Grade 07:

Mathematics
Chapter Notes
 Contents

Sr. No. Chapter Page No.

1 Integers 1

2 Simple Equations 12
The Triangle and Its
3 Properties
20

4 Comparing Quantities 28

5 Rational Numbers 38

6 Perimeter and Area 50

7 Fractions and Decimals 58

8 Data Handling 68

9 Lines and Angles 79

10 Algebraic Expressions 95

11 Exponents and Powers 109

12 Symmetry 117

13 Visualising Solid Shapes 124

Class Notes

Integers

Grade 07

1
 Topics to be Covered

1. Introduction
1. Introduction

• 1.1. Integers
2. Addition and Subtraction of
• 1.2. Integers on the number 1. Introduction
Integers
line

3. Properties of Addition and

Subtraction of Integers

• 3.1. Closure under Addition

• 3.2. Closure under Subtraction 4. Multiplication of Integers
• 3.3. Commutative Property
• 3.4. Associative Property • 4.1. Multiplication of a Positive
• 3.5. Additive Identity and a Negative Integer

• 3.6. Additive Inverse • 4.2. Multiplication of two

Negative Integers

5. Properties of Multiplication of • 4.3. Product of three or more

Integers Negative Integers

• 5.1. Closure under Multiplication

• 5.2. Commutativity of Multiplication 6. Division of Integers
• 5.3. Multiplication by Zero
• 5.4. Multiplicative Identity • 6.1. Rules of division of
integers
• 5.5. Associativity for Multiplication
• 6.2. Properties of division of
• 5.6. Distributive Property
integers

2
 1. Introduction

1.1. Integers

Integers are the collection of whole numbers and negative

numbers. They can be positive, negative or zero.

1.2. Integers on the Number Line

-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Negative numbers Whole numbers

Integers

To subtract integers on the number line, we move to the left.

To add integers on the number line, we move to the right.

3
 2. Addition and Subtraction of Integers

• While adding or subtracting integers we need to check

the signs of the integers involved in the operation.

• We need to open the brackets by changing the signs

and the solve the integer operation.

While opening the brackets the sign changes as follows:

+ (+) = +
+ (–) = –
– (+) = –
– (–) = +

Some of the examples to illustrate this are as follows:

Addition

4+3=7 4 + (−3) = 4 − 3 = 1

−4 + (−3) = −4 – 3 = − 7 −4 + 3 = − 1

Subtraction

−4 − (−3) = −4 + 3 = −1 4 − (−3) = 4 + 3 = 7

−4 − (+3) = −4 – 3 = − 7 4 − (+3) = 4 – 3 = 1

4
 3. Properties of Addition and
Subtraction of Integers

3.1. Closure under Addition

Integers are closed for addition. If a and b are integers,

then a + b is also an integer.

7 + 1 = 8, which is an integer

3.2. Closure under Subtraction

Integers are closed for subtraction. If a and b are

integers, then a − b is also an integer.

7 – 9 = –2, which is an integer

3.3. Commutative Property

The result of the addition of two integers is always the

same regardless of their order. Addition is
commutative for integers, but subtraction is not
commutative.
a+b=b+a

a-b≠b-a

Example: 5 + (– 6) = –1 = (– 6) + 5
Subtraction is not commutative for integers.
Example:
5 – ( –3) = 5 + 3 = 8 but (–3) – 5 = – 3 – 5 = – 8

5
 3. Properties of Addition and
Subtraction of Integers

3.4. Associative Property

It is the property of numbers which states that the way in
which three or more numbers are grouped does not
change the sum of these numbers.
The associative property holds true for only addition.
It does not hold true for subtraction.

a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c

a − (b − c) ≠ (a − b) − c

For example:
(–5) + [(–3) + (–2)] = [(–5) + (–3)] + (–2)
(–5) – [(–3) – (–2)] ≠ [(–5) – (–3)] – (–2)

3.5. Additive Identity

The property states that when a number is added to zero

it will give the same number. Zero is called the identity
element (also known as additive identity).

a+0=a=0+a

3.6. Additive Inverse

An additive inverse of a number is defined as the value,
which on adding to the original number results in zero.

a + (-a) = 0

Here, -a is the additive inverse of a.

6
 4. Multiplication of Integers

4.1. Multiplication of a Positive

and a Negative Integer
Multiplication of one positive and one negative integer
gives the result as a negative integer.

a × (–b) = (–a) × b = –(a × b)

For example: 3 × (–4) = –12 which is a negative integer.

4.2. Multiplication of two

Negative Integers

Multiplication of two negative integers gives the result

as a positive integer.

(– a) × (– b) = a × b

For example: (–10) × (–12) = +120 = 120

4.3. Product of three or more

Negative Integers
Multiplication of even numbers of negative integers
gives a positive integer.

(– a) × (– b) × (– c) = Negative Integer

For example: (–1) × (–1) × (–1) = −1 (Negative)

Multiplication of odd numbers of negative integers gives

a negative integer.
(– a) × (– b) = Positive Integer

For example: (–1) × (–1) = 1

7
5. Properties of Multiplication of Integers

5.1. Closure under Multiplication

When two integers are multiplied, the result is also an
integer. Thus, integers are closed under multiplication.

If a and b are integers, then

a × b is also an integer.

For example: (–20) × (–5) = 100, which is an integer.

5.2. Commutative Property

The result of the multiplication of two integers is always

the same regardless of their order. This property is called
commutative property.
Multiplication is commutative for integers.

a×b=b×a

For example: 3 × (–4) = –12 = (–4) × 3

5.3. Multiplication by Zero

The product of an integer and zero is zero.

a×0=0×a=0

For example: (–3) × 0 = 0

8
5. Properties of Multiplication of Integers

5.4. Multiplicative Identity

1 is the multiplicative identity for integers.

a×1=1×a=a

Example: (–3) × 1 = –3
1×5=5

5.5. Associativity for Multiplication

The associative property states that the product of

three or more numbers does not change if they are
grouped in a different way.

(a × b) × c = a × (b × c)

Example: [(–3) × (–2)] × 5 = (–3) × [(–2) × 5]

5.6. Distributive Property

The distributive property holds true for multiplication over

addition and subtraction.
It states that for any three integers a, b and c:

a × (b + c) = a × b + a × c

a × (b − c) = a × b − a × c

Example:
(– 8) × [(–2) + (–1)] = [(– 8) × (–2)] + [(– 8) × (–1)]

9
 6. Division of Integers

6.1. Rules of Division of Integers

1. When we divide a negative integer by a positive

integer, we divide them as whole numbers and then put
a minus sign (–) before the quotient.

(–a) ÷ b = – (a ÷ b), where b ≠ 0

Example: (–12) ÷ 3 = −(12 ÷ 3) = −4

2. When we divide a positive integer by a negative

integer, we first divide them as whole numbers and then
put a minus sign (–) before the quotient.

a ÷ (–b) = (–a) ÷ b = – (a ÷ b), where b ≠ 0

Example: 12 ÷ (–3) = (–12) ÷ 3 = – (12 ÷ 3) = −4

3. When we divide a negative integer by a negative

integer, we first divide them as whole numbers and then
put a positive sign (+).

(– a) ÷ (– b) = a ÷ b, where b ≠ 0

Example: (– 12) ÷ (– 3) = 12 ÷ 3 = 4

10
 6. Division of Integers

6.2. Properties of Division of

Integers

1. The closure property does not hold for division of

integers.

3 ÷ 4 = 0.75, which is not an integer

2. Commutative property does not hold for division of

integers.

3÷4≠4÷3

3. Associative property does not hold for division of

integers.

(12 ÷ 3) ÷ 4 ≠ 12 ÷ (3 ÷ 4)

4. For any integer a,

(a) a ÷ 0 is not defined

(b) a ÷ 1 = a

11
 Class Notes

Simple Equations

Grade 07

12
 Topics to be Covered

1. Introduction

1.1 Constant
1.2 Variable
1.3 Algebraic Expression
1.4 Equation

2. Solving an Equation

3.1 Trial and Error Method

3.2 Balance Method
3.3 Transposition Method 3. Framing Equation
from Solution

4. Application of
Simple Equation

13
 1. Introduction

1.1. Constant

A constant has a fixed numerical value, and its

value does not change in any situation.

For example : 5, 2775, 1098 etc.

1.2. Variable

A variable is denoted by any alphabets and its

value is not fixed.

For example : 𝑎, 𝑛, 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧 etc.

