≤ V < 2.405 Example 2.1, 2.3 to 2.8
So, 𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 2.405 Ref. Book: Optical Fiber Communications – John
Normalized Frequency,
2𝜋 2𝜋 1
M. Senior, PHI, 3rd Edition.
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎 𝑁𝐴 = 𝑎𝑛1 2∆ 2
𝜆𝑐𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓𝑓 𝜆
  Class Test - 02
Transmission impairments: fiber
loss, chromatic dispersion in a fiber,
polarization mode dispersion (PMD).

Source of Losses in Silica OF Source of Losses in Silica OF

Intrinsic absorption loss mechanisms are:
Losses in silica fiber are mainly occur due to two  Material absorption:
mechanisms: The atomic bonds associated with the core material absorb the
longer wavelength light (Si-O; 9.2 m, Ge-O; 11.0 m; P-O; 8.1;m)
 Electron absorption:
 Intrinsic absorption mechanism (due to In the ultraviolet region, light is absorbed in order to excite the
characteristic of glass fiber) electron in a core atoms to a higher energy state.
 Extrinsic absorption mechanism (due to impurities:  Rayleigh scattering:
such as OH bonds and transition metal ions (iron, Due to small irregularities in the structure of the fiber core, which
are caused by density fluctuations into the glass material at
cobalt, copper etc.)) manufacture. This loss reduces with forth power of  (~ -4).
Attenuation wavelength Ch. Of Glass fiber Attenuation wavelength Ch. Of
Glass fiber

Fiber Transmission Windows Fiber bending and micro bending

(Bands)
 Critical bending radius for MM Other scattering losses
and SM fiber
Mie scattering:
Large bending losses
For MM fiber occur in SM fiber at Due to imperfections such as irregularities in core-cladding
critical bending radius
3n1 interface, core-cladding refractive index differences along
Rc  20   the fiber length, diameter fluctuations, strains, and bubbles
 
3 Rcs   2.748  0.996 
4 n1  n
2 3
c 
(n1  n2 ) 
2 2
2
Stimulated Brilloiun Scattering:
Bending losses may reduce:
Bending radius may reduce in Shift in incident light frequency in the acoustic range due to
- Large refractive index difference SM fiber if operating wavelength scattering process, which causes reversal of propagation
- Operating at shorter wavelength becomes shorter for a fixed c direction
and n
Stimulated Raman Scattering:
The cutoff wavelength is the shortest wavelength at which the fiber will be single- Shift in incident light frequency in the optical range causes
moded. Wavelengths shorter than the cutoff will travel in multiple modes whereas attenuation
wavelengths longer than the cutoff will travel in a single mode.

Problems:
P 
Dispersion
Attenuation in decibels (dB) dB  10 log 10  in 
 Pout 
1  Pin  Dispersion of the transmitted optical signal causes
In OFC attenuation is usually expressed in dB/Km  dB  10 log 10  
distortion for both digital and analog transmission
L  Pout 
Example 3.3: When the mean optical power launched into an 8 Km length of fiber is 120 W, along optical fibers.
the mean optical power at the fiber out is 3 W.
Determine:
Types of dispersion:
a) the overall signal attenuation in dB through the fiber assuming there are no connectors or
splices; • Chromatic or intramodal dispersion
b) The signal attenuation/Km for the fiber Material Dispersion
c) The overall signal attenuation for 10 Km optical link using the same fiber with splices at Waveguide Dispersion
1 Km intervals, each giving an attenuation of 1 dB; • Intermodal dispersion or Modal Dispersion
d) The numerical input/out power ratio in (c).

Example 3.1, 3.3 Senior, self study

 Material Dispersion
• Chromatic or intramodal dispersion
Material Dispersion
Chromatic or intramodal dispersion may occur in all types
of optical fiber and results from the finite spectral For glass material n(), i.e, n changes with  or frequency
linewidth of the optical source. Since optical sources do Velocity of electromagnetic wave in any medium = c/n
not emit just a single frequency but a band of frequencies Changing optical path length due to a changing refractive index n1
then there may be propagation delay differences between
the different spectral components of the transmitted I
signal. This causes broadening of each transmitted mode n2
f1
and hence intramodal dispersion. The delay differences n1
may be caused by the dispersive properties of the
waveguide material (material dispersion) and also t f2 Output
Input wave
guidance effects within the fiber structure (waveguide wave
dispersion) .