1.3. Algebraic Expression

An algebraic expression is a combination of

variables and constants connected with a
mathematical operator.

For example : 8𝑥 + 31

14
 1. Introduction

1.4. Equation

An equation is a mathematical statement that

establishes equality between two expressions.

For example : 4𝑥 + 31 = 9

Equate both the

sides

𝟒𝒙 + 𝟑𝟏 = 𝟗

Expression 1 Expression 2
Left Hand Side Right Hand Side
(L.H.S) (R.H.S)

15
 2. Solving an Equation

2.1. Trial and Error Method

Substitute any random value for the variable in the

equation, and check if L.H.S = R.H.S or not.

For example : 2𝑥 − 5 = 3
Checking for some random values of 𝑥

𝑥 𝟐𝒙 − 𝟓 = 𝟑
2 2(2) − 5 ≠ 3
3 2(3) − 5 ≠ 3
4 2 4 −5=3
Since, for 𝑥 = 4, L.H.S = R.H.S, the solution to the
given equation is 𝑥 = 4.

2.2. Balancing Method

𝒙+𝒂 𝒃 𝒙 𝒃−𝒂

Subtracting 𝑎

from both sides

To solve equation by balancing method, perform the same

mathematical operations on both sides of the equation,
so that the balance is not disturbed.

16
 2. Solving an Equation

2.3. Transposition Method

Rules of transposition of algebraic operators

L.H.S R.H.S
+ ⇌ −
− ⇌ +
× ⇌ ÷
÷ ⇌ ×

Solution of an equation can be done by transposition

method using the following steps:

Step 1: Transpose all the variables to one side and

all the constants to the other side of the
equation.

Step 2: Simplify the expression and solve for the variable.

𝟐𝒙 + 𝟑 = 𝟗
⇒ 𝟐𝒙 = 𝟗 − 𝟑
⇒ 𝟐𝒙 = 𝟔

÷
𝟔
⇒𝒙=
𝟐

⇒𝒙=𝟑

17
 3. Framing Equation from Solution

An equation from a solution can be made using the

following steps

𝑥=5

Multiply both sides by 4

4𝑥 = 20

Subtract 3 from both sides

𝟒𝒙 − 𝟑 = 𝟏𝟕

Given an equation, one gets one solution; but

given a solution, one can make many equations.

18
 4. Application of Simple Equation

A simple equation can be used to solve practical Problems of

our daily lives.

Make sure to follow the given steps to solve such problems.

Step 1 : Read the given statements thoroughly and note

down the given information.

Step 2 : Frame the equation with the given information and

solve the equation using any methods.

Example: Raju’s father’s age is 5 years more than 3

times Raju’s age. Find Raju’s age, if his father is 44
years old.

Solution: Given that,

• Raju’s father’s age is 5 years more than 3 times Raju’s age.

• Raju’s father’s age is 44 years.

Step 1 : Form an equation

Let Raju’s age be 𝑥 years

The equation that gives Raju’s age is 3𝑥 + 5 = 44

Step 2 : Solving the equation using transposition method

• First transpose 5 to get 3𝑥 = 44 − 5 = 39

• Dividing both sides by 3, we get 𝑥 = 13

Hence, Raju’s age is 13 years.

19
 Class Notes

The Triangle and its

Properties
Grade 07

20
 Topics to be Covered

1. Introduction

2. Median

3. Altitude

4. Angle Properties
• Exterior angle property
• Angle sum property
5. Triangle
Inequalities

6. Special Triangles
• Equilateral triangle
• Isosceles triangle
• Right-angled triangle

21
 1. Introduction

A triangle is a simple closed curve made of three line

segments.
• It has three vertices, three sides and three angles.

B C
In ∆ABC:
• Sides: AB, BC, CA
• Angles: ∠ABC, ∠BCA, ∠CAB
• Vertices: A, B, C

2. Median

A median of a triangle is a line segment that joins a vertex

to the mid-point of the side that is opposite to that vertex.
• A triangles has only 3 medians, which always intersect
at point called the centroid.
A

F
E
O
B D C
In ∆ABC:
• AD is the median that bisects BC.
• BE is the median that bisects AC.
• CF is the median that bisects AB.
• O is the centroid.

22
 3. Altitude

An altitude of a triangle is a line segment that starts from

the vertex and meets the opposite side at right angles.
• The altitude is the shortest distance from the vertex to
its opposite side.
• Every triangle has 3 altitudes, one from each vertex.
• The 3 altitudes always meet at a single point, no
matter what the shape of the triangle is, called the
orthocentre.

O E

B C
D

In ∆ABC:
• AD is the altitude to side BC.
• BE is the altitude to side AC.
• CF is the altitude to side AB.
• O is the orthocentre.

23
 4. Angle Properties

4.1. Exterior Angle Property

An exterior angle of a triangle is equal to the sum of its
interior opposite angles.
A
E
∠1
∠𝑥
∠2 ∠𝑦
B C D
Consider ∆ABC:
∠ACD is an exterior angle.

To show: 𝑚∠ACD = 𝑚∠A + 𝑚∠B

Construction: Draw a CE parallel to AB
Justification:
• ∠1 = ∠𝑥 [CE ∥ AB and AC is the transversal]
• ∠2 = ∠𝑦 [CE ∥ AB and BD is the transversal]
• ∠1 + ∠2 = ∠𝑥 + ∠𝑦 = 𝑚∠ACD
• Hence, 𝑚∠A + 𝑚∠B = 𝑚∠ACD

4.2. Angle Sum Property

The total measure of the three angles of a triangle is
180°.
A

B C
Consider ∆ABC:
Here, 𝑚∠A + 𝑚∠B + 𝑚∠C = 180°

24
 5. Triangle Inequalities

• The sum of the lengths of any two sides of a triangle is

greater than the length of the third side.
• The difference between the lengths of any two sides of
a triangle is smaller than the length of the third side.

B C

Consider ∆ABC:

• AB + BC > AC
• AC + BC > AB
• AB + AC > BC

• BC - AB < AC
• AC - BC < AB
• AC – AB < BC

25
 6. Special Triangles

6.1. Equilateral Triangle

A triangle in which all the three sides are of equal lengths
is called an equilateral triangle.
A

B C
Consider ∆ABC which is an equilateral triangle:
• AB = BC = CA
• ∠A = ∠B = ∠C = 60°

6.2. Isoceles Triangle

A triangle in which two sides are of equal lengths is called
an isosceles triangle.
P

Q R
Consider ∆PQR which is an equilateral triangle:
• PQ = QR
• ∠Q = ∠R [i.e., base angles opposite to the equal sides
are equal]

26
 6. Special Triangles

6.3. Right-angled Triangle

A triangle in which one of its angle is called a right-angled
triangle.
• The side opposite to the right angle is called the
hypotenuse and the other two sides are known as the
legs of the right-angled triangle.
• In a right-angled triangle, the square on the
hypotenuse = sum of the squares on the legs. This is
known as Pythagoras’ Theorem.
X

Y Z
Consider ∆XYZ which is a right-angled triangle:
• XZ is the hypotenuse
• ∠Y = 90°
• XZ2 = XY2 + YZ2

• In an equilateral triangle the medians and the

altitudes are the same.
• In an isosceles triangle the median from the
vertex joining the two equal sides bisects the base
at 90°.
• In a right-angled triangle the legs of the triangle
are two of the altitudes.

27
 Class Notes

Comparing Quantities

Grade 07

28
 Topics to be Covered

1. Fraction, Ratio and

Proportion
1.1. Fraction
1.2. Ratio
1.3. Proportion

2. Percentage

2.1. Interconversion of
percentage to fractions or
decimals
2.2. Converting percentage to
fractions
2.3. Converting percentages to
decimals
2.2. Converting ratios to 3. Prices Related to
percentages
Buying and Selling
2.3. Converting percentages
to numbers 3.1. Cost price and selling price
2.4. Increase or decrease as 3.2. Discount
percent 3.3. Profit percentage and
loss percentage

4. Interest

4.1. Simple interest

4.2. Amount

29
 1. Fraction, Ratio and
Proportion

1.1. Fraction
𝑎
• Fraction is a part of a whole. It is represented as .
𝑏

1
=
4

1.2. Ratio

• The ratio of two quantities 𝑎 and 𝑏 of the same kind

and the same units is the fraction which is written as
𝑎 : 𝑏, read as ‘𝑎 is to 𝑏’.

Ratio of and =1∶ 4

1.3. Proportion
• When two ratios or fractions are equal, they are said
to be in proportion.
A C
=
B D

A : B :: C : D
A×D=C×B

• When two ratios or fractions are equal, they are also

called equivalent ratios or fractions.

30
 2. Percentage

2.1. Interconversion of percentages

to fractions or decimals
• Percentage is defined as a given part or amount in
every hundred.
For example:

1
1% = 1 out of 100 =
100

• To convert fractions or decimals into percentage

we use the following formula:

Percentage = Fraction or decimal × 100%

Fraction/ Percentage
Percentage
decimal conversion
1 1
× 100% 25%
4 4
0.75 0.75 × 100% 75%

• To convert percentages into fractions or decimals,

we use the following formula:
Percentage
Fraction or decimal =
100

Percent Fraction Decimal

5 1
5% = 0.05
100 20

31
 2. Percentage

2.2. Converting ratios to

percentages
• If ratio of two quantities is 𝑎 : 𝑏 then:

a
Percentage of the first quantity = × 100%
a+b

𝑏
Percentage of the second quantity = × 100%
a+b

For example:
Percentage
Ratio Percentage
conversion
First 1
× 100% 25%
quantity (1 + 3)
1∶3
Second 3 75%
× 100%
quantity (1 + 3)

2.3. Converting percentages to

numbers
𝑥
𝑥% of 𝑦 = 𝑦 ×
100

For example:
Converting to
Students Percent
numbers
55
Boys 55% 800 × = 440
100
800
45
Girls 45% 800 × = 360
100

32
 2. Percentage

2.4. Increase or decrease as

percentage
• To convert the increase or decrease in a certain
quantity as percentage, use the following formula:

Percentage increase or decrease

Amount of increase or decrease
= × 100%
Original amount

For example:
A city population decreased from 25,000 to 24,500.
Decrease in population = 25500 − 24500 = 500

The percentage decrease in population

Decrease in population
= × 100%
Original population

550
= × 100%
25500

= 2%

33
 3. Prices Related to Buying and Selling

3.1. Cost price and selling price

Cost price (C.P.) is the total price, a product cost to the

seller.

Selling price (S.P.) is the price at which a product is sold

to the customer by the seller.

C.P.

Warehouse Seller

S.P.

Seller Customer

34
 3. Prices Related to Buying and Selling

3.2. Discount

• Discount is a reduction given on the marked price (M.P.)

of an article.

• Marked price (M.P.) is the label price on the product.

• Marked price may or may not be equal to the cost price

of the product.
Discount = Marked price − Sale price
Discount
Discount % = × 100%
Marked price

Example: An item is marked at ₹100 and sold at ₹80.

What is discount and discount percent?
Discount = ₹100 – ₹80 = ₹20
20
Discount% = × 100% = 20%
100

3.3. Profit percentage

• The amount gained on cost price by selling a product.

• If the selling price (S.P.) is more than the cost price (C.P.)
of the product, then it is considered as a gain or profit.

• When S.P. > C.P., we have

Profit = S.P. − C.P.

Profit
Profit% = × 100%
Cost price

35
 3. Prices Related to Buying and Selling

3.3. Loss percentage

• The amount lost on cost price by selling a product.

• If the selling price (S.P.) is less than the cost price
(C.P.) of the product, then it is considered as a loss.
• When S.P. < C.P., we have

Loss = C.P. − S.P.

Loss
Loss% = × 100%
Cost price

36
 4. Interest

4.1. Simple interest

• Simple interest is a method to calculate the amount of
interest charged on a sum borrowed or invested at a
given rate and for a given time period.

P×R×T
Simple interest (SI) =
100

• Principal (P): The money that is borrowed or invested.

• Time (T): It is the duration for which the principal is
borrowed or invested.

• Rate (R): It is the rate of interest in % per annum at

which the principal is borrowed or invested.

4.2. Amount

• The amount is the sum of the principal and the interest.

Amount = Principal + Interest

For example:
₹5,000 is borrowed at 15% per year as rate of
interest then the amount paid after 1 year:
Amount = Principal + Interest
15
= ₹5000 + ₹ 100 × 5000
= ₹5750

37
 Class Notes

Rational Numbers
Grade 07

38
 Topics to be Covered

1. Introduction

1.1. Family of Rational

Numbers
2. Rational
Numbers on a
Number line

3. Equivalent
Rational Numbers

4. Comparison of
Rational Numbers

5. Rational
Numbers Between
Two Rational
Numbers
6. Operations on
Rational numbers
6.1. Addition
6.2 Subtraction
6.3 Multiplication
6.4 Division

39
 1. Introduction

A rational number is a number that can be expressed

𝑝
in the form , where 𝑝 and 𝑞 are integers and 𝑞 ≠ 0.
𝑞
Here 𝑝 is called the Numerator and 𝑞 is called the
denominator.

Every fraction is a rational number, but every rational

number might not be a fraction.

𝑎 𝑎 and 𝑏 are positive

Fractions
integers and 𝑏 ≠ 0
𝑏
𝑝 𝑝 and 𝑞 are
Rational numbers
𝑞 integers and 𝑞 ≠ 0

Positive and Negative

Rational Numbers

If the numerator and denominator of a rational number

are both positive integers or are both negative integers,
then it is a positive rational number.
2 −3
Example: ,
3 −5

If either the numerator or the denominator of a rational

number is a negative integer, then it is a negative
rational number.
−3 8
Example: ,
5 −5

40
 1. Introduction

1.1. Family of Rational Numbers

Rational Numbers (𝑄)

Integers (𝑍)

Whole
Numbers (𝑊)

Natural
Numbers (𝑁)

• Rational numbers contains all the natural

numbers, whole numbers and integers.
For example: -5, -4, 0, 1, 2, 5 etc.

• Rational numbers also contains all other numbers

𝑝
which are of the form 𝑞 , where 𝑝, 𝑞 are integers,
and q ≠ 0.
2 5
For example − 3 , , 0.5 etc.
7

41
 2. Rational Numbers
on a Number Line

Follow these steps to locate a rational number on

the number line:
Step 1:
• Find the two integers between which the given
rational number will lies.
𝑥 p Part to be picked
=𝑎
𝑦 q Total number of parts

Step 2:
• Divide the segment between those integers in q
equal parts

Step 3:
• Represent the rational number on the pth
division.

−11 𝟐 Part to be picked

Example: = -1 𝟗
9 Total number of parts

Number lies between -1 and -2.

Negative Positive

−12 −11 −10 −9 −8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2

9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9 9

2
−1
9
-1 0

42
 3. Equivalent Rational
Numbers

By multiplying the numerator and denominator of a

rational number by the same non zero integer, we
obtain another rational number equivalent to the
given rational number.

Equivalent Equivalent
rational rational
numbers numbers

12 12 × 5 60 −4 −4 × −3 −12
= = = =
18 18 × 5 90 6 6 × −3 18

A rational number is said to be in the standard form if

its denominator is a positive integer and the
numerator and denominator have no common factor
other than 1.

43
 4. Comparison of Rational
Numbers

• If the rational numbers to be compared have the

same denominator, then the number with the greater
numerator is greater of the two.

−4 6
<
5 5

• If the rational numbers to be compared have

different denominators, then convert them into
equivalent rational numbers having the same
denominator and compare the two.

2 3
Compare − and −
3 4

Conversion to equivalent rational numbers

L.C.M of 3 and 4 is 12
2 2×4 8 3 3×3 9
− =− =− , − =− =−
3 3×4 12 4 4×3 12

Comparison of numerators
As -8 > -9,
8 9 2 3
− >− ⇒− >−
12 12 3 4

44
 5. Rational Numbers Between
Two Rational Numbers

We can find unlimited number of rational numbers

between any two rational numbers.

Let us understand how to find rational numbers

1 1
between two rational numbers, say 5 and 2.

Step 1:
• Make the denominators of both the rational
numbers same.

1×2 2 1×5 5
= , =
5 × 2 10 2 × 5 10

Step 2:
• Check the integers lying between the two
numerators.

2<3<4<5

2 3 4 5
So, < < <
10 10 10 10

45
 6. Operations on Rational Numbers

6.1. Addition
● If the rational numbers to be added have the same
denominator, then add the numerators and keep the
denominator same to get the result.

𝟕 −𝟔 𝟕 + (−𝟔) 𝟏
+ = =
𝟓 𝟓 𝟓 𝟓

● If the rational numbers to be added have different

denominators, then first convert them into equivalent
rational numbers with the same denominator and add.