Mathematical Expression of Material Dispersion Mathematical Expression of Material

Dispersion
If  is the difference in propagation time between two
sidebands then
1 d d 2 d 2 d  n  2 d  n 
d           
   v g d d 2c d 2c d  c  c d   
d 
1 2
where  is the wavelength difference  = 1-2 2
d  1 
d n
2
For free space 
All optical Dmat  0
Dmat is the material dispersion coefficient then signals d  vg 
 c d2 2n
For any medium with n, 
d d  1 

consist of a 
Dmat  
d d  v g 

range of  n 2c
wavelengths Again   
where  =1/vg for a unit fiber length 1 1 dn  N g vp c 
 n   
vg c  d  c
 Single mode propagation Waveguide Dispersion

 Changing optical path length due to traveling the light wave in the core and
The RI experienced by the cladding with different phase constant, which can be changed by θi
wave is an average of the RI of
core and cladding depending on
the relative proportion of the
wave that travels there. Thus With different θi
the wave confined within the I
core, “see” a higher RI than
that of the cladding. Therefore, θi
wave in the core tend to travel θi
more slowly than that of
cladding. Thus signals are t
Input light
dispersed (because every signal
consists of a range of wave
wavelengths)

Waveguide Dispersion
Fiber modes
When light travels on a multimode fiber it is limited to a
relatively small number of possible paths (called modes).
Transit time per unit length of source linewidth
Core dia. large than  of
light
d 1x 2
1x      d  2n cos i 
2
d
  
d 2c d 2c d   

Core dia. large than  of

 dn  n d
  cos  i n      cos  i  light
 d  c d

Core dia. comparable than  of

GVD=c= mat + wg light
 Modal Dispersion Modal Dispersion
2
LN g1
I θi =c Substituting Eq.(ii) into Eq.(iii) we have Tmax 
θi=900 n2 cN g 2

θ c The difference in arrival time between the Ray1 and Ray2 is

θa Ray1(axial n1
t L ) Ray2 2
Input light
wave
Ts  Tmax  Tmin 
LN g1

LN g1

LN g1
N g1  Ng2 
cN g 2 c cN g 2
Time taken by the ray1 (axial) to travel fiber length L will be
Tmin Tmin 
dis tan ce

L

LN g1 If we take Ng1/n1≈Ng2/n2 then dispersion per unit length
velocity c N g1 c
………
….(i) Ts N g1 N g1 N g1
Ray2 will take maximum time to travel fiber length L,  ( N g1  N g 2 )  (n1  n2 )  n
L cN g 2 cn2 cn2
Tmax dis tan ce L cos  LN g1
Tmax    …………
velocity c N g1 c cos  N g1
.(ii)
n2 Modal dispersion per unit length  mod  n
Using Snell’s law sin c   cos  ………… cn2
n1
.(iii) Modal dispersion is very sensitive for MM step index fiber

Effect of Dispersion on OFC Wavelength dependence of Ng and n

Short length fiber
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1
n2
n1

t t
Input pulse Output pulse
L1

1 0 1 1 Long length fiber

n2

n1
Input pulse
L2
No zero level Indistinguishable pulse

Intersymbol
Interference
Output pulse
t
 Polarization mode dispersion

Polarization mode dispersion (PMD) is a source of

pulse broadening which results from fiber
birefringence and it can become a limiting factor for Different types of fibers: DSF, DCF,
optical fiber communications at high transmission
rates. It is a random effect due to both intrinsic
Dispersion compensation schemes
(caused by noncircular fiber core geometry and
residual stresses in the glass material near the core
region) and extrinsic (caused by stress from
mechanical loading, bending or twisting of the fiber)
factors which in actual manufactured fibers result in
group velocity variation with polarization state.