−𝟑 2
+
𝟒 5

Conversion to equivalent rational numbers

L.C.M of 4 and 5 is 20

−3 −3 × 5 −15 2 2 × 4 8
= = , = =
4 4×5 20 5 5 × 4 20

Addition of equivalent rational numbers

−15 8 −15 + 8 −7
+ = =
20 20 20 20

Additive inverse of a number is defined as the number,

which on adding with the original number gives zero.

−4 4
For example, is the additive inverse of , because
7 7
−4 4
+ =0
7 7

46
 6. Operations on
Rational Numbers

6.2. Subtraction

● If the rational numbers to be subtracted have the

same denominator, then subtract the numerators and
keep the denominator same to get the result.

−𝟐 𝟔 −𝟐 − 𝟔 −𝟖
− = =
𝟓 𝟓 𝟓 𝟓

● If the rational numbers to be subtracted have different

denominators, then first convert them into equivalent
rational numbers with the same denominator and
subtract.

𝟐 −𝟓
−
𝟕 𝟔

Conversion to equivalent rational numbers

L.C.M of 7 and 6 is 42

2 2 × 6 12 −5 −5 × 7 −35
= = , = =
7 7 × 6 42 6 6×7 42

Subtraction of equivalent rational numbers

12 −35 12 − (−35) 47
− = =
42 42 42 42

47
 6. Operations on
Rational Numbers

6.3. Multiplication
Rational numbers can be multiplied in the
following way:

Step 1:
• Multiply the numerators of the two rational
numbers

Step 2:
• Multiply the denominators of the two rational
numbers

Result of Step 1
Step 3: Write the product as
Result of Step 2

−𝟑 𝟐 −𝟑 𝟐 −𝟔
× = =
𝟓 𝟕 𝟓 𝟕 𝟑𝟓

48
 6. Operations on
Rational Numbers

6.4. Division

Rational numbers can be divided in the following

way:

Step 1:
• Find the reciprocal of the second rational
number

Step 2:
• Multiply the first rational number with the
reciprocal of the second rational number.

−𝟒 𝟓 −𝟒 𝟕 −𝟐𝟖
÷ = × =
𝟗 𝟕 𝟗 𝟓 𝟒𝟓

𝟓
Reciprocal of
𝟕

49
 Class Notes

Perimeter and Area

Grade 07

50
 Topics to be Covered

1. Square

• 1.1. Perimeter of a square

• 1.2. Area of a square

2. Rectangle

• 2.1. Perimeter of a rectangle

• 2.2. Area of a rectangle
• 2.3. Generalising for other
congruent parts of
rectangles

3. Parallelogram

• 3.1. Area of a parallelogram

4. Triangle

• 3.1. Area of a triangle

• 3.2. Triangle as parts of
rectangle
5. Circle

• 5.1. Circumference of a circle

• 5.2. Area of a circle

6. Conversion of Units

51
 1. Square

1.1. Perimeter of a square

Perimeter of a square = 4 × length of its sides

A B

D C
𝑙
For the given square ABCD:
Perimeter = 4𝑙

1.2. Area of a square

Area of a square = (length of its side)2

A B

D C
𝑙
For the given square ABCD:
Area = 𝑙 × 𝑙 = 𝑙2

The perimeter of any regular polygon is

calculated as the length of its one side
multiplied by the number sides of that polygon.

52
 2. Rectangle

2.1. Perimeter of a rectangle

Perimeter = 2(length + breadth)

A 𝑙 B

D C
For the given rectangle ABCD:
Perimeter = 2(𝑙 + 𝑏)

2.2. Area of a rectangle

Area of a rectangle = length × breadth

𝑙
A B

D C

For the given rectangle ABCD:

Area = 𝑙 × 𝑏

53
 2. Rectangle

2.3. Generalising for other

congruent parts of rectangles
A 2 cm E 4 cm B

4 cm
D 4 cm F 2 cm C
A rectangle of length 6 cm and breadth 4 cm is divided
into two parts. The two parts are congruent to each
other. So, the area of one part is equal to the area of the
other part.

Therefore, the area of each congruent part

1
= ×(Area of a rectangle)
2
1
= ×(6 × 4) cm2 = 12 cm2
2

3. Parallelogram

3.1. Area of a parallelogram

D C S R

A B P Q
E b
Parallelogram converted to a Rectangle

Area of a parallelogram = Area of a rectangle

= SP × PQ
= DE × AB
= Height(ℎ) × Corresponding b
base(𝑏)

54
 4. Triangle

4.1. Area of a triangle

Parallelogram Parallelogram Triangle

𝑏
Diagonal divides
Area = 𝑏 × ℎ it into two triangles 1
Area = 2 × 𝑏 × ℎ
of equal area

4.2. Triangle as parts of rectangle​

Same size
Congruent
Equal area
1
Area of a triangle = 2 × (Area of a rectangle)

1
= 2 × (length × breadth)

55
 5. Circle

5.1. Circumference of a Circle

Circumference of a circle is its perimeter.

Circumference = 𝜋 × 𝑑
= 𝜋 × 2 (𝑟)
= 2𝜋𝑟

5.2. Area of a Circle

𝑟
𝑟
𝜋𝑟

Circle converted to a
rough rectangle

[The more sectors we have, the

nearer we reach an appropriate
rectangle]

Area of a circle = 𝜋𝑟 × 𝑟
= 𝜋𝑟2
= 𝜋 × (radius)2

56
 6. Conversion of Units

×1002 ×1002 ×102

hectare metre2 centimetre2 millimetre2

÷1002 ÷1002 ÷102

We can see how one unit can be interconverted

into another unit.

Hectare can be converted into metre2 by

multiplying it with 1002 and metre2 can be
converted back into hectare by dividing it with
1002.

Similarly, we can do the interconversion of other

units given.

57
 Class Notes

Fractions and Decimals

Grade 07

58
 Topics to be Covered

1. Fractions

1.1. Addition and Subtraction of

Fractions

1.2. Multiplication of Fractions

• Multiplication of fraction by
whole number
• Operator ‘of’
• Multiplication of fraction by
fraction

1.3. Division of Fractions

• Reciprocal
• Division of fraction by whole
number
• Division of whole number by
fraction
• Division of fraction by fraction 2. Decimals
2.1. Interconversion of Units

2.2. Comparison of Decimals

2.3. Multiplication of Decimals

• Multiplication of decimal by
10, 100, 1000
• Multiplication of decimal by
decimal

2.4. Division of Decimals

• Division of decimal by 10, 100,
1000
• Division of decimal by decimal

59
 1. Fractions

1.1. Addition and Subtraction of

Fractions

Addition and Subtraction of Like Fraction

Like fractions: When the denominator is the same in

two or more than two fractions.

𝟑 𝟐 𝟑+2 5
Addition: + = =
𝟕 𝟕 𝟕 𝟕

𝟑 𝟐 𝟑−2 1
Subtraction: − = = 𝟕
𝟕 𝟕 𝟕

Addition and Subtraction of Unlike Fraction

Unlike fractions: When the denominator is different in

two or more than two fractions.

For performing addition or subtraction, we first make

the denominators of the fractions same by finding the
LCM.
2 1
Addition: + (LCM of 7 and 5 is 35)
𝟕 5
10+7 17
= = 35
35
2 1
Subtraction: − (LCM of 7 and 5 is 35)
𝟕 5
10−7 3
= =
35 35

60
 1. Fractions

1.2. Multiplication of Fractions

Multiplication of Fraction by Whole Number

To multiply a fraction with the whole number, we need

to multiply the numerator of the fraction with the
whole number.

𝟑 𝟑×4 12
×4= =
𝟕 𝟕 𝟕

Operator ‘of”

Operator ‘of’ represents multiplication.

2 2 10
𝑜𝑓 5 =3 ×5=
3 3

Multiplication of Fraction by Fraction

To multiply the fractions, we need to multiply the

numerator with numerator and multiply the denominator
with denominator.

𝟑 1 𝟑×1 3
×2 = =
𝟕 𝟕×2 14

3 5 2 5 10 5
𝑜𝑓 = × = =
5 8 3 8 24 12

61
 1. Fractions

1.3. Division of Fractions

Reciprocal

The non-zero numbers whose product with each

other is 1, are called the reciprocals of each other.
1
Example: Reciprocal of 2 is and vice versa.
2

Division of Fraction by Whole Number

Step 1: Take up the reciprocal of the divisor.

Step 2: Multiply reciprocal with the dividend.

𝟑 1
÷7 (Reciprocal of 7 is
7
)
𝟕

3 1 3
= × =
7 7 49

62
 1. Fractions

1.3. Division of Fractions

Division of Whole Number by Fraction

Step 1: Take up the reciprocal of the divisor.

Step 2: Multiply reciprocal with the dividend.

3 3 7
7÷ (Reciprocal of is )
7 7 3

= 7 × 7 = 49
3 3

Division of Fraction by Fraction

Step 1: Take up the reciprocal of the divisor.

Step 2: Multiply reciprocal with dividend.

2 8 8 15
÷ 15
(Reciprocal of is )
3 15 8
2 15 5
= × 8 =
3 4

63
 2. Decimals

2.1. Interconversion of Units

Interconversion of length units

×1000 ×100 ×10

kilometer metre centimetre millimetre

÷1000 ÷100 ÷10

Interconversion of Indian currency units

×100

Rupees Paise

÷100

Interconversion of weight units

×1000 ×100 ×10

Kilogram Gram Centigram Milligram

÷1000 ÷100 ÷10

64
 2. Decimals

2.2. Comparison of Decimals

Step 1: Compare the whole parts first. The number

having the greater whole part is greater.

Step 2: If the numbers are having the same whole parts,

then compare the decimal parts place by place.

Ex:
Compare 19.023 and 19.027.
Comparing the whole parts, we see that they are the
same.

The tenth and hundredth place digits of the decimal are

also the same.

19.023 19.027
On comparing the thousandth-place digit, we find that 7
is greater than 3.

19.023 < 19.027

65
 2. Decimals

2.3. Multiplication of Decimals

Multiplication of Decimal by Decimal

𝟏𝟖. 𝟒𝟕𝟓 × 𝟏. 𝟔
Step 1: Ignore the decimal points and multiply.

𝟏𝟖𝟒𝟕𝟓 × 𝟏𝟔 = 𝟐𝟗𝟓𝟔𝟎𝟎

Step 2: Count the number of digits to the right of

the decimal in the numbers getting multiplied and
shift the decimal point to the left in the product
accordingly.
3 places 1 place

𝟏𝟖. 𝟒𝟕𝟓 × 𝟏. 𝟔 = 𝟐𝟗. 𝟓𝟔𝟎𝟎

Shift the decimal point

by 4 places to the left

Multiplication of Decimal by 10, 100 and 1000

Count the number of zeroes in the multiplier and

move the decimal point to the right as many
places as the number of zeros after 1 in the
multiplier.
3 zeros

3.24 × 1000 = 3240.0

Shift the decimal point

by 3 places to the right

66
 2. Decimals

2.4. Division of Decimals

Division of Decimal by 10, 100, 1000

• Ignore the decimal and write the decimal

number as a whole number.

• Count the number of decimal places in the

dividend and shift the decimal point towards
the left by the same number of places in the
product to the left to get the answer.

3 zeros

3.24 × 1000 = 3240.0

Shift the decimal

point by 3 places
to the right

Division of Decimal by Decimal

5.76 ÷ 0.24
Step 1: Shift the decimal point by an equal
number of places in both dividend and divisor
to make the divisor a whole number.
5.76 ÷ 0.24
Step 2: Divide

576 ÷ 24 = 24

67
 Class Notes

Data Handling

Grade 07

68
 Topics to be Covered

1. Data
• 1.1. Data Collection
• 1.2. Data Organisation
• 1.3. Frequency

2. Representative
Values
• 2.1. Arithmetic Mean
• 2.2. Range
• 2.3. Mode
• 2.4. Median

3. Bar Graph and

Double Bar Graph
• 3.1. Bar Graph
• 3.2. Double Bar Graph

4. Chance and
Probability
• 4.1. Chance
• 4.2. Probability

69
 1. Data

1.1. Data Collection

Data collection is a process of gathering information

from all the relevant sources to find a solution to the
research problem. It helps to evaluate the outcome of
the problem.

• The collection of observations which are

gathered initially is called raw data.

1.2. Data Organisation

Data organization is arranging the collected data in a proper

format so that it becomes easy to understand and interpret.

• When the collected data is organised or arranged

so that it can be easily understood or interpreted
then it is known as organised data.

Example:

• A data set is given as: 5, 9, 13, 2, 6

• Organising the given data by arranging it in ascending
order we get: 2, 5, 6, 9 and 13.

70
 1. Data

1.3. Frequency

The frequency of a data refers to the number of times a

data occurs in the given data set.

Example:
• Consider the following data set:
5, 4, 7, 10, 10, 10, 7, 10, 5, 10

• The frequency of each data entry is represented in

the following table:

Entry Tally marks Frequency

4 I 1
5 II 2
7 II 2
10 IIII 5

• The above table is known as frequency

distribution table.

71
 2. Representative Values

2.1. Arithmetic Mean

Arithmetic mean is the average of the given set of values.

It is the most common representative value of a data set.

Sum of all observations

Arithmetic Mean =
Number of observations

Example:

• The arithmetic mean of the numbers 6, 8, and 10

6+8+10 24
= = = 8
3 3

2.2. Range

The difference between the highest and lowest

observation is called the range. Range gives us an idea of
the spread of the observations.

Range = Highest Observation − Lowest Observation

Example:

• A data set is given as: 2, 5, 6, 9, 13

• Range = 13 – 2 = 11

72
 2. Representative Values

2.3. Mode

Mode is the value that occurs the highest number of times.

Example:

• A data set is given as: 4, 5, 6, 6, 8, 6, 6, 5

• 6 occurs the highest number of times.
• So, the mode of the given data is 6.

Mode of Large Data

Putting the same observations together and counting them
is not easy if the number of observations is large. In such
cases we tabulate the data.
Example:

• Find the mode of below data:

1, 3, 2, 5, 1, 4, 6, 2, 5, 2, 2, 2, 4, 1, 2, 3, 1, 1, 2, 3, 2,
6, 4, 3, 2, 1, 1, 4, 2, 1, 5, 3, 3, 2, 3, 2, 4, 2, 1, 2

• Looking at the table, we can quickly say that 2 is the

mode since 2 has occurred the highest number of times.

73
 2. Representative Values

2.4. Median

The observation that lies in the middle of a set of

observations (after arranging in ascending or descending
order) is called the median of the data.

Example:
Consider the following data set: 3, 5, 5, 7, 3, 5, 3, 7, 3, 7, 5

Ascending order Descending order

3, 3, 3, 3, 5, 5, 5, 5, 7, 7, 7 7, 7, 7, 5, 5, 5, 5, 3, 3, 3, 3

Median

Let 𝑁 be the number of observations in the data.

• After arranging the data in ascending or descending
𝑵+𝟏 𝐭𝐡
order, term is the median, when 𝑁 is an odd
𝟐
number.

• After arranging the data in ascending or descending

order, the median is calculated as
𝑁 th 𝑁 th
term + +1 term
2 2
, when 𝑁 is an even number.
2

74
 3. Bar Graph and Double Bar Graph

3.1. Bar Graph

Bar graphs are a display of information using bars of

uniform width whose heights are proportional to the
respective values.

• Heights of bars are proportional to the values

that they represent​.
• Bar graphs have two axes:
x(horizontal) axis y(vertical) axis
• The scale of a bar graph helps us to represent
large numbers within the page size.

A bar graph representing quantity of ingredients A, B,

and C in litres is shown.
• The scale of the graph is taken as: 1 unit = 20 𝑙
• Along x axis ingredients are shown.
• Along y axis the quantity in litres are shown.

• The quantity of ingredient A is 200 𝑙.

• Similarly the quantity of ingredient B and C are 120
𝑙 and 170 𝑙, respectively.

Scale: 1 unit = 20 𝑙
280
Quantity of ingredients (in 𝒍)

240
200
160
120
80
40
0
A B C
Ingredients

75
 3. Bar Graph and Double Bar Graph

3.2. Double Bar Graph

A double bar graph is a graphical display of information

using two bars besides each other at various heights.
It may be drawn both horizontally and vertically. It is
useful for the comparison of the data.

Conditions for drawing a joint bar graph:

• Number of samples must be same.
• Scale also must be same.
• Data type must be same​.

A double bar graph representing the quantity of

ingredients A, B and C in zone-i and zone-ii is shown.
• The scale of the graph is taken as: 1 unit = 20 𝑙
• The quantity of ingredient A in zone-i is 240 𝑙 and in
zone-ii is 60 𝑙.
• The quantity of ingredient B in zone-i is 120 𝑙 and in
zone-ii is 160 𝑙.
• The quantity of ingredient C in zone-i is 180 𝑙 and in
zone-ii is 220 𝑙.