DSF DCF

Dispersion-shifted fiber (DSF) is a type of optical fiber made to optimize both low
dispersion and low attenuation. A Dispersion Compensation Module (also called a
Dispersion Compensation Fiber (DCF)) provides
fixed chromatic dispersion compensation for diverse
and disaster recovery DWDM networks.
Dispersion Shifted Fiber is a type of single-mode optical fiber with a core-clad index This can support medium to long distance fiber optic
profile tailored to shift the zero-dispersion wavelength from the natural 1300 nm in silica-
glass fibers to the minimum-loss window at 1550 nm. The group velocity or intramodal
systems ranging from 30 km to 600 km.
dispersion which dominates in single-mode fibers includes both material and waveguide
dispersion. Waveguide dispersion can be made more negative by changing the index
profile and thus be used to offset the fixed material dispersion, shifting or flattening the
overall intramodal dispersion. This is advantageous because it allows a communication
system to possess both low dispersion and low attenuation. However, when used in
wavelength division multiplexing systems, dispersion-shifted fibers can suffer from four-
wave mixing which causes intermodulation of the independent signals. As a result,
nonzero dispersion shifted fiber is often used.
 DCF

Double-clad fiber (DCF) is a class of optical fiber with a

structure consisting of three layers of optical material
instead of the usual two. The inner-most layer is called the
core. It is surrounded by the inner cladding, which is Self Study:
surrounded by the outer cladding. The three layers are Dispersion compensation schemes
made of materials with different refractive indices.

Preparation method of Optical Fiber

 Liquid-phase technique

Fiber cabling process  Vapour-phase deposition technique

 Modified chemical vapour deposition (MCVD)

 Plasma-activated chemical vapour deposition (PCVD)

 Fabrication Method
Modified chemical vapour deposition (MCVD)

Fabrication of telecommunication-grade silica fibers involves

two stages. In the first stage a vapor-deposition method is used
to make a cylindrical preform with the desired refractive-index
profile. The preform is typically 1 m long and 2 cm in diameter
and contains core and cladding layers with correct relative
dimensions. In the second stage, the by using a precision-feed
mechanism that preform is drawn into a fiber feeds the preform
into a furnace at the proper speed. To make the preform
commonly used methods are modified chemical-vapor
deposition (MCVD), outside-vapor deposition (OVD), and
vapor-axial deposition (VAD). [Govind P. Agrawal]
Figure 2.21: MCVD process for fiber fabrication [Govind P. Agrawal]

Fiber drawing
Modified chemical vapour deposition (MCVD)
Figure 2.21 shows a schematic diagram of the MCVD process. In this process,
successive layers of SiO2 are deposited on the inside of a fused silica tube by mixing
the vapors of SiCl4 and O2 at a temperature of about 1800◦C. To ensure uniformity, a
multiburner torch is moved back and forth across the tube length using an automatic
translation stage. The refractive index of the cladding layers is controlled by adding
fluorine to the tube. When a sufficient cladding thickness has been deposited, the core
is formed by adding the vapors of GeCl4 or POCl3 (Phosphoryl Trichloride). These
vapors react with oxygen to form the dopants GeO2 and P2O5:
GeCl4 +O2 → GeO2 +2Cl2,
4POCl3 +3O2 → 2P2O5 +6Cl2.
The flow rate of GeCl4 or POCl3 determines the amount of dopant and the
corresponding increase in the refractive index of the core. A triangular-index core can
be fabricated simply by varying the flow rate from layer to layer. When all layers
forming the core have been deposited, the torch temperature is raised to collapse the
tube into a solid rod of preform. The MCVD process is also known as the inner-vapor-
deposition method, as the core and cladding layers are deposited inside a silica tube.
Figure 2.22: Apparatus used for fiber drawing. [Govind P. Agrawal]
 Fiber drawing
The fiber drawing step is essentially the same irrespective of the process used to
make the preform. Figure 2.22 shows the drawing apparatus schematically. The
preform is fed into a furnace in a controlled manner where it is heated to a
temperature of about 2000◦C. The melted preform is drawn into a fiber by using a
precision-feed mechanism. The fiber diameter is monitored optically by Fiber joints/connectors and
diffracting light emitted by a laser from the fiber. A change in the diameter
changes the diffraction pattern, which in turn changes the photodiode current. couplers
This current change acts as a signal for a servocontrol mechanism that adjusts the
winding rate of the fiber. The fiber diameter can be kept constant to within 0.1%
by this technique. A polymer coating is applied to the fiber during the drawing
step. It serves a dual purpose, as it provides mechanical protection and preserves
the transmission properties of the fiber. The diameter of the coated fiber is
typically 250 µm, although it can be as large as 900 µm when multiple coatings
are used. The tensile strength of the fiber is monitored during its winding on the
drum. The winding rate is typically 0.2–0.5 m/s. Several hours are required to
convert a single preform into a fiber of about 5 km length.