Scale: 1 unit = 20 𝑙
280
Quantity of ingredients (in 𝒍)

240

200

160

120
Zone-i
80

40 Zone-ii
0
A B C
Ingredients

76
 4. Chance and Probability

4.1. Chance

A chance is the occurrence of events in the absence of any

obvious intention or cause. It is the possibility of something
happening.

• Sometimes we
usually say that
there is a high
chance of raining
by looking at sky.

• Sometimes looking
at the sun we can
say that there is low
chance of raining.

77
 4. Chance and Probability

4.2. Probability

Probability denotes the possibility of the outcome of any

random event. The value of probability is expressed
from zero to one, where 0 means an event to be an
impossible one and 1 indicates a certain event.

0 1

Impossible Certain to happen

Number of favourable outcomes

Probability of an event =
Total number of possible outcomes

Example:

• When a coin is tossed, there are two possible outcomes:

Getting a head or getting a tail.
1
• The probability of getting either a head or a tail is .
2

78
 Class Notes

Lines and Angles

Grade 07

79
 Topics to be Covered

1. Basics of Geometry

2. Related Angles
2.1. Complementary Angles
2.2. Supplementary Angles
2.3. Adjacent Angles
2.4. Linear Pair
2.5. Vertically Opposite Angles

3. Types of Lines
3.1 Intersecting Lines
3.2 Transversal
3.3 Parallel Lines

80
 1. Basics of Geometry

Line

• A line extends infinitely in

both the directions.

Line Segment

• A line segment doesn’t

extend infinitely and has
two endpoints.

Ray

• A ray has an endpoint on

one end and extends
infinitely on another end.

81
 1. Basics of Geometry

Angle

• Two rays having the common

endpoint form an angle.

Types of Angles

• An angle which is less than 90°

is known as an acute angle.

• An angle which is of L shape or

exact measure of 90° is known as
the right angle.

• An angle which is greater than 90°

but less than 180° is known as the
obtuse angle.

• An angle which is a straight line or

having the exact measure of 180°
is known as the straight angle.

• An angle which is greater than

180° but less than 360° is known
as the reflex angle.

• An angle which is an exact

measure of 360° or one complete
revolution is known as the
complete angle.

82
 2. Related Angles

2.1. Complementary Angles

• The pair of angles whose sum is 90° are called
complementary angles.

• From the yoga pose, we can conclude that ∠AOB and

∠BOC are complementary angles as
∠AOB + ∠BOC = 90°.

C
B

A O

2.2. Supplementary Angles

• The pair of angles whose sum is 180° are called
supplementary angles.

• From the yoga pose, we can conclude that ∠AOD and

∠DOE are supplementary angles as
∠AOD + ∠DOE = 180°

A O E

83
 2. Related Angles

2.3. Adjacent Angles

• The two angles are said to be adjacent angles when they

share the common vertex and a common arm.

• From the yoga pose, we can conclude that ∠AOB and

∠BOC are adjacent angles with the common vertex as O,
the common arm as OB, and the non-common arms as
OA and OC on either side of OB.

B C

A O

It is not necessary for two complementary angles or

two supplementary angles to be adjacent angles.

84
 2. Related Angles

2.4. Linear Pair

• A linear pair is a pair of adjacent angles whose non-

common arms are opposite rays, which implies their sum
is 180°.

• From the yoga pose, we can conclude that ∠AOB and

∠BOC form a linear pair.
⇒ ∠AOB + ∠BOC = 180°

A O C

2.5. Vertically Opposite Angles

• If two lines intersect each other, then the pair of opposite
angles formed at the vertex are called vertical angles or
vertically opposite angles.

• A pair of vertically opposite angles are always equal.

• From the yoga pose, we can conclude that
∠1 = ∠3 and ∠2 = ∠4

∠𝟏
∠𝟒 ∠𝟐
∠𝟑

85
 3. Types of Lines

3.1. Intersecting Lines

• Intersecting lines are two lines that share exactly

one common point.
• This common point is called the point of intersection.

𝑙1

Point of intersection

𝑙2

3.2. Transversal

• A line that intersects two or more lines at distinct points

is called a transversal.

• In the first figure, 𝑙1, 𝑙2 and 𝑙3 are 3 lines, 𝑙4 will behave

as a transversal.

• In the second figure, 𝑙1 and 𝑙2 are two lines, 𝑙3 will

behave as a transversal.

𝑙4 𝑙3
𝑙1 𝑙1
𝑙2

𝑙2
𝑙3

86
 3. Types of Lines

Angles Made by a Transversal

When two or more lines are cut by a transversal, different

angles are formed.

Interior and Exterior Angles

• The angles that comes within or inside the two lines are
called interior angles.

• Angles that lie outside or in the exterior of two lines are

called exterior angles.

1 2 𝑙1

4 3
𝑙2
6
5

8 7

Interior angles Exterior angles

∠3, ∠4, ∠5,∠6 ∠1, ∠2, ∠7,∠8

87
 3. Types of Lines

Angles Made by a Transversal

Corresponding Angles

Corresponding angles are the angles which are formed in

matching corners or corresponding corners with the
transversal when two lines are intersected by the
transversal.

1 𝑙1

3 ∠1 and ∠5
∠3 and ∠7
5 𝑙2

2 𝑙1
∠2 and ∠6
4
𝑙2 ∠4 and ∠8
6

88
 3. Types of Lines

Angles Made by a Transversal

Alternate Interior Angles

When a transversal cuts 2 or more lines, alternate interior
angles lie on the inner side of the lines but on the opposite
sides of the transversal.

𝑙1

4 ∠𝟒 and ∠6
6 𝑙2

Alternate Exterior Angles

When a transversal cuts 2 or more lines, alternate exterior
angles lie on the outer side of the lines but on the opposite
sides of the transversal.

1 𝑙1

∠𝟏 and ∠𝟕
𝑙2

89
 3. Types of Lines

3.3. Parallel Lines

• Parallel lines are the lines that do not intersect or meet

each other at any point in a plane.

• They are always equidistant from each other.

𝒍𝟏

𝒍𝟐

Transversal of Parallel Lines

Corresponding Angles

Corresponding angles formed by a transversal of two parallel

lines are equal.

∠1
∠2
𝑙1
∠4 ∠3
∠𝟏 = ∠5,
∠5 ∠𝟑 = ∠7
∠6 ∠𝟐 = ∠𝟔
𝑙2
∠𝟒 = ∠𝟖
∠8 ∠7

90
 3. Types of Lines

Transversal of Parallel Lines

Alternate Angles

• When a transversal cuts two parallel lines, pair of

alternate interior and exterior angles formed will be
equal in measure.

∠1
∠2
𝑙1
∠4 ∠3

∠5
∠6
𝑙2
∠8 ∠7

Alternate Interior Angles

∠𝟑 = ∠5, ∠𝟒 = ∠6
Alternate Exterior Angles
∠𝟐 = ∠8, ∠𝟏 = ∠7

91
 3. Types of Lines

Transversal of Parallel Lines

Co-interior Angles

• Co-interior angles or consecutive interior angles are

those angles which are on same side of the
transversal.

• If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal, then

each pair of co-interior angles are supplementary.

∠1
∠2
𝑙1
∠4 ∠3
∠5
∠6
𝑙2
∠8 ∠7

∠ 4 + ∠ 5 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎°
∠ 3 + ∠ 6 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎°

92
 3. Types of Lines

Transversal of Parallel Lines

If two parallel lines are cut by a transversal

Corresponding angles
are equal

Each pair of alternate

angles are equal

Co-interior angles are

supplementary

∠1
∠2
𝑙1
∠4 ∠3
∠5
∠6
𝑙2
∠8 ∠7

93
 3. Types of Lines

Checking for Parallel Lines

If a transversal intersects two lines such that:

Corresponding angles
are equal
OR
Each pair of alternate
angles are equal
OR
Co-interior angles are
supplementary

Lines are parallel

94
 Class Notes

Algebraic Expressions
Grade 07

95
 Topics to be Covered

1. Introduction
• 1.1. Parts of an algebraic
expression
• 1.1.1. Terms
• 1.1.2. Factors 2. Types of Terms
• 1.1.3. Coefficients
• 2.1. Like terms
• 2.2. Unlike terms

3. Types of
Expressions
• 3.1. Monomial
• 3.2. Binomial 4. Operation on
• 3.3. Trinomial
Algebraic
Expressions

• 4.1. Addition
5. Value of an
• 4.2. Subtraction
Algebraic
Expression

6. Uses of
Algebraic
Expressions
• 6.1. Formulas
• 6.1.1. Perimeter
• 6.1.2. Area
• 6.2 Patterns
• 6.2.1. Number patterns
• 6.2.2. Geometric patterns

96
 1. Introduction

An algebraic expression is formed using variables and

constants separated by mathematical operators.