Fiber Connectors Why we need joints

Fiber connectors should have the following properties:  Fiber can only be installed in lengths upto 2Km, for
 The fiber termination, which protects and locates the fiber longer spans a joint is needed.
ends  For the repair of damaged fiber.
 The fiber end alignment to provide optimum optical  For test purpose at terminal equipment.
coupling
 Protect the fiber ends from the environments and provide
 All of the fiber cable in a building cannot be installed
adequate strength at the joint as one continues cable run.
 joints are needed to complete network cabling.
 Temporary access is needed for test purposes.
 Type of fiber connectors Cylindrical ferrule connector

 Cylindrical ferrule connectors

 Bioconical ferrule connectors
 Double eccentric connectors
 Duplex and multiple fiber connectors
 Expanded beam connectors

Double eccentric connector

Bioconical ferrule connector
 Duplex and multiple fiber connector Expanded beam connector

Optical Fiber Lenses Optical Fiber

Graded Index (GRIN) Rod Lens Graded Index (GRIN) Rod Lens
The GRIN-rod lens, which arose from developments on graded index fiber waveguides
An alternative lens geometry to facilitate efficient beam ,comprises a cylindrical glass rod typically 0.2 to 2 mm in diameter
expansion and collimation within expanded beam which exhibits a parabolic refractive index profile with a maximum at the axis similar to
graded index fiber. Light propagation through the lens is determined by the lens
connectors is that of GRIN rod lens. Its diameter varies dimensions and, because refractive index is a wavelength-dependent parameter, by
typically from 0.5 mm to 2 mm the wavelength of the light. The GRIN-rod lens can produce a collimated output beam
with a divergent angle of between 1° and 5° from a light source situated on, or near to,
the opposite lens face.
  10 to 50   10 to 50

GRIN Rod Lens GRIN Rod Lens

 Graded Index (GRIN) Rod Lens Quarter pitch lens
The refractive index variation with radius therefore causes all the input rays to follow
a sinusoidal path through the lens medium. The traversion of one sinusoidal period is
termed one full pitch and GRIN-rod lenses are manufactured with several pitch
lengths.Three major pitch lengths are as follows:

1. The quarter pitch (0.25 pitch) lens, which produces a perfectly collimated output
beam when the input light emanates from a point source on the opposite lens face.
Conversely, the lens focuses an incoming light beam to a point at the center of the
opposite lens face.Thus the focal point of the quarter pitch GRIN-rod lens is
coincident with the lens faces, thus providing efficient direct butted connection to
optical fiber. 0.25P
2. The 0.23 pitch lens is designed such that its focal point lies outside the lens when
a collimated beam is projected on the opposite lens face. It is often employed to
convert the diverging beam from a fiber or laser diode into a collimated beam, as
illustrated in.
3. The 0.29 pitch lens is designed such that both focal points lie just outside the lens
end faces. It is frequently used to convert a diverging beam from a laser diode into a
converging beam. Hence, it proves useful for coupling the output from a laser diode
into an optical fiber, or alternatively for coupling the output from an optical fiber into a 0.25P
photodetector.

0.23 and 0.29 pitch lens Fiber joint loss

 In fiber-fiber connection the optical loss
GRIN
encountered at interface.
 The loss in optical power through a
Fiber
0.23P
connection is defined as

Po is the power emitted from the source fiber

Pi is the power accepted by the connected fiber
GRIN

Source Fiber
0.29P
 Fiber joint loss Reducing Fresnel Loss
 Intrinsic coupling losses are limited by reducing fiber mismatches
between the connected fibers.
 This is done by procuring only fibers that meet stringent geometrical
and optical specifications  To reduce the amount of loss from Fresnel
 Extrinsic coupling losses are limited by proper connection reflection, the air gap can be filled with an index
procedures. matching gel.

 The refractive index of the index matching gel

should match the refractive index of the fiber core.

 Index matching gel reduces the step change in the

refractive index at the fiber interface.