Constant Variable

Mathematical operator

Algebraic Expression

A variable can take various values.

We use letters 𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑙, 𝑚 etc. to denote variables.
A constant has a fixed value.
Examples of constants are 4, 10, -17 etc.

Some examples of algebraic expressions are

4𝑥 + 5, 𝑥𝑦 + 7, 3𝑥 2 − 5.

97
 1. Introduction

1.1. Parts of an Algebraic Expressions

1.1.1. Terms

A term can be a number, a variable, product of

two or more variables or product of a number and
a variable which are added to form an expression.

1.1.2. Factors

The numbers or variables that are multiplied to

form a term are called its factors.

1.1.3. Coefficients

A coefficient is an integer that is written along

with a variable, or it is multiplied by the variable.
In other words, a coefficient is the numerical
factor of a term containing constant and variables
including its sign.

98
 1. Introduction

1.1. Parts of an Algebraic Expressions

Expression 9𝒙 + 6𝑦

Terms 9𝒙 6𝑦

Factors 9 𝒙 6 𝑦

Coefficient 9 6

99
 2. Types of Terms

2.1. Like terms

Terms having the same algebraic factors.

For example: 7𝑥, 14𝑥

2.2. Unlike terms

Terms having different algebraic factors.

For example: 6𝑥𝑦 3 , 6𝑥 2 𝑦

100
 3. Types of Expressions

Algebraic expressions can be classified based on the

number of terms they have.

3.1. Monomial

Algebraic expression having one term.

For example: 𝑥, −5𝑦

3.2. Binomial

Algebraic expression having two terms.

For example: 2𝑥 − 5, 6𝑦 + 8

3.3. Trinomial

Algebraic expression having three terms.

For example: 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 + 2

In general, an expression with one or more

terms is called a polynomial.
Thus, a monomial, a binomial and a trinomial
are all polynomials.

101
 4. Operations on Algebraic
Expressions

Addition or subtraction of two or more like terms is a

like term with a numerical coefficient
equal to the sum or difference of the numerical
coefficients of all the like terms.
Unlike terms cannot be added or subtracted.

4.1. Addition

Steps to follow:
1. Group the like terms
2. Simplify the like terms
3. Keep the unlike terms as it is

𝟔𝒙𝒚 + 𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟑 + 𝟕 𝟕𝒚 − 𝟓𝒚𝟑 + 𝟖𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏𝟎

𝟔𝒙𝒚 + 𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝟖𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟑 − 𝟓𝒚𝟑 + 𝟕𝐲 + 𝟕 − 𝟏𝟎

𝟔𝒙𝒚 + 𝟏𝟎𝒙𝟐 − 𝟒𝒚𝟑 + 𝟕𝐲 − 𝟑

102
 4. Operations on Algebraic
Expressions

4.2. Subtraction

Steps to follow:
1. Reverse the signs of the terms in the expression
to be subtracted
2. Group the like terms
3. Simplify the like terms
4. Keep the unlike terms as it is

𝟔𝒙𝒚 − 𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟑 − 𝟕 𝟓𝒚𝟑 + 𝟖𝒙𝟐 − 𝟏𝟎

𝟔𝒙𝒚 − 𝟐𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟑 − 𝟕 − 𝟓𝒚𝟑 − 𝟖𝒙𝟐 + 𝟏𝟎

𝟔𝒙𝒚 −𝟐𝒙𝟐 − 𝟖𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚𝟑 − 𝟓𝒚𝟑 − 𝟕 + 𝟏𝟎

𝟔𝒙𝒚 −𝟏𝟎𝒙𝟐 −𝟒𝒚𝟑 + 𝟑

103
 5. Value of an Algebraic
Expression

Value of an algebraic expression depends on the

values of the variables forming the expression.

For finding the value of an algebraic expression,

substitute the value of the variable in the expression
and simplify.

𝟐𝒙𝟑 − 𝒙𝟐 + 𝒚

𝟐×𝒙×𝒙×𝒙 𝒙×𝒙 𝒚

On substituting 𝑥 = 3 and 𝑦 = −2

𝟐×𝟑×𝟑×𝟑 𝟑×𝟑 −𝟐

𝟓𝟒 − 𝟗 − 𝟐 = 𝟒𝟓 − 𝟐 = 𝟒𝟑

104
 6. Uses of Algebraic
Expressions

6.1. Formulas

Formulas can be written in concise and general form

using algebraic expressions.

6.1.1. Perimeter

• Perimeter of an equilateral triangle

= 3 × length of each side

𝑠 𝑠
Perimeter = 3𝑠

• Perimeter of a regular pentagon

= 5 × length of each side

𝑐 𝑐

Perimeter = 5𝑐
𝑐 𝑐

105
 6. Uses of Algebraic
Expressions

6.1. Formulas

6.1.2. Area

• Area of a square = side × side

𝑎

Area = 𝑎2
𝑎 𝑎

• Area of a rectangle = length × breadth

𝑏 𝑏 Area = 𝑙𝑏

106
 6. Patterns Using Algebraic
Expressions

6.2. Patterns

Patterns can be studied and written in general form

using algebraic expressions.

6.2.1. Number Patterns

Let us understand a few patterns,

If a natural number is denoted by 𝑛, 2𝑛 is an even

number and (2𝑛 + 1) an odd number.
If 𝑛 = 15; 2𝑛 = 2 × 𝑛 = 2 × 15 = 30, which is an even
number and 2𝑛 + 1 = 2 × 15 + 1 = 30 + 1 = 31,
which is an odd number.

Consider the pattern of numbers:

3, 6, 9, 12, 15 …….
The numbers are multiples of 3 arranged in
ascending order.
So the term which occurs at 𝑛𝑡ℎ position in the
pattern can be given by the expression 3𝑛
For example, the term which occurs at the 10th
position will be 3 × 10 = 30.

107
 6. Patterns Using Algebraic
Expressions

6.2.2. Geometric Patterns

Number of diagonals from one vertex

Sides = 4 Sides = 5
Diagonals = 1 Diagonals = 2

Sides = 6 Sides = 7
Diagonals = 3 Diagonals = 4

The number of diagonals from one vertex of

any polygon of 𝑛 sides is 𝒏 − 𝟑.

108
 Class Notes

Exponents and Powers

Grade 07

109
 Topics to be Covered

1. Introduction

1.1. Exponents
1.2. Even and Odd Power of a
Negative Integer

2. Laws of Exponents

2.1. Product Rule (Same Base)

2.2. Division Rule (Same Base)
2.3. Power of a Power Rule
2.4. Product Rule (Same Exponent)
2.5. Division Rule (Same Exponent)
2.6. Exponent Zero Rule

3. Uses of Exponents

3.1. Numbers in Expanded Form

3.2. Numbers in Standard Form

110
 1. Introduction

1.1. Exponents

Exponent is defined as the method of expressing large

numbers in terms of powers.

• A positive exponent defines the number of times

the base number is multiplied by itself.

• The base can be negative integer too.

For example:

4
2 = 2 × 2 × 2 × 2 = 16

3
−2 = −2 × −2 × −2 = −8

𝟏𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎 = 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎 × 𝟏𝟎

4 Exponent
= 10 Base

104 is read as “10 raised to the power 4”.

111
 1. Introduction

1.2. Even and Odd Power of a

Negative Integer

• Odd power of a negative integer gives a negative

number.
For example:

−1 Odd number
= −1

• Even power of a negative integer gives a positive

number.
For example:

−1 Even number
= 1

112
 2. Laws of Exponents

2.1. Product Rule (Same Base)

If 𝒂 is a non-zero integer and 𝒎 and 𝒏 are whole numbers,

then,

𝑎𝑚 × 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎(𝑚+𝑛)
Product of two powers with the same base and different
exponents results in having the same base and exponents
added.

For example:
23 × 22 = 23+2 = 25
(-3)4 × (-3)3 = (−3)4+3 = (−3)7

2.2. Division Rule (Same Base)

If 𝒂 is a non-zero integer and 𝒎 and 𝒏 are whole numbers,

then,

𝑎𝑚 ÷ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎(𝑚−𝑛)
Division of two powers with the same base and different
exponents results in having the same base and exponents
subtracted.