Misalignment losses
Fiber Splice

A permanent joint formed between two individual optical

fibers in the field or factory is known as a FIBER SPLICE.
Used to establish long haul optical fiber links

Two types of splicing:

1. Fusion splicing

2. Mechanical splicing

These losses depends upon the fiber type , core diameter and
the distribution of the optical power.
 Fiber Coupler Multiport Coupler
Multiport optical fiber couplers can also be subdivided into
An optical fiber coupler is a device that distributes light from the following:
a main fiber into one or more branch fibers. The latter case is
more normal and such devices are known as multiport fiber 1. Three- and four-port* couplers, which are used for signal
couplers. Optical fiber couplers are often passive devices in splitting, distribution and combining.
which the power transfer takes place either: 2. Star couplers, which are generally used for distributing a
• through the fiber core cross-section by butt jointing the single input signal to multiple outputs.
fibers or by using some form of imaging optics between 3. Wavelength division multiplexing (WDM) devices, which
the fibers (core interaction type) are a specialized form of coupler designed to permit a number
• through the fiber surface and normal to its axis by of different peak wavelength optical signals to be transmitted
converting the guided core modes to both cladding and in parallel on a single fiber. In this context WDM couplers
refracted modes which then enable the power-sharing either combine the different wavelength optical signal onto
mechanism (surface interaction type) the fiber (i.e. multiplex) or separate the different wavelength
optical signals output from the fiber (i.e. demultiplex).

Fiber Coupler

Mid Term Syllabus ( First slide to Previous slide)

 Types of optical sources

There are three main types of optical light source

are available:
Optical transmitter: LED and laser, Operating
principles, Characteristics and driver circuits  Wide band sources (incandescent lamps)
 Incoherent sources (LEDs)
 Coherent sources (LASERs)

Energy state basic AbsorptionLight

and Emission
Emissionof Radiation
The interaction of light with matter takes place in discrete packets of energy or
quanta, called photons. Furthermore, the quantum theory suggests that atoms exist
only in certain discrete energy states such that absorption and emission of light
causes them to make a transition from one discrete energy state to another. The
frequency of the absorbed or emitted radiation f is related to the difference in energy
E between the higher energy state E2 and the lower energy state E1 by the
expression: E = E2 - E1 = hf
where h = 6.626 × 10-34 J s is Planck’s constant.
 Absorption and Emission of Radiation Absorption and Emission of Radiation
If the photon energy hν of the incident light of frequency ν is about
the same as the energy difference Eg = E2 -E1, the photon is absorbed
by the atom, which ends up in the excited state. Incident light is Initial state Final state
attenuated as a result of many such absorption events occurring inside
the medium. The excited atoms eventually return to their normal Absorption
“ground” state and emit light in the process.
In the case of spontaneous emission, photons are emitted in random
directions with no phase relationship among them. LEDs emit light
through the incoherent process of spontaneous emission.
Stimulated emission, by contrast, is initiated by an existing photon. Spontaneous
The remarkable feature of stimulated emission is that the emitted emission
photon matches the original photon not only in energy (or in
frequency), but also in its other characteristics, such as the direction of
propagation. All lasers, including semiconductor lasers, emit light
Stimulated
through the process of stimulated emission and are said to emit
emission
coherent light.

Population inversion
Under the conditions of thermal equilibrium given by the Boltzmann
distribution (Eq. (6.2)) the lower energy level E1 of the two-level atomic
The LASERs
system contains more atoms than the upper energy level E2. This situation,
which is normal for structures at room temperature, is illustrated in Figure
6.2(a). However, to achieve optical amplification it is necessary to create a
Light Amplification by Stimulated
nonequilibrium distribution of atoms such that the population of the upper Emission of Radiation (LASER)
energy level is greater than that of the lower energy level (i.e. N2 > N1). This
condition, which is known as population inversion, is illustrated in Figure Type of lasers
6.2(b).
In order to achieve population inversion it is necessary to excite atoms into the  Solid state lasers
upper energy level E2 and hence obtain a nonequilibrium distribution. This
process is achieved using an external energy source and is referred to as
 Semiconductor lasers
‘pumping’. A common method used for pumping involves the application of  Gas lasers
intense radiation (e.g. from an optical flash tube or high-frequency radio field).
In the former case atoms are excited into the higher energy state through  Dye lasers
stimulated absorption.
 Basic construction of Laser The light emitting diodes

Photon A forward-biased p–n junction emits light through spontaneous emission, a

Mirror with Mirror with
multiplication phenomenon referred to as electroluminescence. In its simplest form, an LED
100% partially
is a forward biased p–n homojunction. Radiative recombination of electron
reflective reflective
hole pairs in the depletion region generates light; some of it escapes from the
Amplified device and can be coupled into an optical fiber. The emitted light is incoherent
light !! with a relatively wide spectral width (30–60 nm) and a relatively large angular
Gain medium spread.

Initial
Laser pump
state
Energy to create non
equilibrium state

The light emitting diodes The light emitting diodes

Drawbacks of LEDs: Merits of LEDS:

• Lower optical power (microwatts) • Simpler fabrication
• Lower modulation bandwidth • Low cost
• Harmonic distortion • Reliability
• Generally less temperature dependence
• Simpler drive circuitry
• Linearity
 LED structures Double Heterojunction LED

p-type
epitaxial Light output
layer
n-type

n-type substrate

p-type Ohmic contact

Planar LED Ohmic

Dome LED contacts

Surface emitting LED Surface emitting LED

The LED structures can be classified as surface-emitting or edge-emitting, depending on
whether the LED emits light from a surface that is parallel to the junction plane or from
the edge of the junction region. Both types can be made using either a p–n homojunction
or a heterostructure design in which the active region is surrounded by p- and n-type
cladding layers. The heterostructure design leads to superior performance, as it provides a
control over the emissive area and eliminates internal absorption because of the
transparent cladding layers. Figure 3.8 shows schematically a surface emitting LED
design referred to as the urrus-type LED [22]. The emissive area of the device is limited
to a small region whose lateral dimension is comparable to the fiber-core diameter. The
use of a gold stud avoids power loss from the back surface. The coupling efficiency is
improved by etching a well and bringing the fiber close to the emissive area. The power
coupled into the fiber depends on many parameters, such as the numerical aperture of the
fiber and the distance between fiber and LED. The addition of epoxy in the etched well
tends to increase the external quantum efficiency as it reduces the refractive-index
mismatch. Several variations of the basic design exist in the literature. In one variation, a
truncated spherical microlens fabricated inside the etched well is used to couple light into
the fiber [23]. In another variation, the fiber end is itself formed in the form of a spherical
lens [24]. With a proper design, surface-emitting LEDs can couple up to 1% of the
internally generated power into an optical fiber.
 Edge emitting LED LASER or LED as light source?
Semiconductor lasers emit light through stimulated emission. As a result of
the fundamental differences between spontaneous and stimulated emission,
they are not only capable of emitting high powers (∼ 100 mW), but also
have other advantages related to the coherent nature of emitted light. A
relatively narrow angular spread of the output beam compared with LEDs
permits high coupling efficiency (∼ 50%) into single-mode fibers. A
relatively narrow spectral width of emitted light allows operation at high bit
rates (∼ 10 Gb/s), since fiber dispersion becomes less critical for such an
optical source. Furthermore, semiconductor lasers can be modulated
directly at high frequencies (up to 25 GHz) because of a short
recombination time associated with stimulated emission. Most fiber-optic
communication systems use semiconductor lasers as an optical source
because of their superior performance compared with LEDs.

Electrical bandwidth Optical bandwidth

Electrical bandwidth: The ratio of the electrical power output (at the Optical bandwidth: The ratio of the optical power output (received
detector) to the electrical input power at the detector) to the electrical input power (transmitted at the source)
electrical power output(det ector) optical power out (received at det ector)
RE dB  10 log 10 ROdB  10 log 10
electrical power input ( source) optical power in (transmitted at source)
2
I out Rout
RE dB  10 log 10
I 
2
I in Rin
ROdB  10 log 10  out 
I 
2
Electrical 3 dB point occur when Optical 3 dB point occur when
 I in 
RE dB  10 log 10  out 
 I in  2
 I out  1
 I out  1  I out  1
   , or    
 I in  2  I in  2  in  2
I
Example: 7.7 (self study)
 Modulation bandwidth Transmitter
Although an optical source is a major component of optical transmitters, it is not the only
component. Other components include a modulator for converting electrical data into
optical form (if direct modulation is not used) and an electrical driving circuit for
supplying current to the optical source. An external modulator is often used in practice at
bit rates of 10 Gb/s or more for avoiding the chirp that is invariably imposed on the
Iout/Iin directly modulated signal.
Electrical 3 dB point