For example:
37 ÷ 34 = 37 - 4 = 3 3
(-2)8 ÷ (-2)5 = (-2)8 - 5 = (-2)3

113
 2. Laws of Exponents

2.3. Power of Power Rule

If 𝒂 is a non-zero integer and 𝒎 and 𝒏 are whole numbers,

then,

𝑚 n
(𝑎 ) = 𝑎(𝑚𝑛)
Base raised to a power again raised to a power, results in
having the same base and exponents multiplied.

For example:
(23)2 = (2)3 x 2 = 26

2.4. Product Rule (Same Exponent)

If 𝒂 and b are non-zero integers and 𝒎 is any whole

number, then,

𝑎𝑚 × 𝑏 𝑚 = (𝑎𝑏)𝑚
Product of two powers with different bases and same
exponent results in having the bases multiplied and
exponent kept as it is.

For example:
23 × 33 = (2 × 3)3
= (6)3

114
 2. Laws of Exponents

2.5. Division Rule (Same Exponent)

If 𝒂 and b are non-zero integers and 𝒎 is any whole number,

then,

𝑚 𝑚 𝑎 𝑚
𝑎 ÷𝑏 = ( )
𝑏
Division of two powers with different bases and same
exponent results in having the bases divided and exponent
kept as it is.

For example:
−4 2
(-4)2 ÷ (-2)2 = = (2)2
−2

2.6. Exponent Zero Rule

If 𝒂 is any non-zero integer, then,

𝑎0 = 1
If the exponent is zero, then the result is 1, irrespective of
the base value (except 0).

For example:
(−2)0 = 1

115
 3. Uses of Exponents

3.1. Numbers in Expanded Form

Any number can be written in the expanded form according
to place values of digits in the given number.

For example:
47561 = 4 × 10000 + 7 × 1000 + 5 × 100 + 6 × 10 + 1
= 4 × 104 + 7 × 103 + 5 × 102 + 6 × 101 + 1 × 100

3.2. Standard Form

Any number can be expressed as a decimal number

between 1.0 and 10.0 including 1.0 multiplied by a power
of 10. Such form of a number is called its standard form.
Steps to convert a number into its standard form:

• Step 1: Write the first non-zero digit of the given

number.

• Step 2: Add a decimal point after the first non-zero

digit and write other digits after that.

• Step 3: Find the number of places the decimal point

has shifted to the left in the given number and write it
to the power of 10.

𝟖 𝟕 𝟔 𝟓 𝟒 𝟑 𝟐𝟏

38,44,00,000 = 3.844 × 108

Usual Form Standard Form

116
Class Notes

Symmetry
Grade 07

117
 Topics to be Covered

1. Introduction to
Symmetry
• 1.1. Symmetry
• 1.2. Line of symmetry

2. Lines of Symmetry
for Regular Polygon

3. Rotational Symmetry

• 3.1. Introduction to rotational

symmetry
• 3.2. Centre of rotation
• 3.3. Angle of rotation
• 3.4. Order of rotation

4. Line of Symmetry
vs Rotational Symmetry

118
 1. Introduction to Symmetry

1.1. Symmetry

Symmetry is defined as a balanced and

proportionate similarity that is found in two halves
of an object. It means one-half is the mirror image
of the other half.

mirror line

1.2. Line of Symmetry

The line along which a figure is folded to get its

mirror halves is called the line of symmetry.

One line of Two lines of Multiple lines of

symmetry symmetry symmetry

119
2. Lines of Symmetry for Regular Polygon

Equilateral
Square
triangle

3 lines of 4 lines of
symmetry symmetry

Regular Regular
pentagon hexagon

5 lines of 6 lines of
symmetry symmetry

For a regular polygon, the number of lines

of symmetry is same as the number of its
sides.

120
 3. Rotational Symmetry

3.1. Introduction to Rotational symmetry

An object that looks the same after some rotation

(less than one full rotation) is called rotational
symmetry.

After some
rotation

3.2. Centre of Rotation

The fixed point around which the rotation occurs is

called the centre of rotation.

Centre of Rotation

121
 3. Rotational Symmetry

3.3. Angle of Rotation

The angle of rotation is the angle by which an

object is turned or flipped to make it look similar
to its original shape.

After 90°
rotation

3.4. Order of Rotation

In a complete turn of 360°, the number of times an

object looks exactly the same is called the order of
rotational symmetry.

Order of Order of Order of

=2 =3 =4
rotation rotation rotation

122
4. Line of symmetry vs rotational symmetry

Consider a rectangle shown here:

Number of line
of symmetry of a = 2
rectangle

Now, let’s see the rotational symmetry of rectangle.

O O

Rotating Rotating
through 180° through 180°

Order of rotational symmetry

=2
of a rectangle

So, it can be inferred as rectangle has both lines

of symmetry and rotational symmetry.

For a regular polygon, the number of lines

of symmetry and the order of rotational
symmetry is the same.

123
 Class Notes

Visualising Solid Shapes

Grade 07

124
 Topics to be Covered

1. 3D Shapes

2. Elements of 3D
Shapes
• 2.1. Face
• 2.2. Edge
• 2.3. Vertex
3. Representation
of 3D Shapes in 2D
• 3.1. Nets of solids
• 3.2. Isometric sketch
• 3.3. Oblique sketch
4. Cubes in
Combined shapes

5. Different
Sections of Solids
• 5.1. Slicing of solids
• 5.2. Shadows of solids
• 5.3. Views of solids

125
 1. 3D Shapes

Prism
It has two identical opposite surfaces and
uniform cross-sections across its length.

Cuboid Cube

Pyramid

Its base is a polygon, and other surfaces are

triangles connecting at a point called the apex.

Triangular pyramid Quadrilateral pyramid

There can be solids that are neither

prisms nor pyramids.

Cone Cylinder

126
 2. Elements of 3D Shapes

2.1. Face
A flat or a curved surface of a solid.

A cuboid has 6 faces.

2.2. Edge
A line segment where two faces of a solid meet.​

A cuboid has 12 edges.

2.3. Vertex
A corner where edges of a solid meet. ​

A cuboid has 8 vertices.

127
3. Representation of 3D Shapes in 2D

3.1. Nets of Solids

A net is a shape that

F transforms on paper when
E you open up a solid shape.

B B B

C E D F E D F C E D F

A C A A

B B B

C E D F C E D F C E D F

A A A

B B F C B

C E D F E D E D F

A C A A

C B E D F
E D F
B C A
A

In total, a cube can have 11 nets.

128
3. Representation of 3D Shapes in 2D

3.1. Nets of Solids

Nets of a few solids that have curved faces:

Note: There can’t be a net for a sphere.

3.2. Oblique Sketch

Steps for drawing an oblique

sketch of a cube
Step 1: Draw the front face.
Step 2: Draw the opposite face. The sizes of the faces have to be
the same, but the opposite face is somewhat off-set from
step 1.
Step 3: Join the corresponding corners.

129
3. Representation of 3D Shapes in 2D

3.3. Isometric Sketch

An isometric sketch is drawn on an isometric

dot paper. In an isometric sketch of the solid,
the measurements are kept proportional.

Steps for drawing an isometric

sketch of a cuboid

Step 1: Draw a rectangle to show the front face.

Step 2: Draw four parallel line segments of length 2 units

starting from the four corners of the rectangle.

Step 3: Connect the matching corners with appropriate line

segments.

130
4. Cubes in Combined shapes

To count the number of cubes in a combined

shape, it should be broken down into layers.

Layer 1 7

1
7 2
6 5
4 3
2
1

Layer 2 2

The number of cubes = 7 + 2 = 9

131
 5. Different Sections of Solids

5.1. Slicing of Solids

Cut Cross-section

The plane along

which the cut is Cross-section
being made

Cross-section is the intersection of a solid and a

plane figure. The shape of the cross-section
depends on the type of cut (vertical, angled, or
horizontal) that happens to the solid.

132
5. Different Sections of Solids

5.2. Shadows of Solids

The shadows of a cone are in the shapes of

a triangle and a circle.

The shadows of a cylinder are in the shapes

of a rectangle and a circle.

The shadow of a solid is not unique, it

varies according to the angle at which the
light is projected.

133
 5. Different Sections of Solids

5.3. Views of Solids

The figure shown here is an isometric view of a

3D solid shape.

Top

Side

Front

The following figures are the different view of

the given 3D shape.

Side view Top view Front view

134