0.707 Optical 3 dB point

0.50

Frequency
Electrical BW
Optical BW

Driving Circuit Driving Circuit

The purpose of driving circuitry is to provide electrical power to the optical source and to
modulate the light output in accordance with the signal that is to be transmitted. Driving
circuits are relatively simple for LED transmitters but become increasingly complicated for
high-bit-rate optical transmitters employing semiconductor lasers as an optical source
Figure 3.26 shows a simple driving circuit that controls the average optical power through
a feedback mechanism. A photodiode monitors the laser output and generates the control
signal that is used to adjust the laser bias level. The rear facet of the laser is generally used
for the monitoring purpose (see Fig. 3.25). In some transmitters a front-end tap is used to
divert a small fraction of the output power to the detector. The bias-level control is
essential, since the laser threshold is sensitive to the operating temperature. The threshold
current also increases with aging of the transmitter because of gradual degradation of the
semiconductor laser. The driving circuit shown in Fig. 3.26 adjusts the bias level
dynamically but leaves the modulation current unchanged. Such an approach is acceptable
if the slope efficiency of the laser does not change with aging. As discussed in Section
3.5.1 and seen in Fig. 3.20, the slope efficiency of the laser generally decreases with an
increase in temperature. A thermoelectric cooler is often used to stabilize the laser
temperature. An alternative approach consists of designing driving circuits that use dual-
loop feedback circuits and adjust both the bias current and the modulation current
automatically.
 What is photodetector
Optical receivers: PN, PIN and APD
detectors, Noise at the receiver, SNR and The detector is an essential component of an
BER calculation, Receiver sensitivity optical fiber communication system and is one of
calculation. the crucial elements which dictate the overall
system performance. Its function is to
Photodetector is an important elements in OFC,
which converts optical signal into electrical form.

Characteristics of photodetector Photodetector types

 High sensitivity at the operating wavelength

 High fidelity Photo-
detectors
 Short response time to obtain a suitable
bandwidth Photomulti- Vacuum
plier Photo- pn-PD P-i-N PD APD
 Noise should be minimum tubes diodes

 Stability of performance characteristics

 Small size
PD used in OFC
 Low cost
 V-I characteristics of PD Photodetection principles
I
Photovoltaic
Photoconductive
mode
mode
- p n +
Region 2 Region 1 hf >Eg
Eg
V

Increasing
optical
Region 3 power

Photon absorption in intrinsic

material Absorption coefficient
Absorption coefficient is a measure of how good the material is
E2 To excite an electron incident for absorbing light of a certain wavelength
photon should have energy
hf >E2 – E1 The photo current Ip produce by
E2 - E1 hc hc
0   incident light of optical power P0
E2  E1 E d
E1 P0 e(1  r )
Ip  1  exp(d )
hf
e : Electronic charge
r : Fresnel reflection coefficient
 Absorption coefficient of
various materials Quantum efficiency
The quantum efficiency n is defined as the fraction of incident photons
which are absorbed by the photodetector and generated electrons which
are collected at the detector terminal

n = Number of electrons collected/ Number of incident photons

re
 rp: Incident photon rate
re: Corresponding electron rate
rp

Relationship between Wavelength dependence of

responsivity and n responsivity
Ip
The responsivity R of a photodetector is defined as R ( AW 1 ) Responsivity (A/W)
P0
where Ip: Photocurrent, P0: Incident optical power

The incident photon rate rp in terms of optical power and 0.88 Ideal Si PD
photon energy can be written as
P Typical PD
r 
p
0
hf 0.44
P0
Electron rate can be defined as re  rp 
hf
P0 e e e
Thus R 
Output photocurrent is: Ip  hf hc Exp. 8.1, 8.2
0.5 1.0 c
hf J. Senior
 Output Ch. of a typical p-n
p-n photodiodes photodiodes
hf Current A High light level
E-Field

p 800

Depletion
region 600
Absorption
region
n 400
Low light level
Diffusion region
200
Dark current (no light)
Load
x Reverse bias (V)
10 20 30 40

p-i-n Photodiode p-i-n photodiode structures

hf E-Field
Front illuminated Si PD Side illuminated Si PD
p
Antireflection
Metal contact hf Metal contact
coating
Depletion region

i p+
Absorption region P+
SiO2 i i
Depletion layer n+
n
Load n+ Antireflection Reflection
x coating coating
 Speed of response of PD Speed of response of PD
w
There are three main factors that limit the Drift time of carriers through the depletion region: t drift 
speed of response of a PD vd
 Drift time of carrier (depletion region) w : width of depletion region For electric field 2x104 v/cm, vd=107cm/s,
 Diffusion time of carriers (outside of vd : drift velocity tdrift=0.1 ns when w=10 micron
depletion region)
d2
 Transition capacitance Diffusion time of carriers outside the depletion region: t difft 
2 Dc
d : carriers diffusion distance For 10 m diffusion distance, hole
diffusion time 40 ns whereas electron
Dc : diffusion coefficient
diffusion time is only 8 ns

PD response to a rectangular
Speed of response of PD input pulse
Low C and
Time constant incurred by the capacitance of the PD with its load:
W>>1/s
Large C
A
Cj  - +
w - +
- +
To maximize the speed of response, the transit time need to minimize by
Increasing bias voltage P n P n P n
Decreasing layer thickness
Narrow W
Increasing bias voltage resulting to increase drift speed, which lead to W W
reduce drift time. Further depletion layer thickness may increase with
bias voltage
Quantum efficiency will fall with decreasing layer thickness, w. It also
increase junction capacitance, which lead to rise RC time constant. Thus
device speed will slowdown
Avalanche photodiodes Silicon reach through APD
n+
hf E-field
E-field
n
Gain region p
p
Gain region
50m 
Absorption
region
i Absorption
region p+

p+ When reverse biased voltage is 10% less of the avalanche breakdown

Load limit, the depletion layer reaches through to the  region

APD response time APD responsivity

Ip
APD response time is limited by: Responsivity for p-i-n PD R ( AW 1 )
P0
 Transit time of the carrier across the MI p
absorption region Responsivity for APD PD R ( AW 1 ) M: APD gain
P0
 Time taken for avalanche multiplication e e
 RC time constant Responsivity for p-i-n PD R 
hf hc
Me
Responsivity for APD PD R
hc
 Basic structure of an optical Sources of noise in an optical
receiver receiver
Photodetector
Electrical
Optical Optical Amplifier
signal
signal signal
Photo- Avalanche Detector Electronic
PD
Electrical detection gain load bias gain
signal

Noise Noise Noise Noise

Excess noise due Thermal • Thermal noise
Preamplifier Post-amplifier Pre-detection • Quantum shot
to random gain • Device (active
filter
• Dark current mechanisms element)
• Surface leakage
• Surface leakage
currents

Signal to noise ratio of p-i-n

Photodetector noises PD
2
S Is
 2
 in  in  in
2 2 2 2
 2qI DB Beq  2qI DS Beq  in
2
in N in
Q c
PD Q DB DS
Beq: Noise equivalent bandwidth
IDB: Bulk leakage current
in
2 : Due to quanta of light generating packets IDS: Surface leakage current
Q of electron-hole pairs
2 2
Is Is
S/N for shot noise S
 2 
in
2 : Due to thermally generated dark currents limited condition: 2
N in 2q I s Beq
DB occurring in the PD bulk material Q
2 2
Is I s RL
2 : Due to surface leakage currents S/N for thermal noise S
 2 
in limited condition: N 4 KTBeq
DS ith
c
 Signal to noise ratio of APD PD APD Noise
1 k
2
S Is M 2
 M
N 2q I s M 2 F ( M ) Beq  2qI DB M 2 F ( M ) Beq  2qI DS Beq  in 2 exp( (1  k ) eW )  k
c

M: Multiplication factor, K:e/h

F(M): Excess noise factor due to random fluctuation of APD gain
e: Electron ionization coefficient
Is M 2
2 h: Hole ionization coefficient
S/N for shot noise S Is 2
 2 
limited condition: N in
2
2q I s M 2 F ( M ) Beq F(M) can be approximated by:
Q

F (M )  M x
2
S/N for thermal noise S Is M 2
limited condition:

N ith
2
x : is an empirical constant which is less than 1
c

APD Noise Signal to noise ratio of APD PD

F(M) depends on the value of K and type of carrier
undergoing multiplication
2
Is 2 Is M 2
S/N for shot noise S
 2 
KM e  (1  K )( 2 M e  1) limited condition: N in
2
2q I s M 2 F ( M ) Beq
Fe ( M )  Q
Me
2
S/N for thermal noise S Is M 2
KM h  (1  1 K )( 2 M h  1) 
Fh ( M )  limited condition: N ith
2
Mh c

For Si APD with M=100 and K=0.02, Fe(M) ~ 4 RL R 2 Pin

2
S/N for thermal noise S SRL
 
For Ge APD with M=20 and K=0.5 gives Fe(M) ~ 11 limited condition: N 4 KTFn Beq 4 KTFn Beq